Notes

1.Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (New York: Touchstone, 1971), 275.

2.Christopher Rowland, Radical Christianity: A Reading of Recovery (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2004), 161.

3.“St. Mathetes Epistle to Diognetus,” Apostolic Fathers (London: Lightfoot & Harmer, 1891).

4.Albert J. Raboteau, “American Salvation: The Place of Christianity in Public Life,” Boston Review, April/May 2005.

5.Thomas Merton, “Events and Pseudo-Events: Letter to a Southern Churchman” in The Failure and the Hope: Essays of Southern Churchmen, ed. Will D. Campbell and James Y. Holloway (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1972), 91. Merton’s essay first appeared, in slightly different form, in Katallagete—Be Reconciled, the journal of the Committee of Southern Churchmen, in 1966.

CESAR CHAVEZ

1.Peter Matthiessen, Sal Si Puedes: Cesar Chavez and the New American Revolution (New York: Random House, 1969), 6.

2.Jacques E. Levy, Cesar Chavez: Autobiography of La Causa (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1975), 37.

3.Quoted in Matthiessen, Sal Si Puedes, 148.

4.Fred Ross, Conquering Goliath: Cesar Chavez at the Beginning (Keene, CA: El Taller Grafico Press, 1989), 143.

5.Miriam Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez: A Biography (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2014), 7.

6.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 8–9.

7.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 17.

8.Richard Griswold del Castillo and Richard A. Garcia, César Chávez: A Triumph of Spirit (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 7.

9.Ronald B. Taylor, Chavez and the Farmworkers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1975), 61.

10.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 26.

11.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 25.

12.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 18–19.

13.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 27.

14.Frederick John Dalton, The Moral Vision of César Chavez (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003), 40–41.

15.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 66.

16.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 16.

17.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 74.

18.Cesar Chavez, An Organizer’s Tale: Speeches, ed. Ilan Stavans (New York: Penguin, 2008), 25.

19.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 467.

20.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 93.

21.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 99.

22.Chavez, Organizer’s Tale, 17.

23.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 4.

24.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 3.

25.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 34–35.

26.Matthiessen, Sal Si Puedes, 58, 87.

27.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 42.

28.Chavez, Organizer’s Tale, 14. Originally coauthored by Cesar, Helen, and Luis Valdez, the “Plan of Delano” was first published in the union’s newspaper, El Malcriado, on March 17, 1966.

29.Miriam Pawel, The Union of Their Dreams: Power, Hope, and Struggle in Cesar Chavez’s Farm Worker Movement (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009), 10.

30.For instance, Mark Day reports that a Bank of America subsidiary, the California Land Company of Visalia, began absorbing smaller farms in the 1930s until they controlled 90 percent of the ranches around the San Joaquin Valley town of Delano (Mark Day, Forty Acres: Cesar Chavez and the Farm Workers [New York: Praeger, 1971], 27). Similarly, Ronald Taylor notes that other titans such as Wells Fargo, the United Fruit Company, J. G. Boswell Co., Purex, and Tenneco were key players in the industry. The Tenneco conglomerate alone held 1.4 million acres in California and Arizona, a true industry behemoth (Taylor, Chavez, 39).

31.An account of the history and development of agribusiness in California with special attention to its impact on workers can be found in Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1939; repr., Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1969).

32.Taylor, Chavez, 38–39.

33.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 28–29.

34.Pawel, Union of Their Dreams, 10.

35.Pawel, Union of Their Dreams, 15.

36.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 36.

37.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 175.

38.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 38.

39.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 101.

40.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 101.

41.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 105.

42.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 184.

43.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 42–44.

44.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 106.

45.Mattheissen, Sal Si Puedes, 137.

46.Levy, Cesar Chavez, xxiii.

47.French philosopher and former Jesuit Michel de Certeau argued that the strong enjoy a certain geographical advantage, deploying strategies of domination based on their superior vantage point and thus on their ability to dictate the structure of the spatial dimension of relations. The weak, by contrast, he theorized, make use of more ad hoc tactics that play on time in order to resist domination. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steven Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 34–39.

48.El Malcriado, no. 21 (1965), 10–11.

49.El Malcriado, no. 23 (1965), 3.

50.El Malcriado, no. 23 (1965), 5.

51.Dalton, Moral Vision, 86.

52.de Certeau, Practice of Everyday Life, 119–20.

53.de Certeau, Practice of Everyday Life, 210.

54.Chavez, Organizer’s Tale, 10–11.

55.Cesar Chavez, foreword in Pat Hoffman, Ministry of the Dispossessed: Learning from the Farm Worker Movement (Los Angeles: Wallace Press, 1987), vii.

56.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 217.

57.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 53.

58.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 53–54.

59.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 223.

60.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 226.

61.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 226.

62.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 227.

63.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 56.

64.Joan London and Henry Anderson, So Shall Ye Reap: The Story of Cesar Chavez and the Farm Worker’s Movement (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1970), 159–60.

65.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 272; Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 84.

66.Cesar Chavez, letter to the National Council of Churches, February 20, 1968, San Joaquin Valley Farmworkers Collection, Fresno State University Library; reprinted in Winthrop Yinger, Cesar Chavez: The Rhetoric of Nonviolence (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1975), 108–9.

67.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 272.

68.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 159.

69.Stephen R. Lloyd-Moffet, “The Mysticism and Social Action of César Chávez,” in Latino Religions and Civic Activism in the United States, edited by Gastón Espinosa, Virgilio Elizondo, and Jesse Miranda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 35–51.

70.Chavez, Organizer’s Tale, 47–48.

71.Dalton, Moral Vision of Cesar Chavez, 121, and Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 47.

72.Day, Forty Acres, 115.

73.In her critical biography of Chavez, Miriam Pawel depicts how this stubborn side of him created rifts in the movement and even among those who had long worked in its leadership. See Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez.

74.Yinger, Cesar Chavez, 37.

75.Chavez, Organizer’s Tale, 47–48.

76.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 91.

77.Castillo and Garcia, César Chávez, 92–93.

78.Pawel, Crusades of Cesar Chavez, 207–8.

79.Levy, Cesar Chavez, 325.

80.Written by Cesar Chavez. Available at the Cesar E. Chavez Foundation website at https://www.chavezfoundation.org/uploads/Prayer_of_the_Farm_Workers.pdf.

HOWARD THURMAN

1.Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 173.

2.Howard Thurman, With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 49.

3.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 7.

4.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 8–9.

5.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 5.

6.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 5.

7.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 6.

8.Howard Thurman, “Horn of the Wild Oxen,” sermon preached at Marsh Chapel, Boston University, Feb. 28, 1954, Howard Thurman Collection, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University.

9.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 12; Howard Thurman, “Human Freedom and the Emancipation Proclamation,” Pulpit Digest, December 1962, 13–16, 66.

10.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 253.

11.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 15.

12.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 15.

13.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 16.

14.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 28.

15.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 241.

16.Howard Thurman, The Luminous Darkness: A Personal Interpretation of the Anatomy of Segregation and the Ground of Hope (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), x.

17.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 115.

18.Orlando Patterson, Slavery & Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 63. Patterson argues that being treated as a perpetual minor is one dimension of enslavement.

19.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 116.

20.Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Nashville: Abingdon, 1949; Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 13.

21.Howard Thurman, Deep River and the Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Death (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1975), 16.

22.Thurman understands freedom to consist of a sense of alternative. He explains, “The essential word here is ‘sense’; for it is the sense of alternative that guarantees the freedom.” Howard Thurman, “Human Freedom and the Emancipation Proclamation,” Pulpit Digest, December 1962, 15.

23.Claude McKay, “If We Must Die,” in Complete Poems, ed. William J. Maxwell (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 177–78.

24.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 109.

25.Howard Thurman, “Notes on Homiletics Course,” October 13 [no year]. Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University, box 16, folder 47.

26.Howard Thurman, “The Preacher as a Religious Professional,” prayer given at Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary, February 8–12, 1971. Howard Gottlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University, box 10, folder 28.

27.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 152–53.

28.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 19–20.

29.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 20.

30.From the Howard Thurman Collection, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University, box 104, folder 15.

31.From the Howard Thurman Collection, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University, box 104, folder 15.

32.While at Morehouse College, Howard got to know Martin Luther King Sr., “Daddy King.” Sue and Alberta King met at Spelman’s high school and developed a lasting friendship. Thurman, With Head and Heart, 254.

33.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 254–55.

34.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 255.

35.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 224.

36.Howard Thurman, My People Need Me, June 1918–March 1936, vol. 1 of The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, ed. Walter E. Fluker, Kai Jackson Issa, Quinton H. Dixie, Peter Eisenstadt, Catherine Tumber, Alton Pollard III, and Luther E. Smith Jr. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2009), 215–16.

37.Oswald W. S. McCall, The Hand of God (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1939), 66–67; Howard Thurman, The Growing Edge (New York: Harper, 1956), 87.

38.Julian of Norwich, Revelations of Divine Love, trans. Elizabeth Spearing with an introduction and notes by A. C. Spearing (London: Penguin, 1998), 147.

39.Thurman, With Head and Heart, 255.

YURI KOCHIYAMA

1.Yuri Kochiyama, “My Creed . . . 22,” in Passing It On: A Memoir, 2nd ed. (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2004), xxiv–xxv.

2.Diane C. Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), xvi. Approximately six hundred additional Japanese Americans were arrested on the day following the attack, with some three thousand total by March 1942.

3.Yuri Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter: Yuri Kochiyama, An Oral History (New York: St. Mark’s in the Bowery, 1981), 1:9.

4.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, xx.

5.Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 1:9.

6.As Yuri’s biographer has noted, Seiichi’s cause of death has been a source of great speculation, with some family members suspecting that he was not administered his diabetes medication, others believing that he had been physically abused, and Yuri herself concluding that whatever the particulars, her father died prematurely as a result of inadequate medical attention while imprisoned. His death certificate lists “duodenal ulcer” and “hypertropic cirrhosis of liver” as the cause of death, while the FBI files note that he died in the family home of “natural causes.” See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, xx–xxi.

7.T. A. Frail, “American Incarceration: The Injustice of Japanese-American Internment Camps Resonates Strongly to This Day,” Smithsonian Magazine, January 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/injustice-japanese-americans-internment-camps-resonates-strongly-180961422/.

8.Kiran Ahuja, “Honoring the Legacy of Yuri Kochiyama,” June 6, 2014, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/06/06/honoring-legacy-yuri-kochiyama.

9.The May 19, 2016, Google doodle can be viewed at https://www.google.com/doodles/yuri-kochiyamas-95th-birthday.

10.For more information about the nomination, see http://risingwomenrisingworld.com/portfolio-items/1000-women-for-the-nobel-peace-prize-project/. For Yuri’s other notable recognitions, see Kathlyn Gay, ed., American Dissidents: An Encyclopedia of Activists, Subversives, and Prisoners of Conscience (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC–CLIO, 2012), 2:354–58.

11.Yuri’s admiration for revolutionaries remains one of the most controversial aspects of her legacy. She was drawn to Maoist philosophy after having received The Little Red Book: Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung as a gift; supported the Peruvian militant communist group Shining Path; and favorably compared Osama bin Laden to Malcolm X, Che Guevara, Fidel Castro, and several others for fighting against US imperialism. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 194–95; Kochiyama, Passing It On, chap. 14, “People’s War in Peru”; Tamara Kil Ja Kim Nopper, “Yuri Kochiyama on War, Imperialism, Osama bin Laden, and Black-Asian Politics,” The Objector: A Magazine of Conscience and Resistance, October 17, 2003, http://la.indymedia.org/news/2003/10/89393_comment.php.

12.Yuri spent three out of fifteen chapters in her memoir, Passing It On, talking about political prisoners and has called those willing to be jailed in furtherance of justice the “heartbeat of struggle.” Her official biographer, Diane J. Fujino, also concurs that Yuri’s “most steadfast area of struggle” was her support for those imprisoned on account of their political beliefs and activities. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, xxiii.

13.Many historians and educators, as well as many Japanese Americans, use different terminology than bureaucratic language to describe what Japanese Americans endured during World War II out of their conviction that the official language minimizes what actually happened. The permanent exhibit about Japanese Americans and World War II at the National Museum of American History uses and suggests the following substitutions: “eviction” (instead of exclusion), “forced removal” (instead of evacuation), “incarceration” (instead of internment), “inmate” (instead of internee), “temporary detention center” (instead of assembly center), and “incarceration camp” (instead of relocation center). The Smithsonian also notes the controversy surrounding the proposal to designate “internment camps” as “concentration camps” given the term’s close association with the Nazi “death camps.” See http://americanhistory.si.edu/righting-wrong-japanese-americans-and-world-war-ii/language-incarceration.

14.The following month, Congress passed Public Law 503 on March 21, 1942, with unusual speed, to authorize enforcement of the Executive Order’s provisions. To be clear, Japanese Americans were not the only ones forcibly exiled and imprisoned during World War II: (1) President Roosevelt’s Executive Orders 2526 and 2527 also led to detentions for smaller numbers of German Americans and Italian Americans, (2) the United States also worked in conjunction with thirteen Latin American countries to forcibly relocate more than 2,200 Latin American citizens and residents of Japanese ancestry into US concentration camps, and (3) Aleutians, an indigenous people, were also involuntarily removed from their homes after Japan invaded and occupied the westernmost islands of Alaska’s Aleutian Chain in June 1942 and likewise placed in camps in Juneau.

15.Yuri recalls some Japanese American communities being given only forty-eight hours to pack, and then only what they could carry—thus requiring them to sell nearly everything they owned for “almost nothing” to the “vultures” who descended to take advantage of their situation. Her family was thus comparatively fortunate for having both a month’s time to get their affairs in order and trustworthy neighbors who rented out their home and looked after their personal effects in their absence. The Nakaharas were able to hold onto their house but not Seiichi’s small business, because the banks froze his account upon his arrest. See Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 1:11.

16.Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 1:13.

17.Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 1:14.

18.Yuri Kochiyama, quoted in Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 59.

19.Yuri reproduced that creed in a May 7, 1944, group letter to her class. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 51.

20.Kochiyama, “Mothers and Daughters,” in Discover Your Mission: Selected Speeches & Writings of Yuri Kochiyama, eds. Russel Muranaka and Tram Nguyen (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1998), 31. Yuri reports here and elsewhere returning to this pearl of wisdom throughout her life.

21.Quoted in Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 50. Yuri wanted the youth to remain optimistic and neither develop a “terrible feeling against the government” nor “try to revenge themselves on the people who made us go into camp.” See her Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 1:17. According to Valerie J. Matsumoto, City Girls: The Nisei Social World in Los Angeles, 1920–1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), Nisei women were known for playing morale-boosting roles in the camps. Thanks to Chrissy Yee Lau for alerting me to this reference.

22.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 49.

23.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 49.

24.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 44–45.

25.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 70–71.

26.See Kochiyama, Passing It On, xxiii; Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 7, 32–33; Yuri Kochiyama, “The Impact of Malcolm X on Asian-American Politics and Activism,” in Blacks, Latinos, and Asians in Urban America: Status and Prospects for Politics and Activism, ed. James Jennings (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 134.

27.Internal Security Act of 1950, Pub. L. No. 81-831, 64 Stat. 987.

28.See Masumi Izumi, “Alienable Citizenship: Race, Loyalty, and the Law in the Age of American Concentration Camps, 1941–1971,” Asian American Law Journal 13, no. 1 (2006): 1–30; Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 261–62.

29.Quoted from a CJA newsletter as reproduced in Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 262. Ironically, even a senator of Japanese heritage, Samuel Ichiye (“S. I.”) Hayakawa—but one who had not himself been incarcerated during World War II because he had been living in the Midwest—had called for Iranian Americans to be detained en masse during the hostage crisis. Hayakawa also claimed that the forcible removal and imprisonment had been “good” for Japanese Americans and had called Nisei requests for reparations both “ridiculous” and something that filled him with “shame and embarrassment.” See Emily Hiramatsu Morishima, “S. I. Hayakama,” in Asian American History and Culture, vols. 1–2, ed. Huping Ling and Allen Austin (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2010), 409–10.

30.Nevertheless, during the hostage crisis, the Carter administration had subjected all Iranian students to immediate deportation if they had violated the terms of their visas (all Iranian students had to report to immigration officials to have their visas checked for irregularities) and also temporarily suspended the issuing of new visas for Iranians. See David Farber, Taken Hostage: The Iranian Hostage Crisis and America’s First Encounter with Radical Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 151.

31.While isolated demands for redress by Japanese American individuals date back to the 1940s, the birth of the organized, community-wide calls for redress began decades later when community efforts to commemorate their incarceration began intensifying with the emergence of the Asian American movement in the late 1960s and when the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) entertained a proposal for reparations at their national convention in 1970.

32.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 263. This grassroots movement eventually led to the formation of the East Coast Japanese Americans for Redress in September, 1981—another organization, of which both Yuri and Bill were prominent members, that played a role in securing redress for Japanese Americans.

33.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 267. Yuri’s rationale for reparations and her clever means of communicating it to others is best seen in the “Song for Redress/Reparation” she composed to the tune of “Battle Hymn of the Republic.” The song spoke of a presidential order that made “incarcerees of a single ancestry,” Japanese Americans being victims of “hysteria and . . . bigotry,” and the necessity of restitution, justice, and compensation for “120,000 wronged,” Kochiyama, Passing It On, 194.

34.Unfortunately, the legacy of the infamous Korematsu decision is in dispute as seen in the majority and dissenting opinions in Trump v. Hawaii, 585 U.S. ____ (2018) concerning the constitutionality of restricting travel into the United States from foreign nationals of several countries with Muslim majorities ostensibly to prevent infiltration by foreign terrorists.

35.United States Congressional Commission, “Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians” (Washington, DC: Civil Liberties Public Education Fund; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997). As the JACL activist Fred Hirasuna has acknowledged, these findings were socially reparative in “restor[ing] our faith in the US and what the Constitution really means.” As law professor Eric K. Yamamoto recounts, they were also psychologically cathartic: “Former internees could finally talk about the internment. Feelings long repressed, surfaced. One woman, now in her sixties, stated that she always felt the internment was wrong, but that, after being told by the military, the President, and the Supreme Court that it was a necessity, she had come seriously to doubt herself. Redress and reparations . . . had now freed her soul.” See Fred Hirasuna as quoted in Alice Murray, Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment and the Struggle for Redress (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 439; Eric K. Yamamoto, “Friend, Foe or Something Else: Social Meanings of Redress and Reparations,” Denver Journal of International Law and Politics 20 (1992): 227.

36.Civil Liberties Act of 1988, 50 U.S.C. § 4211; Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on Signing the Bill Providing Restitution for the Wartime Internment of Japanese-American Civilians,” August 10, 1988, reproduced in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=36240. Yuri and Bill were publicly acknowledged for their leadership efforts in the 1988 redress celebration in New York, subsequent National Day of Remembrance commemorations in New York and Los Angeles (1993, 1996), in several widely attended pilgrimages to former camp sites (1971, 2002), and in the aforementioned official White House tribute to Yuri, among other occasions. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 271; Kochiyama, Passing It On, 187 and appendix 18.

37.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 113–28.

38.Yuri credits her friendship with Malcolm X for helping her to move beyond an internal US frame toward a more expansive concern for human rights, people’s self-determination, and the liberation of various “Third World” peoples. Though their relationship was cut short by his assassination, his influence on her cannot be underestimated. For details, see Yuri Kochiyama, “The Impact of Malcolm X on Asian-American Politics and Activism,” in Blacks, Latinos, and Asians in Urban America: Status and Prospects for Politics and Activism, ed. James Jennings (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 129–41.

39.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 180–83.

40.Kochiyama, Fishermerchant’s Daughter, 2:15. Yuri had herself come under FBI surveillance beginning in 1966 because of her association with black nationalists. She was incorrectly identified as a “Red Chinese agent,” and the New York FBI office had also placed her on the Security Index, Category II, which meant that she would be subject to immediate arrest and detention in an emergency, just as her father had been in 1941. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 174–75. A congressional investigation into COINTELPRO led by Senator Frank Church in the mid-1970s found that the FBI had engaged in a number of unconstitutional activities, including illegal wiretaps, warrantless physical searches, and other dirty infiltration tactics aimed at defaming, and in some cases blackmailing, political dissidents. See Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Activities, COINTELPRO and Other Intelligence Activities Targeting Americans, 1940–1975 (Ipswich, MA: Mary Ferrell Foundation Press, 2008); Ursula Wolfe-Rocca, “Why We Should Teach about the FBI’s War on the Civil Rights Movement,” The Zinn Education Project, March 1, 2016, https://zinnedproject.org/2016/03/fbi-war-civil-rights-movement/.

41.Diane C. Fujino, “The Black Liberation Movement and Japanese American Activism: The Radical Activism of Richard Aoki and Yuri Kochiyama,” in Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans, eds. Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 187–88.

42.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 183.

43.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 185.

44.Fujino, “The Black Liberation Movement and Japanese American Activism,” 185.

45.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 49. See also Melissa Hung, “The Last Revolutionary,” East Bay Express, March 13, 2002.

46.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, chap. 3.

47.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 127. As Fujino notes, at times Yuri “prioritized the struggle for global freedom and justice above the needs of her own family,” and doing so occasionally came at great cost to the latter. Heartbeat of Struggle, 219. As Yuri has herself maintained, “all mothers wish the best for their children,” but they must consider “priorities of needs,” for when “other children starve and suffer,” how can a mother “be only preoccupied that her child ‘have the best’ of anything?” “Mothers and Daughters,” 34.

48.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, xxiv.

49.Yuri has essentially affirmed the definition provided by the Jericho Movement, an organization founded in 1998 to free all political prisoners: those “brothers and sisters, men and women who, as a consequence of their political work and/or organized affiliations were given criminal charges, arrested or captured, tried in criminal courts and sent to prison.” Quoted in Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 206. In Passing It On and elsewhere, however, Yuri has also wanted to expand the definition to include what the Jericho Movement would consider to be “politicized” prisoners instead—those who were not originally incarcerated for their political activities but who became politically active when serving time.

50.All twenty-nine activists were arrested for trespassing on federal property but freed on minimal bail the following day, likely due to the four-hundred-plus demonstrators who had appeared at the police station demanding their release. See Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 229. See also Karl Jagbandhansingh, “Yuri Kochiyama on the Occupation of the Statue of Liberty in 1977,” https://archive.org/details/YuriStatueOfLiberty1977KarlOct2009.

51.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 228.

52.The oldest of Yuri’s six children, Billy, had ended his life after spending three years in and out of hospitals following a serious car accident that ultimately cost him his leg. See Kochiyama, Passing It On, 163; Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 222–24.

53.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 227. Yuri acknowledges that when polled, only a small minority of Puerto Ricans want independence. She attributes this small number to the situation of colonial dependence that the US has created for Puerto Rico, where Puerto Ricans are US citizens but “have no control over customs, postal, monetary or judicial systems” and thus have become “powerless to develop their own destiny, their own politics, their own decisions.” See Yuri Kochiyama, “Expand Our Horizon; Decolonize Our Mind; Cross Our Borders” in Discover Your Mission, 37.

54.Jimmy Carter, “Andres Figueroa Cordero Announcement of the Commutation of Mr. Figueroa Cordero’s Prison Sentence,” October 6, 1977, reproduced in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=6757.

55.Jimmy Carter, “Puerto Rican Nationalists Announcement of the President’s Commutation of Sentences,” September 6, 1979, reproduced in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=32827.

56.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 144.

57.For details of Wong’s case, see Steve Fishman, “He Got Life,” New York Magazine, June 13, 2005; Maurice Possley, “David Wong,” The National Registry of Exonerations, https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3763.

58.David W. Chen, “An Inmate’s Family of Strangers: Bonds Sustain 12-Year Quest for a New Murder Trial,” New York Times, March 28, 1999.

59.See Chen, “An Inmate’s Family of Strangers”; Hung, “The Last Revolutionary.”

60.Quoted in Fishman, “He Got Life.”

61.Quoted in Chen, “An Inmate’s Family of Strangers.”

62.David W. Chen, “Metro Briefing/New York: Wrongfully Convicted Man Is Deported after Release,” New York Times, August 16, 2005; DPA, “Hong Kong Man Back Home after Winning Freedom,” Taipei Times, August 13, 2005, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2005/08/13/2003267557.

63.Timothy Williams, “Execution Case Dropped against Abu-Jamal,” New York Times, December 7, 2011.

64.He is so described by Educators for Mumia Abu-Jamal (EMAJ), https://www.facebook.com/groups/109829015700381/about/, an organization founded in 1995 as a network of teachers and coordinated by Baruch College (SUNY) history professor Johanna Fernandez and Princeton Theological Seminary professor Mark Lewis Taylor.

65.“Mumia Abu-Jamal Spared Death Row Penalty after Prosecutors Drop 30-Year Bid for Execution,” Democracy Now, December 8, 2011. Academics for Mumia (now EMAJ) also placed a full-page ad in the New York Times on May 7, 2000, demanding justice for him with over six hundred signers.

66.Amnesty International, “USA: A Life in Balance—The Case of Mumia Abu-Jamal,” February 17, 2000, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr51/001/2000/en/.

67.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 134; Amnesty International, “USA: A Life in Balance,” 1, 6. According to the latter’s report, the FBI’s COINTELPRO “appeared to number Abu-Jamal among its targets,” and the officers who arrested Mumia—even if they were unaware of his identity—would have “immediately associated him with the organization [MOVE] because of his dreadlocks, a hairstyle adopted by MOVE as part of their beliefs.”

68.Quoted from Mark Lewis Taylor’s description of Yuri’s “clarion call” about Mumia at an April 4, 1996, press conference in the Philadelphia Capitol Building. He recalls her linking Mumia’s plight that day to Puerto Rican independence movements and American Indian groups. See Mark Lewis Taylor, “She Has Become an Ancestor: Yuri Kochiyama’s Legacy: I Remember,” June 3, 2014, http://marklewistaylor.net/blog/she-has-become-an-ancestor-yuri-kochiyamas-legacy-i-remember/.

69.Hung, “The Last Revolutionary”; Elaine Woo, “Yuri Kochiyama Dies at 93; Civil Rights Activist, Friend of Malcolm X,” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 2014.

70.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 134, 136.

71.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 187.

72.Mumia Abu-Jamal, “Yuri Kochiyama: A Life in Struggle” (written June 2, 2014), http://www.prisonradio.org/media/audio/mumia/yuri-kochiyama-324-mumia-abu-jamal.

73.Hung, “The Last Revolutionary.”

74.Kochiyama, Passing It On, 187.

75.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 209–12.

76.Akemi Kochiyama-Sardinha, foreword in Kochiyama, Passing It On, xiii.

77.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 259.

78.Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle, 333n54.

79.Thanks to Lerron Wright, Jeongyun Hur, and Jeremy V. Cruz for bibliographic and other assistance; Joshua Mendez and Jorge J. Rodriguez V for helpful information about Puerto Rican independentistas and the Young Lords; and Charles Marsh for the invitation to participate in this book project. I owe a special debt of gratitude to two groups of people who gave me helpful feedback on earlier drafts: (1) fellow contributors Donyelle McCray, David Dark, Heather Warren, and editor Shea Tuttle and (2) the members of APARRI 2017 (Asian Pacific American Religions Research Initiative) who came to my precirculated papers session (Tracy Tiemeier, Carolyn Chen, David K. Yoo, Dean Adachi, Esther Chung-Kim, Sharon Suh, Tat-Siong Benny Liew, and Chrissy Lau). All mistakes that remain, of course, are mine.

HOWARD KESTER

1.John Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here: Profiles from the South (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 75; James F. Kay, “The Renovation of Miller Chapel,” Princeton Seminary Bulletin 22, no. 1 (2001).

2.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 74.

3.Robert Francis Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, Minds of the New South (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991), 21; John Stark Bellamy, If Christ Came to Dixie: The Southern Prophetic Vision of Howard Kester (MA thesis, University of Virginia, 1977), 35.

4.Howard Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 5, in the Howard Kester Papers #3834, Southern Historical Collection, Lewis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (hereafter cited as Howard Kester Papers).

5.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974. Interviewed by Jacqueline Hall and William Finger, B-0007–1. Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007) in the Southern Oral History Program Collection, Southern Historical Collection, Lewis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/B-0007–1/menu.html.

6.The Message of the Student Christian Association Movement (New York: Association Press, 1928), 11–12, in David P. Setran, The College “Y”: Student Religion in the Era of Secularization (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 198. It is important to realize the huge influence of the YMCA in this period. In 1920, the YMCA had 764 chapters in colleges and universities across the country with a membership of 80,649 students: one in four male students were members of their college Y. Setran, The College “Y,” 4. The YWCA had 600 student chapters with more than 60,000 female members. “YWCA of the U.S.A. Records. Record Group 07. Student Work,” Five College Archives and Manuscript Collection, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA, https://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss292rg7_bioghist.html.

7.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” (1940), 3.

8.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 4.

9.Edward M. Wayland in his introduction to Kester’s papers wrote “By 1931 Kester had come to see his work in terms of three general issues: an attack on the practices and attitudes of racial segregation, an opposition to war and the use of violence, and an opposition to capitalist economics.” Edward M. Wayland, “Biography,” in Howard A. Kester Papers, 1923–1972, ed. Edward M. Wayland (Glen Rock, NJ: Microfilming Corp. of America, 1973), 1.

10.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

11.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 6.

12.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 5.

13.Bradley J. Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates, Religion in America Series (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 130–31; Charles R. Erdman, “The Church and Socialism” in volume 12 of The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, ed. R. A. Torrey (Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles, 1917), 116.

14.Erdman, “The Church and Socialism,” 119.

15.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 74.

16.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 74.

17.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 75.

18.Ronald T. Clutter, “The Reorganization of Princeton Theological Seminary Reconsidered,” Grace Theological Journal 7, no. 2 (1986): 196, https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/gtj/07–2_179.pdf.

19.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 6.

20.Howard Kester, “The Fellowship of Southern Churchmen: A Religion for Today,” Mountain Life and Work 15, no. 1 (April 1939): 3, Howard Kester Papers.

21.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 6.

22.Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 30.

23.The YMCA camps were segregated. The white students met at the Blue Ridge Assembly just outside Asheville, North Carolina.

24.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 6.

25.For a history of the strike see P. C. Cotham, Toil, Turmoil, and Triumph: A Portrait of the Tennessee Labor Movement (Franklin, TN: Hillsboro Press, 1995).

26.Anthony P. Dunbar, Against the Grain: Southern Radicals and Prophets, 1929–1959 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981), 268.

27.Fran Ansley and Brenda Bell, “ ‘No Moanin’: Voices of Southern Struggle,” Southern Exposure (Winter 1974): 129; Angela J. Smith, “Myles Horton, Highlander Folk School, and the Wilder Coal Strike of 1932,” 18, http://www.academia.edu/174810/Myles_Horton_Highlander_Folk_School_and_the_Wilder_Coal_Strike_of_19322003; Dunbar, Against the Grain, 8.

28.Dale A. Johnson, Vanderbilt Divinity School: Education, Contest, and Change (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2001), 110.

29.Annual Report of Howard Kester, Southern Secretary, Annual Conference of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, October 1933, Howard Kester Papers; Dunbar, Against the Grain, 8. There is some question over which night the Kesters stayed in the Graham home. In his reminiscences, Kester implies they were there the night of the murder, but he is explicit in his memory that it was the night before the funeral. There were two days between the murder and the funeral. In one account, Kester writes “On the day after the shooting the author was in Wilder,” “A Brief Account of the Wilder Strike,” (unpublished manuscript, August 1, 1933), 4, Howard Kester Papers. Kester also reported to the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR): “I was in Wilder by 2:30 the following morning.” Annual Report of Howard Kester.

30.“Of the seventy-one miles of state highways in Fentress county in late 1930s, State Route 28 was the only paved road; State Routes 52 and 85 were still gravel.” “Historic and Architectural Resources of Fentress County, Tennessee,” United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, http://focus.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NRHP/Text/64500603.pdf.

31.Marriage Record of Byron Graham and Daisy (Nickens) Ledbetter, Overton County, Tennessee, November 19, 1926.

32.Howard Kester, “A Brief Account of the Wilder Strike,” August 1, 1933, 4, Howard Kester Papers.

33.Howard Kester, “Radical Prophets: A History of the Fellowship of Southern Churchmen” (unpublished manuscript, 1974), 8, Howard Kester Papers.

34.This description is taken from Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 10.

35.Dunbar, Against the Grain, 7; Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 49.

36.Dunbar, Against the Grain, 1.

37.J. J. Lorence, A Hard Journey: The Life of Don West (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 27; M. Horton, J. Kohl, and H. R. Kohl, The Long Haul: An Autobiography (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998).

38.Smith, “Myles Horton, Highlander Folk School, and the Wilder Coal Strike of 1932,” 3.

39.Lorence, A Hard Journey, 24, 32.

40.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 10.

41.Howard Kester, “Religion—Priestly and Prophetic—in the South,” Radical Religion 1, no. 4 (Autumn 1936): 28, Howard Kester Papers.

42.In 1931, while in New York on FOR business, Kester had dined with Norman Thomas, the Protestant preacher and leader of the Socialist Party. Thomas had encouraged the seminarian to read Marx, Engels, and Lenin. He made such an impression that in the fall of 1932, Kester ran for Congress as the Socialist candidate in Nashville. He was spectacularly unsuccessful, receiving only 677 votes and finishing in last place. Undeterred, Kester increasingly came to see the issues besetting the region as part of a complex constellation of problems inherent in capitalism. Real change could come only through the class struggle and the transformation of the socio-economic order. The Wilder Strike, with its starvation, violence, and murder, dramatically confirmed Kester’s new worldview.

43.Howard Kester, “The Interracial Situation,” 1932, Howard Kester Papers.

44.Kester, “Religion—Priestly and Prophetic—in the South,” 28.

45.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 9.

46.Dunbar, Against the Grain, 10.

47.Kester, “Religion—Priestly and Prophetic—in the South,” 28. In his writing about the funeral, Kester does not mention West at all, claiming “a mountain preacher and I preached the funeral sermon.” Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 9. Perhaps Kester removed him from the narrative, as by 1940 the Fellowship of Southern Churchmen (FSC) had distanced itself from West, refusing him membership due to what they believed were his communist sympathies. Dunbar, Against the Grain, 197.

48.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 6.

49.Kester, “Religion—Priestly and Prophetic—in the South,” 28.

50.Howard Kester, “A Brief History of the Wilder Strike,” 1.

51.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 10; Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 79.

52.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 80.

53.Annual Report of Howard Kester, Southern Secretary, Annual Conference of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, October 1933, Howard Kester Papers. This was left out of the printed version in the FOR newsletter.

54.Annual Report of Howard Kester, 1933.

55.Annual Report of Howard Kester, 1933.

56.“Annual Conference of the Fellowship of Reconciliation at Swarthmore, Pa.” The News Letter, Fellowship of Reconciliation, November 1933.

57.Edmund B. Chaffee, “Why I Stay in the F.O.R.,” Christian Century, January 3, 1934, 15.

58.Chaffee, “Why I Stay in the F.O.R.,” 15; See also Joseph Kip Kosek, Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy, Columbia Studies in Contemporary American History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 141.

59.Reinhold Niebuhr, “Why I Leave the F.O.R.,” Christian Century, January 3, 1934, 19.

60.J. B. Mathews to Howard Kester, January 1934, Howard Kester Papers.

61.“Committee on Economic and Racial Justice,” 1940, Howard Kester Papers.

62.Howard Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal (New York: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 1934), 3, Howard Kester Papers.

63.James R. McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching: The Killing of Claude Neal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 74.

64.Walter White to Howard Kester, telegram, October 30, 1934, NAACP Papers, in Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 74.

65.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 33.

66.Howard Kester to Walter White, telegram, October 30, 1934, NAACP Papers, in Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 74.

67.H. L. Mitchell claims Kester stopped at Tuskegee on the way to Tallahassee to see his friend George Washington Carver. H. L. Mitchell and Michael Harrington, Mean Things Happening in This Land: The Life and Times of H. L. Mitchell, Co-Founder of the Southern Tenant Farmers Union (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 69. Mitchell gives this detail to add context to his story that Carver gave Kester a cyanide capsule on a chain to be used in the event of his capture by a lynch mob. Mitchell told McGovern of this gift in an interview in 1977, but at that time he indicated Carver gave it to Kester after the Marianna affair. McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 127. Tuskegee would have been a good place to break the drive from Nashville to Tallahassee. At the same time, if the story of the cyanide capsule is true, it also seems likely that it was the publicity around Kester’s report of the Claude Neal lynching that prompted Carver to make the gift. Mitchell is the only source I have found for this story.

68.Walter White to Leon Ransom, November 1, 1934. NAACP Papers, in McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 126.

69.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 101.

70.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 102.

71.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

72.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

73.All the events in this description of Kester’s investigations in Marianna are taken from Kester’s own accounts. Kester does not give specific places for these events. I have been able to figure out with varying degrees of certainty the locations. In an interview, he describes the “nice hotel.” Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974. In his report, he includes details of wages of the employees at the Chipola Hotel (bellboys, maids, waitresses) that strongly suggests he was a guest there. Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal, 7.

74.Dale Cox, “Jackson County May Not Own Courthouse Square,” Jackson County, Florida (blog) June 5, 2016, http://twoegg.blogspot.com/2016/06/jackson-county-may-not-own-courthouse.html.

75.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 102; interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974; interview with Howard Kester by David Jones, March 5, 1976, F-0027, in the Southern Historical Collection, Lewis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

76.Walter White to Gov. B. M. Miller, November 22, 1934, in Dale Cox, The Claude Neal Lynching: The 1934 Murders of Claude Neal and Lola Cannidy (Bascom, FL: Old Kitchen Books, 2012), Kindle location 1419 of 3826.

77.Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal, 2. Based on his interview with two of the lynching party in the 1980s, local historian Dale Cox disputes the possibility that Red was an eyewitness to the lynching. However, he concedes that the main features of the gruesome lynching are correct. Cox, The Claude Neal Lynching, Kindle location 1419 of 3826.

78.Howard Kester to Walter White, November 7, 1934, in NAACP Papers, in Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 74–75.

79.Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal, 7.

80.Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal, 7.

81.Joshua Youngblood, “ ‘Haven’t Quite Shaken the Horror’: Howard Kester, the Lynching of Claude Neal, and Social Activism in the South During the 1930s,” Florida Historical Quarterly 86, no. 1 (2007): 31–32.

82.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 102.

83.It is likely that the church in Kester’s story is Saint Luke Baptist church. In the 1974 interview, Kester refers to it as “the Negro church in Marianna,” and St. Luke’s was the principle black church in town—other black congregations were located several miles outside of the town—more of a hike than an afternoon stroll. According to Kester’s description, the church needs to be “up on a kind of a hill” next to “a ravine that led from the church down to Marianna.” The historic marker at St. Luke says “The church is located on one of the highest points in central Marianna,” http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=74196. The ground drops steeply away from the church on its northern and eastern side down to what is now the four-lane Lafayette Street running back toward town. In the 1930s, what is now Lafayette Street was Highway 90 running into Main Street. Tantalizingly, the marker also lists the church’s pastors responsible for completing its construction. Started in 1921, the construction was completed four pastors later by Rev. Dr. A. H. Parker (1907–1995). If Parker had been the pastor in 1934, he would have been twenty-seven years old—perhaps the young man Kester met in Tallahassee.

84.Kester, Radical Prophets, 102.

85.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 10; interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

86.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

87.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

88.Howard Kester to Claude Williams, November 18, 1934, Howard Kester Papers.

89.Howard Kester to H. L. Mitchell, November 23, 1934, Howard Kester Papers.

90.Walter White to Eleanor Roosevelt, November 20, 1934, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, Series 100,1325, Roosevelt Library, in McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 125.

91.Eleanor Roosevelt to Walter White, November 23, 1934, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, Series 100,1325, Roosevelt Library, quoted in McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 125.

92.McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 129.

93.Kester, The Lynching of Claude Neal, 1.

94.“Howard Kester Luncheon,” NAACP Papers in Youngblood, “ ‘Haven’t Quite Shaken the Horror,’ ” 31; Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 103.

95.Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998), 222; McGovern, Anatomy of a Lynching, 2, 141.

96.Howard Kester to Claude Williams, November 18, 1934, Howard Kester Papers.

97.H. L. Mitchell to Howard Kester, November 24, 1934, Howard Kester Papers.

98.H. L. Mitchell recalls in his 1979 autobiography that he first met Kester when he “stopped by Tyronza” in November 1934. In 1940, Kester recalled his first visits to Arkansas as happening in the fall of 1934. Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 10. If he did in fact visit Mitchell in the fall, it must have been brief. It also demonstrates Kester’s packed itinerary. Mitchell had been expecting Kester on November 11—an appointment he had missed because he was in Florida. Kester wrote to Mitchell saying he hoped to see him (Howard Kester to H. L. Mitchell, November 23, 1934), and Mitchell wrote to Kester on November 24, 1934. However, on November 30, Kester was at a conference at Shaw University in North Carolina. Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 69.

99.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 33.

100.Howard Kester to Elizabeth Gilman, January 13, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

101.Interview with Nancy Kester Neale by Dallas A. Blanchard, August 6, 1983, F-0036, in the Southern Oral History Program Collection #4007, Southern Historical Collection, Lewis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/F-0036/F-0036.html.

102.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, December 14, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

103.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 11; Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 37.

104.Kester was one of a cadre of young white men that Carver called his “adopted boys.” Being adopted into this “family” meant receiving a consistent stream of encouraging letters. Linda O. McMurry, George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 203. Carver wrote regularly to Kester (as he did to many of his “family”) addressing him as “my beloved boy Howard.” George Washington Carver to Howard Kester, March 2, 1927, Howard Kester Papers. In 1940, Kester wrote, “I have spent hundreds of invaluable hours with this great but simple man who opened to me new vistas of a more abundant life here in the South, especially for those who till the soil. Among other things he taught me how to paint with pastels and later with water colors and oils from which I now get immeasurable satisfaction when I can spare time to paint.” Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 4.

105.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 76.

106.Interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974.

107.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, October 6, 1933, Howard Kester Papers.

108.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 8. In an undated letter from his mother probably written near the end of her life (she died in 1963), she wrote to her son “This A.M. I read where a Negro married a white girl by a Congregationalist minister. I hope you will not come into contact with him. If I should read anything in the papers about you mixed with the negros [sic] I would comit [sic] suicide at once. I could not live under such a case.” She signs off “Don’t think I am nuts for writing this letter but you be careful about the Negros they are the worst enemies we have.” Nannie Holt Kester to Howard Kester, no date, Howard Kester Papers.

109.Howard Kester to Elizabeth Gilman, January 13, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

110.This is my own reconstruction of the conversation. It is based on the actual telegram (H. L. Mitchell to Norman Thomas, January 17, 1936, Howard Kester Papers) and the most likely sequence of events. The telegram sets the time of Kester’s encounter with the mob as “THIS AFTERNOON,” suggesting the telegram was sent in the evening. Though sent by Mitchell, it has clearly been composed after he has heard the story from Kester and learned of his “EXCELLENT HANDLING” of the situation. Mitchell and Kester had obviously done some considerable work before sending the telegram to Norman Thomas, including sending a telegram to the White House and perhaps contacting the Associated Press (AP) as Mitchell remembers. The purpose of Mitchell’s telegram to Norman was to prompt material support for the evicted tenant farmers. This, presumably, is why Thomas would have read it to guests at dinner. Kester’s biographer, Robert Martin, relies too heavily on Kester’s later accounts of the evening. Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 96. When Kester tells the story in 1940, he appears to have embellished it. People call Alice asking if Howard has “escaped in safety.” Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 11. By the 1970s Kester’s story has changed and grown in the telling: the telegram is now sent by Mitchell to Thomas before Kester’s return to Memphis and contains the news that Kester has been lynched. The phone calls to Alice are from people sending their condolences. Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 107; Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here: 82. Mitchell, writing an account in 1979 has a different story. In his telling there is no telegram, it is his report to the AP that Kester and colleagues “had been kidnapped and were likely to be lynched” that Norman relays to his guests. Mitchell and Harrington, Mean Things Happening in This Land, 144.

111.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 107. This is Kester’s recollection of the time of Alice’s call. I believe this time is reasonably accurate as it is a possible start time for Kester’s night drive to Nashville.

112.Kester and H. L. Mitchell, “For Immediate Release,” January 18, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

113.H. L. Mitchell to Norman Thomas, telegram, January 17, 1936, Howard Kester Papers #3834, courtesy of Southern Historical Collection, Louis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

114.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 107.

115.For a description of the abduction of Kester, see Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 105–7; Dunbar, Against the Grain, 111–13.

116.Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 107.

117.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, January 30, 1936; Howard Kester to Alice Kester, January 31, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

118.Henry C. Fleisher to Howard Kester, February 1, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

119.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, January 26, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

120.Howard Kester, Revolt among the Sharecroppers (New York: Covici, 1936), 21.

121.Kester, Revolt among the Sharecroppers, 96; for a good analysis of Kester’s religious hopes for the STFU see Robert H. Craig, Religion and Radical Politics: An Alternative Christian Tradition in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 158–59.

122.Kester, Revolt among the Sharecroppers, 92.

123.Dorothea Lange photographed the farm for the Farm Security Administration in June 1937, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/fsa/. For more on the Delta Cooperative Farm; also see Robert Hunt Ferguson, Remaking the Rural South: Interracialism, Christian Socialism, and Cooperative Farming in Jim Crow Mississippi (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2018); Will D. Campbell, Providence (Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1992); Sam H. Franklin, Early Years of the Delta Cooperative Farm and the Providence Cooperative Farm (self-published, 1980), Southern Media Archive, University of Mississippi Libraries.

124.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 13.

125.Howard Kester to Elizabeth Gilman, January 12, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

126.Reinhold Niebuhr to supporters of CERJ, November 16, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

127.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 11; Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 37.

128.Interview with Nancy Kester Neale.

129.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, December 14, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

130.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, December 14, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

131.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, December 14, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

132.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, January 3, 1937; January 5, 1937; interview with Howard Kester, July 22, 1974; Ferguson, Remaking the Rural South, 55, 65, 72; Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 101.

133.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, January 11, 1937, Howard Kester Papers.

134.Robert L. Zangrando, The N.A.A.C.P. Crusade against Lynching, 1909–1950 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1980), 141–43.

135.Howard Kester, “Lynching by Blow Torch: A Report upon the Double Lynching at Duck Hill, Miss., April 13, 1937” (1937), Howard Kester Papers. In 1939, Kester explained to White, “Soon I shall have to give this sort of work up for it seems to produce emotional strain which in turn brings on severe cases of asthma. However, I would like to have a chance to crack this thing wide open. God knows someone has got to do it!” Howard Kester to Walter White, October 10, 1939, Howard Kester Papers.

136.Kester, “Lynching by Blow Torch,” 5.

137.Wayland, “Biography,” 6.

138.Elizabeth Gilman to Howard Kester and Alice Kester, May 3, 1937; Elizabeth Gilman to Alice Kester, May 28, 1937, Howard Kester Papers. Gilman notes that Kester was only paid expenses by the NAACP for his investigation in Mississippi.

139.Dunbar, Against the Grain, 164–68; Martin, Howard Kester and the Struggle for Social Justice in the South, 1904–77, 106.

140.“Elijah and Elisha,” Prophetic Religion 1, no. 3 (February 1938): 1, Howard Kester Papers. It was probably written by the editor of the Fellowship’s newsletter Thomas Beveridge “Scotty” Cowan, a veteran of the First World War and Presbyterian minister in Chattanooga.

141.Egerton, A Mind to Stay Here, 84.

142.Kester, “The Fellowship of Southern Churchmen: A Religion for Today,” 6. It is important to note that in this quote it is faith in Jesus that makes one a realist. While the FSC was influenced by Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christian realism, Kester never argued for pragmatic action that was less than that preached by Christ in the Sermon on the Mount.

143.Sermon, “Dreamers and Doers” (text: Rev. 21:1), Howard Kester Papers. Kester gave this sermon, or one with the same title, at the biennial meeting of the General Council of the Congregational Christian Churches in Durham, New Hampshire, in 1942. “Religion at Work,” Portsmouth Herald, June 20, 1942, Howard Kester Papers.

144.Kester, “Early Life of Howard Kester,” 5.

145.Howard Kester to Alice Kester, December 14, 1936, Howard Kester Papers.

146.Leaflet, Chamber of Commerce, Black Mountain, North Carolina, n.d., Howard Kester Papers.

147.It was a long project. It took twenty years “to build a fairly satisfactory home.” Kester, “Radical Prophets,” 78.

148.Interview with Nancy Kester Neale, by Dallas A. Blanchard, August 6, 1983, F-0036, in the Southern Oral History Program Collection #4007, Southern Historical Collection, Lewis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

149.Mitchell, Roll the Union On, 48; Mitchell and Harrington, Mean Things Happening in This Land, 183.

150.T. B. Cowan to Howard Kester, telegram, January 16, 1939; Howard Kester, “Along the Front,” Prophetic Religion, 2, no. 1 (January 1939): 8; Dunbar, Against the Grain, 178.

151.Mitchell and Harrington, Mean Things Happening in This Land, 190; Dunbar, Against the Grain, 178.

152.Interview with Nancy Kester Neale.

ELLA BAKER

1.Sweet Honey in the Rock, “Ella’s Song,” recorded 1983 on We All . . . Everyone of Us, Spindrift SPIN 106, 33⅓ rpm.

2.Bernice Johnson Reagon, interview by Bill Moyers, The Songs Are Free: Bernice Johnson Reagon and African American Music, PBS, February 6, 1991.

3.Keri Day, Unfinished Business: Black Women, the Black Church, and the Struggle to Thrive in America (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2012), 89. The Poor People’s Campaign was inaugurated in 1963 as a movement for economic justice that promoted cooperation across racial and ethnic divides.

4.J. Todd Moye, Ella Baker: Community Organizer of the Civil Rights Movement (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2013), 2.

5.Joanne Grant, Fundi: The Story of Ella Baker (Icarus Films, 1981), DVD.

6.Joanne Grant, Ella Baker: Freedom Bound (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998), 9.

7.Rosetta E. Ross, Witnessing and Testifying: Black Women, Religion, and Civil Rights (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003), 35.

8.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 35.

9.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 33.

10.Moye, Ella Baker, 19.

11.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 17.

12.Moye, Ella Baker, 19.

13.Moye, Ella Baker, 20.

14.Moye, Ella Baker, 5.

15.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 38.

16.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 39.

17.Ella Baker and Marvel Cooke, “The Bronx Slave Market,” The Crisis, November 1935, 330.

18.West, Disruptive Christian Ethics, 21.

19.West, Disruptive Christian Ethics, 25.

20.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 37.

21.Moye, Ella Baker, 4.

22.Mary King, Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1987), 43.

23.Moye, Ella Baker, 5.

24.Moye, Ella Baker, 6.

25.Moye, Ella Baker, 5.

26.Grant, Ella Baker, 7.

27.Ross, Witnessing and Testifying, 37.

28.Grant, Ella Baker, 129.

29.Grant, Ella Baker, 129.

30.King, Freedom Song, 45.

31.Grant, Ella Baker, 132.

32.The Songs Are Free.

33.Grant, Ella Baker, 163.

34.Grant, Ella Baker, 164.

35.Grant, Ella Baker, 165.

36.Josh Sanburn, “All the Ways Darren Wilson Described Being Afraid of Michael Brown,” Time.com, November 25, 2014, http://time.com/3605346/darren-wilson-michael-brown-demon/.

37.John Eligon, “A Teenager Who Was Grappling with Problems and Promise,” New York Times, August 25, 2014, Late edition, sec. National Desk.

DOROTHY DAY

1.Forest, All Is Grace: A Biography of Dorothy Day (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2011), 18.

2.Robert Ellsburg, ed., The Duty of Delight: The Diaries of Dorothy Day (New York: Image Books, 2011), 629.

3.William D. Miller, Dorothy Day: A Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), 25, 440–41; Ellsburg, The Duty of Delight, xxvii; Forest, All Is Grace, 124, 139, 203, 209, 243, 245.

4.Day, The Long Loneliness (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1981), 25; Miller, Dorothy Day, 9.

5.Dorothy Day, From Union Square to Rome (Ossining, NY: Orbis Books, 2011), 33; Day, The Long Loneliness, 28.

6.Day, The Long Loneliness, 28–29; Day, Union Square, 33.

7.Day, The Long Loneliness, 160–61.

8.Day, Union Square, 37; James T. Fisher, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933–1962 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 16, 47.

9.Day, The Long Loneliness, 25.

10.Day, The Duty of Delight, 463.

11.Dorothy Day, “A Reminiscence at 75,” Commonweal, August 10, 1973, https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/reminiscence-75.

12.Day, The Long Loneliness, 25.

13.Day, The Long Loneliness, 24; Day, The Duty of Delight, 656, 661.

14.Day, The Duty of Delight, 458.

15.Miller, Dorothy Day, 28; Day, The Long Loneliness, 37.

16.Miller, Dorothy Day, 28; Day, The Long Loneliness, 36–37, 41.

17.Day, The Long Loneliness, 37.

18.Day, The Duty of Delight, 98.

19.Miller, Dorothy Day, 25; Day, Union Square, 34; Day, The Long Loneliness, 37.

20.Day, Union Square, 37.

21.Day, The Long Loneliness, 37; Forest, All Is Grace, 18–19.

22.Day, The Long Loneliness, 37.

23.Day, Union Square, 37; Miller, Dorothy Day, 29.

24.Miller, Dorothy Day, 47; Day, Union Square, 64.

25.Day, Union Square, 64; Miller, Dorothy Day, 54; Day, The Long Loneliness, 50.

26.Forest, All Is Grace, 59; Miller, Dorothy Day, 149.

27.Miller, Dorothy Day, 55; Day, Union Square, 71; Forest, All Is Grace, 28; Day, The Long Loneliness, 43.

28.Miller, Dorothy Day, 108–9; Day, The Long Loneliness, 84.

29.Day, The Long Loneliness, 84; Day, Union Square, 91; Miller, Dorothy Day, 113.

30.Day, The Long Loneliness, 87; Miller, Dorothy Day, 119.

31.Dorothy Day, The Eleventh Virgin (Lake Worth, FL: The Cottager Press, 2011), 252; Miller, Dorothy Day, 125; Kate Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved by Beauty (New York: Scribner, 2017), 23.

32.Miller, Dorothy Day, 126.

33.Miller, Dorothy Day, 133. Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 275; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 25.

34.Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 288, 295; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 25, 33; Miller, Dorothy Day, 127, 134.

35.Robert Ellsberg, ed., All the Way to Heaven: The Selected Letters of Dorothy Day (New York: Image Books, 2010), 510; Miller, Dorothy Day, 136; Forest, All Is Grace, 54.

36.Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 303; Miller, Dorothy Day, 138–40; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 27.

37.Ellsberg, All the Way to Heaven, 510; Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 309; Miller, Dorothy Day, 140; Forest, All Is Grace, 55; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 28.

38.Miller, Dorothy Day, 142; Forest, All Is Grace 55; Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 314.

39.Miller, Dorothy Day, 143–45; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 29–30; Day, Union Square, 102; Day, The Long Loneliness, 94–95.

40.Rosalie Riegle Troester, Voices from the Catholic Worker (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 95.

41.Miller, Dorothy Day, 147; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 30.

42.Miller, Dorothy Day, 147; Day, The Long Loneliness, 95.

43.Miller, Dorothy Day, 149; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 32.

44.Day, Union Square, 103; Day, The Long Loneliness, 98.

45.Miller, Dorothy Day, 148–49.

46.Day, The Long Loneliness, 98.

47.Day, Union Square, 103; Day, The Long Loneliness, 98.

48.Day, The Long Loneliness, 98–99.

49.Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “Palmer Raids,” https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palmer-Raids; Day, The Long Loneliness, 99.

50.Day, Union Square, 109; Day, The Long Loneliness, 105.

51.Day, Union Square, 84–85; Day, The Long Loneliness, 73; Miller, Dorothy Day, 90–94.

52.Day, The Long Loneliness, 100.

53.Day, The Long Loneliness, 104.

54.Day, The Duty of Delight, 628.

55.Day, The Eleventh Virgin, 319.

56.Robert Ellsberg, ed., Dorothy Day: Selected Writings (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2015), 305.

57.Agnes Boulton, Part of a Long Story (New York: Doubleday, 1958), 89; Miller, Dorothy Day, 116.

58.Day, The Long Loneliness, 84; Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 221.

59.Day, The Long Loneliness, 105.

60.Forest, All Is Grace, 61; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 33.

61.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 629; Day, The Long Loneliness, 107.

62.Day, The Duty of Delight, 629, 646.

63.Joris-Karl Huysmans, En Route (Boston: E. Dutton, 1920), 462.

64.Miller, Dorothy Day, 165–66.

65.Day, The Long Loneliness, 109; Miller, Dorothy Day, 163, 170.

66.Miller, Dorothy Day, 169.

67.Ellsberg, All the Way to Heaven, 8, 12.

68.Day, Union Square, 120.

69.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 515.

70.Augustine, De Catechizandis de Rudibus, New Advent, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1303.htm.

71.Day, The Long Loneliness, 116, 120, 136, 121.

72.Miller, Dorothy Day, 166; Day, The Long Loneliness, 113, 134.

73.Day, The Long Loneliness, 19; Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 515–16.

74.Ellsberg, Selected Writings, 305; Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 298, 329; Troester, Voices from the Catholic Worker, 93.

75.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 165.

76.Day, The Long Loneliness, 30; Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 17, 20–21, 36, 106.

77.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 299.

78.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 29.

79.Miller, Dorothy Day, 166; Day, The Long Loneliness, 148.

80.Day, The Long Loneliness, 120–21.

81.Day, The Long Loneliness, 120, 134; Day, Union Square, 115; Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, 44.

82.Day, The Long Loneliness, 133.

83.Day, The Long Loneliness, 136; Miller, Dorothy Day, 175.

84.Day, The Long Loneliness, 136; Miller, Dorothy Day, 179.

85.Forest, All Is Grace, 78; Day, The Long Loneliness, 136, 143; Day, Union Square, 131.

86.Day, The Long Loneliness, 142.

87.Day, The Long Loneliness, 144.

88.“Sacco and Vanzetti: Justice on Trial.” The Official Website of the Massachusetts Judicial Branch, accessed November 2017, http://www.mass.gov/courts/court-info/sjc/edu-res-center/saco-vanz/sacco-vanz-2-gen.html.

89.Day, The Long Loneliness, 139.

90.Day, The Long Loneliness, 147.

91.Day, Union Square, 13.

92.Day, The Long Loneliness, 148.

93.Forest, All Is Grace, 84; Day, The Long Loneliness, 149; Day, Union Square, 146.

94.Fisher, The Catholic Counterculture in America, 1933–1962, 47.

95.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 80.

96.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 228.

97.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 246, 365, 424, 547.

98.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 109, 651.

99.Ellsberg, The Duty of Delight, 73.

100.Hennessy, The World Will Be Saved, ix; Ellsburg, The Duty of Delight, 302, 631, 638.

101.Miller, Dorothy Day, 314, 332–33.

JOHN A. RYAN

1.Washington Gladden, Working People and Their Employers (Boston: Lockwood, Brooks, and Company, 1876), 31–50.

2.Minnesota Minimum Wage Law, Section 3904–3923, Sec. 20(1).

3.Union membership did not drop, but the minimum wage did eventually become the maximum wage.

4.Patrick W. Gearty, The Economic Thought of Monsignor John A. Ryan (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of American Press, 1953), 33–34; Francis L. Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, John A. Ryan (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 81–84.

5.Mary Beth Norton et al., eds., A People & a Nation: A History of the United States, Brief Edition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), 264–65.

6.James Patrick Byrne, Philip Colman, Jason King, eds., Ireland and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, vol. 2 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 349; James P. Rodocheko, “An Irish American Journalist and Catholicism: Patrick Ford of The Irish World,” Church History 39, no. 4 (December 1970): 527, 532.

7.Rt. Rev. Msgr. John A. Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action: A Personal History (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1941), 7–8.

8.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 9.

9.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 3, 7.

10.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 11–12. Years later he remarked that Donnelly’s campaign and victory “exercised more influence upon my political and economic thinking than any other factor of those early years,” Social Doctrine in Action, 12.

11.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 21.

12.John Ireland, The Church and Modern Society (Chicago: D. H. McBride, 1896), i, 55, 71, 78–79, cited in Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 15. Broderick noted that Ryan marked these particular sentences in his own copy of the book.

13.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 44.

14.Mary Christine Athans, BVM, “To Work for the Whole People”: John Ireland’s Seminary in St. Paul (New York: Paulist Press, 2002), 84–86, 91; Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 58.

15.John A. Ryan, Journal, November 20, 1892, box 69, folder 22, p. 27, John A. Ryan Papers, the American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives, the Catholic University of America, Washington, DC (hereafter Ryan Papers, ACUA).

16.John A. Ryan, Journal, October 16, 1892, box 69, folder 22, p. 21, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

17.John A. Ryan, Journal, September 29, 1892, emphasis original, box 69, folder 22, p. 17, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

18.John A. Ryan, Journal, November 17, 1894, box 69, folder 22, pp. 43–44, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

19.John A. Ryan, Journal, November 21, 1894, box 69, folder 22, p. 44, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

20.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 25; Manuale e Pontificale Romano: De Confirmandis, De Ordinibus Conferendis, De Consecratione Electi in Episcopum cum Missa et Precibus (Rome: Society of Saint John the Evangelist, 1923), 54–74.

21.Manuale e Pontificale Romano, 60.

22.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 31.

23.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 36–38.

24.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 45.

25.Ryan, A Living Wage: Its Ethical and Economic Aspects (New York: Macmillan, 1906), xi–xii.

26.Ryan, A Living Wage, 67, 74, 324.

27.Ryan, A Living Wage, 44.

28.Ryan, A Living Wage, 73.

29.Ryan, A Living Wage, 100.

30.Ryan, A Living Wage, 239.

31.Ryan, A Living Wage, 250–51.

32.Ryan, A Living Wage, 252–53.

33.Ryan, A Living Wage, 301.

34.Ryan, A Living Wage, 302.

35.Ryan, A Living Wage, 319–21.

36.Ryan, A Living Wage, 323.

37.John A. Ryan, A Program of Social Reform by Legislation (New York: Catholic World Press, 1909).

38.John A. Ryan, A Minimum Wage by Legislation (St. Louis: Central Bureau of German Roman Central Verein, 1911).

39.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 114.

40.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 112–15.

41.Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 113.

42.Letter from Joseph H. McMahon to [indecipherable], September 10, 1913, box 74, folder 2, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

43.Morris Hillquit and John A. Ryan, DD, Socialism: Promise or Menace? (New York: Macmillan, 1914).

44.Francis L. Broderick interview with Francis J. Gilligan, April 26, 1958, and Raymond A. McGowan, winter 1958, cited in Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 117.

45.Joseph M. McShane, “Sufficiently Radical”: Catholicism, Progressivism, and the Bishops’ Program of 1919 (Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1986), 156–57; Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 104–5; Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 144–45.

46.John O’Grady, unpublished autobiography, 30–31, National Conference of Catholic Charities Collection, ACUA, cited in McShane, “Sufficiently Radical,” 156.

47.“Bishops’ Program of Social Reconstruction: A General Review of the Problems and Survey of Remedies” (National Catholic Welfare Conference, February 12, 1919, Washington, DC) (hereafter “Bishops’ Program, 1919”).

48.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 1.

49.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 5.

50.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 7–8.

51.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 7.

52.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 8.

53.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 15.

54.“Bishops’ Program, 1919,” 15 (emphasis added).

55.John A. Ryan, Journal, November 17, 1894, box 69, folder 22, pp. 43–44, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

56.In 1922, the NCWC changed its name to National Catholic Welfare Conference when the Vatican objected to any suggestion of a council that could be understood to rival its authority.

57.Archbishop William O’Connell to Archbishop Michael Curley, November 2, 1924, box 39, folder 24, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

58.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 212–14, 217.

59.Boris Stern to Ryan, November 4, 1933, cited in Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 214.

60.Ryan hired McGowan as his assistant director in 1920. Beginning in the early 1920s, McGowan functioned as the de facto director of the Social Action Division of the Catholic Welfare Conference, because Ryan chose to exercise his directorship by publishing frequently, accepting numerous public speaking engagements, and serving on national committees—all at the expense of day-to-day and less politically exciting efforts. It is easy to imagine Ryan asking McGowan to send a slightly revised version of his Social Reform by Legislation (1909) and his “Bishops’ Program, 1919” to Labor Secretary Perkins.

61.Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 219; Executive Order, Establishing the Committee on Economic Security and the Advisory Council on Economic Security, December 1, 1934, https://www.ssa.gov/history/reports/ces/cesbookapen13.html.

62.John A. Ryan, “Americanism: The Counterfeit and the Genuine,” in Seven Troubled Years, 1930–1936: A Collection of Papers on the Depression and on the Problems of Recovery and Reform (Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1937), 227; also cited in Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 221.

63.Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1982; New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 91–106, 254–61.

64.Arthur Meyerowitz to John A. Ryan, September 28, 1936, box 41, folder 15, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

65.Brinkley, Voices of Protest, 256.

66.John A. Ryan, “Roosevelt Safeguards America” (address of Rt. Rev. John a. Ryan, D.D., October 8, 1936; Hotel Biltmore, NY; The Democratic National Committee), Box 41, Folder 12. Ryan Papers, ACUA. 1. The DNC issued the text of the speech as a twelve-page pamphlet printed by union workers. See also John A. Ryan, “Roosevelt Safeguards America,” October 8, 1936, audio recording, user CD, Box 80, Folder 1. Ryan Papers, ACUA.

67.Ryan, “Roosevelt Safeguards America,” 4.

68.Ryan, “Roosevelt Safeguards America,” 6.

69.Ryan, “Roosevelt Safeguards America,” 12.

70.Social Justice, October 19, 1936, cited in Broderick, Right Reverend New Dealer, 227.

71.T. N. Stewart to John A. Ryan, October 8, 1936, box 74, folder 1, Ryan Papers, ACUA.

72.George Quitman Flynn, “Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Catholicism, 1932–1936” (PhD diss., Louisiana State University, 1966), 369–74.

73.Ryan did not deny the possibility that FDR’s invitation for Ryan to give the benediction was a payoff for the speech. He remarked that if it was, he had “no reason to be ashamed nor [was] the honor thereby diminished.” Ryan, Social Doctrine in Action, 271.

74.John A. Ryan, Journal, November 17, 1894; and November 21, 1894, box 69, folder 22, pp. 43–44, Ryan Papers ACUA.

FRANK WILLIAM STRINGFELLOW

1.William Stringfellow, A Simplicity of Faith (Ann Arbor, MI: Abington Press, 1982), 21.

2.William Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1999), 78.

3.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 79.

4.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 79.

5.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 78.

6.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 80.

7.Over his lifetime, Berrigan was an antiwar activist, an opponent of the death penalty, a writer, and an ally of later protest movements such as the Occupy movement, protesting inequality around the world. Berrigan died in April of 2016. See the essay on Berrigan in this book for more on his life and witness.

8.William Stringfellow, Suspect Tenderness: The Ethics of the Berrigan Witness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 8–9.

9.William Stringfellow and Anthony Towne, “An Indictment & a Reply,” New York Review of Books, February 11, 1971, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1971/02/11/an-indictment-a-reply/.

10.Stringfellow, Dissenter in a Great Society: A Christian View of America in Crisis (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2006), 79.

11.Stringfellow, A Simplicity of Faith, 44.

12.William Stringfellow, Imposters of God (Dayton, OH: G. A. Pflaum, 1969), xxi–xxii.

13.William Stringfellow, An Ethic for Christians and Other Aliens in a Strange Land (Waco: World Books, 1973), back cover.

14.William Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 77.

15.Jason M. Breslow, “By the Numbers: Childhood Poverty in the U.S.,” PBS.org, Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/by-the-numbers-childhood-poverty-in-the-u-s/.

16.Shared Hope International, “FAQs,” http://sharedhope.org/the-problem/faqs/.

17.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 22.

18.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 46.

19.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 74.

20.William Stringfellow, A Second Birthday (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), 21.

21.William Stringfellow, Count It All Joy: Reflections on Faith, Doubt, and Temptation as Seen through the Letter of James (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967), 16.

22.Stringfellow, Dissenter in a Great Society, 28.

23.Stringfellow, Dissenter in a Great Society, 13–14.

24.Stringfellow, A Simplicity of Faith, 130.

25.Stringfellow, A Simplicity of Faith, 37.

26.Stringfellow, A Simplicity of Faith, 51.

27.Stringfellow, A Second Birthday, 52.

28.Stringfellow, A Second Birthday, 39.

29.Stringfellow, Dissenter in a Great Society, vii.

30.Stringfellow, A Private and Public Faith, 92.

MAHALIA JACKSON

1.Mahalia Jackson interview with Studs Terkel, 1953, WFMT Studs Terkel Radio Archive, Chicago Historical Society.

2.Mahalia Jackson interview with Studs Terkel, 1953.

3.Deborah Williams, “His Eye Is on the Sparrow,” National Public Radio, September 3, 2000, http://www.npr.org/2000/09/03/1081503/his-eye-is-on-the-sparrow.

4.Mahalia Jackson interview with Studs Terkel.

5.Mahalia Jackson interview with Studs Terkel.

6.Jules Schwerin, Got to Tell It: Mahalia Jackson, Queen of Gospel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 21.

7.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 21.

8.Mahalia Jackson interview with Studs Terkel.

9.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 30.

10.Richard Wright, 12 Million Black Voices, reprint ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 35.

11.Michael W. Harris, The Rise of Gospel Blues, reprint ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 258.

12.Harris, The Rise of Gospel Blues, 258.

13.Lorraine Dixon, “Teach It, Sister: Mahalia Jackson as Theologian in Song,” Black Theology in Britain: A Journal of Contextual Praxis 2 (April 1999): 77.

14.W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 147.

15.David Levering Lewis, introduction, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Random House, 2003), iv.

16.Harris, The Rise of Gospel Blues, 258.

17.Harris, The Rise of Gospel Blues, 259.

18.Harris, The Rise of Gospel Blues, 259.

19.Studs Terkel, “Hi-Fi Show,” September 30, 1957.

20.Dixon, “Teach It, Sister,” 79.

21.Deborah Williams, “His Eye Is on the Sparrow.”

22.Keith Morris, “Jesus Steps Right in When I Need Him Most.”

23.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 65.

24.Alden Whitman, “Mahalia Jackson, Gospel Singer, and a Civil Rights Symbol, Dies,” New York Times, January 28, 1972.

25.Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeon Wylie, Movin’ on Up (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 91.

26.Horace Clarence Boyer, notes accompanying Gospels, Spirituals, and Hymns, Sony Legacy, 1998, compact discs.

27.Johiri Jabir, “On Conjuring Mahalia: Mahalia Jackson, New Orleans, and the Sanctified Swing,” American Quarterly 61, no. 3 (September 2009): 666.

28.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 77–78.

29.Mark Burford, “Mahalia Jackson Meets the Wise Men: Defining Jazz at the Music Inn,” Musical Quarterly 97, no. 3 (December 2014): 439.

30.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 76.

31.Schwerin, Got to Tell It, 112.

32.Edward R. Murrow, “Person-to-Person” interview with Mahalia Jackson, Season 5, episode 30, March 28, 1958.

33.Jabir, “On Conjuring Mahalia,” 663.

34.Keith D. Miller, Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 170.

35.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZck6OXR_wE

36.Jabir, “On Conjuring Mahalia,” 664.

37.Dixon, “Teach It, Sister,” 88.

LUCY RANDOLPH MASON

1.Lucy Randolph Mason, To Win These Rights: A Personal Story of the CIO (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952), 114–17.

2.Encyclopedia.com, s.v. “Mason, Lucy Randolph (1882–1959),” http://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mason-lucy-randolph-1882-1959.

3.John A. Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO: The Life and Times of Lucy Randolph Mason, 1882–1959 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988), 1–14. Salmond’s work is invaluable for biographical information on Mason. See also Mason, To Win These Rights.

4.In the South, class worked in a variety of ways. While the status of groups or individuals was often based on affluence, it was not always economic worth or wealth that undergirded a privileged station. At times, a group or individual’s status was based on lineage or past family hegemony rather than on monetary superiority. See Bertram Wyatt Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).

5.Mason, To Win These Rights, 1.

6.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 6.

7.Mason, To Win These Rights, 22.

8.Lucy Randolph Mason, “I Turned to Social Action Right at Home,” in Labor’s Relation to Church and Community, ed. Liston Pope (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), 146.

9.Mason, To Win These Rights, 3.

10.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 3.

11.Mason, “I Turned to Social Action.”

12.Mason quoted in Landon R. Y. Storrs, “Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers League and the Politics of Fair Labor Standards in the New Deal Era” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1996), 97.

13.See Lucy Randolph Mason, “The Divine Discontent,” circa 1914–1917, Adele Clark Papers, Special Collections, James Branch Cabell Library, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia.

14.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 8. Salmond quotes early drafts of Mason’s To Win These Rights.

15.Paul Harvey, Freedom’s Coming: Religious Culture and the Shaping of the South from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 82.

16.Mason, “I Turned to Social Action,” 146–47. There is some historical debate about the presence and pervasiveness of the Social Gospel movement in the South. Samuel Hill has argued that the Social Gospel did not make a significant impact in the region. But others—namely John Lee Eighmy and Wayne Flynt—have dissented from that opinion. See John Lee Eighmy, Churches in Cultural Captivity; J. Wayne Flynt, Poor but Proud: Alabama’s Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989). For further discussion, see my (Susan’s) thesis, “ ‘Life in Scorn of the Consequences’: Clarence Jordan and the Roots of Radicalism in the Southern Baptist Convention” (MA thesis, University of Mississippi, 1994). Suffice it to say that for Lucy Mason, who was a Southerner and who worked primarily in the South, the Social Gospel was of significant influence.

17.See Mason, To Win These Rights, 1–18; Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 8–14.

18.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 9–18.

19.See Mason, To Win These Rights, 1–18; Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 8–14.

20.Mason, To Win These Rights, 5.

21.Mason, To Win These Rights, 4.

22.Emma Lindsay, “Why I Am Skeptical of White Liberals in the Black Lives Matter Movement,” Medium, July 14, 2016, https://medium.com/@emmalindsay/why-i-am-skeptical-of-white-liberals-in-the-black-lives-matter-movement-42a2b6eb2b0f#.r4xn0mv63.

23.Margaret Lee Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO: Lucy Randolph Mason, 1882–1959” (MA thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1969), 8.

24.Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 10.

25.A growing number of Richmond’s white community supported Mason’s beliefs, although perhaps not as stridently. Langston Hughes visited colleagues of Mason’s in Richmond in 1926 and later wrote, “Richmond was certainly kind to me. And I discover that not all Southerners are as vile as Mr. Mencken of Baltimore and the Negro press make them out to be. I want to come back there sometime.” Letter from Langston Hughes to Hunter Stage, Hunter Stage Collection, James Branch Cadell Library, Virginia Commonwealth University, December 1, 1926.

26.Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 12.

27.Mason, To Win These Rights, 4.

28.Encyclopedia.com, “Mason, Lucy Randolph.”

29.New York Times, December 14, 1932, Mason quoted in Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 12–13.

30.Letter to Mr. Henry P. Kendell, Boston, MA, from Lucy Randolph Mason, February 27, 1931, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

31.Encyclopedia.com, “Mason, Lucy Randolph.”

32.Letter to Elizabeth Magee from Lucy Randolph Mason, November 15, 1944, reel 29, National Consumers League Papers, Library of Congress.

33.Lucy Randolph Mason, “The Divine Discontent,” circa 1914–1917, Adele Clark Papers, Special Collections, James Branch Cabell Library, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia.

34.Mason papers, Duke University, circular letter, August 31, 1937.

35.Mason, To Win These Rights, 16.

36.She explained her interest in the South: “Much of my time is spent working in the South because it is the most backward section.” Letter to Robert Rivers Lamonte from Lucy Randolph Mason, June 23, 1936, reel 29, National Consumers League Papers, Library of Congress.

37.Hollinger F. Barnard, ed., Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990), 118.

38.See Zieger’s The CIO (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 66–89; Steve Rosswurm, ed., The CIO’s Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992); Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History (New York: Basic Books, 1995).

39.Encyclopedia.com, “Mason, Lucy Randolph.”

40.Encyclopedia.com, “Mason, Lucy Randolph.”

41.Mason, To Win These Rights, 24, 26, 29–30.

42.Mason, To Win These Rights, 26. Mason does not report how she dealt with these cases; she only relates that she “reported the success of the mission in some detail to Mr. Bittner.”

43.Zieger, The CIO, 75–76.

44.Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt from Lucy Randolph Mason, August 12, 1937, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

45.Letter to Eleanor Roosevelt from Lucy Randolph Mason, May 28, 1940, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

46.Letter to Lucy Mason from Franklin D. Roosevelt, October 7, 1940, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

47.Lucy Randolph Mason, circular letter to ministers for Labor Day, August 25, 1937, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

48.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 82–83.

49.Lucy Randolph Mason, circular letter, February 24, 1938, quoted in Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 34.

50.See Mason correspondence to Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, John E. Rankin, and the FBI, April 15, 1938, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library. See also Mason, To Win These Rights, 50–53; Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 38–41; Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 82–83.

51.See Letter to Lucy Randolph Mason from J. Edgar Hoover regarding his assignment of the case to “Joseph B. Keenan, The Assistant to the Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, DC, for such attention as he may deem appropriate,” July 16, 1938.

52.Salmond, Miss Lucy of the CIO, 82–83.

53.Mason, To Win These Rights, 75.

54.Letter to Lucy Mason from Jonathan Daniels, September 9, 1937, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library. Daniels’s letters reveal an editor sensitive to the effects of race on labor in the South. This same note asks Mason for information on hotel employment. He noticed that in many large urban Southern hotels “white girls have been substituted almost entirely for Negro waiters. I wonder if anyone has made a study of the extent to which this has taken place, where these girls come from, and how much they make—also what happens to the Negroes.” He knew of Mason that “if anybody can give [the information] to me you can.” Mason referred Daniels to the NAACP and the National Urban League, both of whose boards she was a member. Mason to Jonathan Daniels, September 11, 1937, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

55.John Egerton, phone interview by author, notes in Glisson’s possession, July 29, 1999.

56.Letter to Lucy Mason from Grover C. Hall, January 18, 1938, reel 65, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

57.Mason, To Win These Rights, 39–40.

58.She listed three areas which required prison reform in South Carolina: “(1) there should be no sale of prison-made goods; (2) the state should employ its own personnel to direct the prison industry rather than hiring private business to direct it; and (3) the state should pass an act prohibiting the sale of prison-made goods from other states.” Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 60. See also letter to W. R. Harley from Lucy Randolph Mason, September 22, 1939; letter to James C. Derieux from Lucy Randolph Mason, September 1939, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

59.Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 60–62.

60.Letter to Eleanor Roosevelt from Lucy Randolph Mason, January 20, 1940, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

61.Margaret Neustadt’s thesis records this attempt by Mason to secure federal intervention through Mrs. Roosevelt. The thesis does not show Roosevelt’s response, and there is no corresponding record in Mason’s papers.

62.See Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 117, 126.

63.Letter to William R. Moody from Lucy Randolph Mason, October, 25, 1951, reel 62, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

64.Neustadt, “Miss Lucy of the CIO,” 131.

65.Address by Mason, circa 1951, reel 65, Lucy Randolph Mason Papers, Operation Dixie Collection, Duke University Library.

RICHARD TWISS

1.Terry LeBlanc, “In Memoriam: Richard Leo Twiss,” in Richard Twiss, Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, 2015), 9.

2.“Rosebud Sioux Reservation,” Atka Lakota Museum and Cultural Center website, http://aktalakota.stjo.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=8658.

3.James B. LaGrand, Indian Metropolis: Native Americans in Chicago, 1945–75 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 18.

4.Richard Twiss, 2011 plenary session talk, Christian Community Development Association (CCDA) 2011 National Conference, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGw7AU6VDOs (hereafter 2011 CCDA talk).

5.Richard Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 2000), 17.

6.Willie James Jennings, The Christian Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 6.

7.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 39–40.

8.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

9.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

10.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 27.

11.LaGrand, Indian Metropolis, 206–7.

12.LaGrand, Indian Metropolis, 211.

13.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 37.

14.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

15.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 30.

16.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 31.

17.“Disparities,” Indian Health Service, https://www.ihs.gov/newsroom/factsheets/disparities/.

18.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 31.

19.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 32.

20.Twiss, One Church, Many Tribes, 33.

21.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

22.Richard Twiss, Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys, 37.

23.Richard Twiss, Dancing Our Prayers (Vancouver, WA: Wiconi Press, 1998), 10.

24.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

25.Twiss, Dancing Our Prayers, 33.

26.Twiss, Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys, 12.

27.“A Brief History of NAIITS,” NAIITS website, https://www.naiits.com/history/.

28.See Soong-Chan Rah, “The Power of Personal Story,” chap. 1 in Return to Justice (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2016).

29.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

30.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

31.Twiss, 2011 CCDA talk.

DANIEL BERRIGAN

1.Daniel Berrigan, Prayer for the Morning Headlines: On the Sanctity of Life and Death (Baltimore: Apprentice House, 2007), on the cover.

2.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace: An Autobiography (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987), 47.

3.Daniel Cosacchi and Eric Martin, eds., The Berrigan Letters: Personal Correspondence between Daniel and Philip Berrigan (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2016), 7.

4.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 108–9.

5.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 121.

6.Berrigan, Selected & New Poems (New York: Doubleday, 1973), 9.

7.Berrigan, Consequences: Truth and . . . (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 17.

8.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 29.

9.Daniel Berrigan, Night Flight: War Diary with 11 Poems (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 40.

10.Daniel Berrigan, Testimony: The Word Made Flesh (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 124.

11.Quoted in Walter B. Kalaidjian, Languages of Liberation: The Social Text in Contemporary American Poetry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 164.

12.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 181.

13.Martin Luther King Jr., “Beyond Vietnam” (speech, Riverside Church, New York, April 4, 1967).

14.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 30.

15.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 180.

16.Sharon Erickson Nepstad, Religion and War Resistance in the Plowshares Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 47–48.

17.Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr., “Balitmore Four,” The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, ed. Spencer C. Tucker (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 92.

18.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 39.

19.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 43.

20.Daniel Berrigan, Lamentations: From New York to Kabul and Beyond (Chicago: Sheed and Ward, 2002), 13.

21.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 200–201.

22.Patrick Henry, “New Biography of Jesuit Fr. Daniel Berrigan Outlines His Activism, Exile,” National Catholic Reporter, May 7, 2018, https://www.ncronline.org/news/people/new-biography-jesuit-fr-daniel-berrigan-outlines-his-activism-exile.

23.Daniel Berrigan, “Our Apologies, Good Friends,” in Daniel Berrigan: Essential Writings, ed. John Dear (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2016), 105.

24.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 219.

25.Berrigan, To Dwell in Peace, 217–20.

26.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 47.

27.Cosacchi and Martin, The Berrigan Letters, 63.

28.Investigation of a Flame, documentary directed by Lynn Sachs (New York: Icarus Films, 2003), DVD.

29.Daniel Berrigan, America Is Hard to Find: Notes from the Underground and Letters from Danbury Prison (Doubleday: New York, 1972), 96.

30.Daniel Berrigan and Robert Coles, Geography of Faith: Conversations between Daniel Berrigan When Underground, and Robert Coles (Boston: Beacon, 1971), 25.

31.Anthony Towne and William Stringfellow, “On Sheltering Criminal Priests,” in Suspect Tenderness: The Ethics of the Berrigan Witness (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2006), 22.

32.Towne and Stringfellow, “On Sheltering Criminal Priests,” 31.

33.Towne and Stringfellow, “On Sheltering Criminal Priests,” 48.

34.Berrigan, “Trial of the Catonsville Nine” in Poetry, Drama, Prose, (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988), 240–41.

35.Daniel Berrigan, And the Risen Bread: Selected Poems, ed. John Dear (New York: Fordham, 1998), 230, used with permission of the Daniel Berrigan Literary Trust, 2018.

36.Berrigan, Testimony, 5–6.

37.“Jeremy Scahill Remembers His Longtime Friend Daniel Berrigan,” Jeremy Scahill, interview by Amy Goodman, Democracy Now!, May 3, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc28QfybR34.

38.Daniel Berrigan, We Die Before We Live: Talking with the Very Ill (Seabury: New York, 1980), 23.

39.Berrigan, We Die Before We Live, 41.

40.Berrigan, Lamentations, 31.

41.Berrigan, Testimony, 203.

42.Berrigan, Testimony, 220–21.

43.Daniel Berrigan, The Mission: A Film Journal (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986), 149.

44.Chris Hedges, “Daniel Berrigan: Forty Years after Catonsville,” The Nation, May 20, 2008, http://www.thenation.com/doc/20080602/hedges.

MARY STELLA SIMPSON

1.Sr. Mary Stella Simpson, Sister Stella’s Babies: Days in the Practice of a Nurse-Midwife (New York: American Journal of Nursing Company, 1978), 20. This book, one of the few sources about Sister Mary Stella Simpson, contains excerpts from letters she wrote to her Sisters at St. Mary’s Hospital in Evansville, Indiana, during her first year in Mound Bayou. Excerpts from this book will be noted with the date of the letter.

2.Unless otherwise noted, the quotes from Sr. Mary Stella in this section have been taken from a short autobiography she wrote for the Daughters of Charity: “Sr. Mary Stella Simpson, August 27, 1910–April 19, 2004,” in Memories, Vol. 8: Daughters of Charity, East Central Province, 2003–2005 (Evansville, IN: Mater Dei Provincialate, n.d.), 99–111. I would like to thank the Daughters of Charity who made this autobiography available to me through their Provincial Archives and for their assistance with this project. Additional material, including quotations, is taken from a three-hour interview with Sr. Mary Stella conducted by Irene Matousek for the American College of Nurse-Midwives Oral History Project. Citations from that interview will simply be noted with “Matousek interview.” See Irene Matousek, “Interview with Mary Stella Simpson, 1993-10-30,” University of Kentucky Special Collections Research Center, Oral History Collection: ACNM001, Transaction Number: 6100, https://kentuckyoralhistory.org/catalog/xt7k3j393148. Additional background information provided by Suzy Farren, “Sr. Mary Stella’s Babies,” Catholic Digest (October 1992): 45–50.

3.See the Daughters of Charity, “Early History,” http://daughtersofcharity.org/about-us/early-history/, and “Who We Are,” http://daughtersofcharity.org/about-us/the-daughters-of-charity/.

4.The largest Catholic health system today, Ascension Health, was formed through a merger of the Daughters of Charity National Health System and the Sisters of St. Joseph Health System in 1999. At that time, the DCNHS included nearly eighty hospitals, nursing homes, outpatient clinics, and other health care facilities in fifteen states. See http://ascension.org/about/history. Catholic Sisters began arriving in America in 1728 to care for the poor sick, often invited by local bishops or physicians. Almost three hundred years later, the Catholic health ministry comprises the largest group of nonprofit health care providers in the US with more than 600 hospitals and 1,400 long-term-care health facilities in all fifty states, representing approximately 15 percent of all hospital admissions and outpatient visits annually. This history is recounted in careful and comprehensive detail in Christopher Kauffman, Ministry and Meaning: A Religious History of Catholic Health Care in the United States (New York: Crossroad, 1995). For information on the scope of Catholic health care in the US see Catholic Health Association, “Catholic Health Care in the United States: Fact Sheet January 2017,” https://www.chausa.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/cha_2017_miniprofile.pdf?sfvrsn=0.

5.St. Vincent Medical Center, “About Us: History of St. Vincent Medical Center,” https://stvincent.verity.org/about-us/.

6.Sr. M. Theophane Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1947).

7.Anne Z. Cockerham and Arlene W. Keeling, “Faith and Finance at the Catholic Maternity Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1944–1969,” Nursing History Review 18 (2010): 152–53, https://doi.org/10.1891/1062–8061.18.151.

8.For the novelty of this, see the 1972 article about Sr. Mary Stella: “ ‘Dad’s Lib’ Is Urged in Maternity Wards,” Chicago Tribune, November 26, 1972, http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1972/11/26/page/368/article/dads-lib-is-urged-in-maternity-wards.

9.“In Remembrance: Sister Mary Stella Simpson, ACNM’s Fifth President,” Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health 49, no. 5 (September–October 2004): 469, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2004.06.006.

10.Eventually the organization had six certified nurse-midwives and covered five counties.

11.Mound Bayou was recently visited by Melissa Block, a correspondent for National Public Radio, as part of its Our Land series. See “Here’s What’s Become of a Historic All-Black Town in the Mississippi Delta,” NPR, March 8, 2017, http://www.npr.org/2017/03/08/515814287/heres-whats-become-of-a-historic-all-black-town-in-the-mississippi-delta.

12.Charles Stringer Jr., “Jewel of the Delta: Mound Bayou, Mississippi” (capstone project, California State University Monterey Bay, May 2002), http://digitalcommons.csumb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1257&context=caps_thes.

13.The material in this section about Mound Bayou was drawn from the two previous sources as well as the following. Please consult these to learn more about the important and vibrant history of Mound Bayou: The Mound Bayou, Mississippi, Story, The Delta Center for Culture and Learning, Delta State University, https://ia801408.us.archive.org/7/items/moundbayoumissis00text/moundbayoumissis00text.pdf; Jon Ross and John H. Rodgers III, Mound Bayou: Jewel of the Delta (Chicago: JR2 Films, 2012), https://vimeo.com/34941038; “Portrait of a Black Town: Mound Bayou—Past, Present, and Future,” Mound Bayou’s “The Voice” 4, no. 8 (July 1971): 1–40; Booker T. Washington, “A Town Owned by Negroes: Mound Bayou, Miss., an Example of Thrift and Self-Government,” in Booker T. Washington Rediscovered, Supplemental Materials, ed. Michael Scott Bieze and Marybeth Gasman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), originally published in World’s Work, July 1907; Norman L. Crockett, The Black Towns (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1979).

14.Rev. Dr. Otis Moss III, “The Genius of African People” (sermon, Trinity United Church of Christ, Chicago, Illinois, February 28, 2016).

15.Simpson, Memories, 5.

16.The information on the Tufts-Delta Health Center is drawn from the following sources: Jennifer Nelson, “Medicine May Be the Way We Got in the Door: Social Justice and Community Health in the Mid-1960s,” in More Than Medicine: A History of the Feminist Women’s Health Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 15–56; Jennifer Nelson, “ ‘Hold Your Head Up and Stick Out Your Chin’: Community Health and Women’s Health in Mound Bayou, Mississippi,” NWSA Journal 17, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 99–118; Greta de Jong, “Plantation Politics: The Tufts-Delta Health Center and Interracial Class Conflict in Mississippi: 1956–1972,” in The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964–1980, ed. Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 256–79; John Dittmer, “Interview with Dr. H. Jack Geiger,” Civil Rights History Project, Southern Oral History Program, Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of African American History and Culture and the Library of Congress, March 16, 2013, video and transcript available at https://www.loc.gov/item/afc2010039_crhp0076/; and Thomas Ward Jr., Out in the Rural: A Mississippi Health Center and Its War on Poverty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

17.The median annual income of Mound Bayou was less than $1,000 per family per year, the unemployment rate was over 50 percent, 90 percent of the dwellings were unfit for human habitation, and the infant mortality rate was 59 percent. Malnutrition, particularly among children, was widespread, and Geiger found himself writing prescriptions for food. Most rural African Americans at the time had never seen a doctor due to a dearth of African American physicians. Many hospitals that would admit African Americans turned away patients who could not pay, though health insurance was largely unavailable to blacks due to discrimination in the insurance industry.

18.The NHC network expanded quickly, and today there are more than thirteen hundred community health centers in the US, providing care at over nine thousand sites of clinical service, serving more than twenty-five million low-income patients. H. Jack Geiger, “The First Community Health Center in Mississippi: Communities Empowering Themselves,” American Journal of Public Health 106, no. 10 (October 2016): 1740. These sites are now referred to as Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHC), and the TDHC—now the Delta Health Center—has the distinction of being the first FQHC in the US.

19.Suzy Farren, A Call to Care: The Women Who Built Catholic Healthcare in America (St. Louis: Catholic Health Association, 1996), DVD.

20.Mary Stella Simpson, “Walking with Wise Women,” Charity Connections 38 (Spring 2009): 4.

21.County Health Rankings and Roadmaps, http://www.countyhealthrankings.org/app/mississippi/2017/rankings/bolivar/county/outcomes/overall/snapshot.

22.Mississippi Department of Health, “Infant Mortality Report, 2016,” http://msdh.ms.gov/msdhsite/_static/resources/7027.pdf..