Glossary

The following is a glossary of key terms for narrative study. If a term is set in small caps within a definition, that term (or a cognate) has its own glossary entry. Further, readers should consult the index for pointers to discussions (elsewhere in the volume) of terms not listed here.

Glossary definitions that refer to “the Labovian model” allude to the research on storytelling in face-to-face interaction (more specifically, interview situations) that was pioneered by Labov and Waletzky (1967) and further developed in later work by Labov (1972) and many other narrative scholars. See chapters 1 and 2 of this book (and also Bamberg 1997a) for further discussion of the possibilities and limitations of this approach to narrative analysis.

For additional information about the keywords included in this glossary as well as other relevant terms and concepts, readers are encouraged to consult other recently published guides to the field. The following works provide foundations for further study:

Abbott, H. P. ([2002] 2008). The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative. 2nd edn.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Herman, D. (ed.) (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Narrative. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Herman, D., M. Jahn, and M.-L. Ryan (eds.) (2005). Routledge Encyclopedia ofNarrative Theory. London: Routledge.

Herman, L., and B. Vervaeck (2005). Handbook of Narrative Analysis. Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press.

Jahn, M. (2005). Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative <http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame02/pppn.htm>.

Keen, S. (2004). Narrative Form. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Leech, G., and M. Short ([1981] 2007). Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. 2nd edn. Harlow: Pearson/Longman.

Lothe, J. (2000). Narrative in Fiction and Film: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Phelan, J., and P. J. Rabinowitz (eds.) (2005). A Companion to Narrative Theory.Oxford: Blackwell.

Prince, G. ([1987] 2003). A Dictionary of Narratology. 2nd edn. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Riessman, C. K. (1993). Narrative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Riessman, C. K. (2007). Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage.

Rimmon-Kenan, S. ([1983] 2002). Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. 2nd edn.London: Routledge.

Ryan, M.-L. (ed.) (2004). Narrative across Media: The Languages of Storytelling. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Scholes, R., J. Phelan, and R. Kellogg (2006). “Narrative Theory, 1966–2006: A Narrative.” In The Nature of Narrative (pp. 283–336). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Toolan, M. ([1988] 2001). Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. 2nd edn. London: Routledge.

ABSTRACT In the Labovian model, the abstract is a pre-announcement of the gist of a story about to be told, used to clear the floor for the more or less extended turn at talk required to convey the narrative.

ACTANT A term used by structuralist NARRATOLOGISTS to designate general roles fulfilled by particularized actors or characters. One such role is Opponent, which is fulfilled by characters as diverse as the big ball in UFO or the Devil and the Devil himself in Paradise Lost.

ADDRESSEE. See AUDIENCE; PARTICIPATION FRAMEWORK

ADDRESSOR. See NARRATOR; PRODUCTION FORMAT

AGENCY At the level of the story, agency concerns characters’ ability to bring about deliberately initiated EVENTS, or actions, within a STORYWORLD. But agency is also a pertinent concern at the level of storytelling or narration, affecting who gets to tell what kind of story in what contexts. FEMINIST NARRATOLOGY explores differences in the sorts of agency available to male versus female characters and NARRATORS.

ANACHRONY Nonchronological NARRATION, where EVENTS are told in an ORDER other than that in which they can be presumed to have occurred in the STORYWORLD.

ANALEPSIS The equivalent of a ashback in film. Analepsis occurs when events that occur in the order ABC are told in the order BCA or BAC.

AUDIENCE As discussed in chapter 3, in the narrative communication model developed by structuralist NARRATOLOGISTS and refined by rhetorical theorists of narrative, the audience can be defined as real or imagined addressees of (multi-layered) acts of NARRATION. This model distinguishes among actual authors, IMPLIED AUTHORS, and NARRATORS on the production side of the storytelling process, and, on the interpretation side, the corresponding roles of actual readers, (types of) IMPLIED READERS, and NARRATEES (the audience implicitly or explicitly addressed by the narrator in the text). In this account of how narrative communication takes place, an implied author might communicate something to an implied reader by having a narrator tell a particular kind of story in a particular way to a specific narratee – as in Ghost World when, during a late-night phone call with Rebecca, Enid engages in UNRELIABLE NARRATION and misreports what she actually told Naomi on an earlier occasion (see the discussion in chapter 3).

AUTODIEGETIC NARRATION First-person or HOMODIEGETIC narration in which the NARRATOR is also the main character in the STORYWORLD (as in UFO or the Devil).

BACKSTORY A type of EXPOSITION often involving ANALEPSIS or ash-back; a filling in of the circumstances and events that have led to the present moment in a STORYWORLD, and that illuminate the larger implications of actual or potential behaviors by characters occupying a particular narrative “now.”

CHARACTER. See AGENCY; MIMESIS

CLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY. See POSTCLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY

CODA In the Labovian model, the coda serves a “bridging” function at the end of a story told in face-to-face interaction, returning the focus of attention from the world of the story to the world of the here and now, in which the current discourse is unfolding.

COGNITIVE NARRATOLOGY A strand within POSTCLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY that focuses on mind-relevant dimensions of storytelling practices, wherever – and by whatever means – those practices occur.

COMPLICATING ACTION In the Labovian model, this is the interest-bearing element of the narrative, involving unexpected or non-canonical, and thus tellable, situations and events.

CONFLICT A state or process whose most general form can be captured in the following terms: an initial state of equilibrium in a storyworld is upset by a more or less disruptive event or chain of events. I argue in this book that NARRATIVE more or less explicitly foregrounds such unexpected, noncanonical events; however, storyworlds-in-ux need not involve conict in the narrower sense – that is, in the sense of clashes among the beliefs, desires, and intentions of two or more characters in a narrative, or between dissonant aspects of a single character.

CONSCIOUSNESS REPRESENTATION The representation of characters’(or narrators’) minds in narrative discourse. Topics of study in this area include the structural possibilities for representing conscious experience – that is, the system of available mind-revealing techniques – as well as the evolution or emergence of such techniques over time, and the interconnections among those techniques and broader conceptions of mind circulating in the culture or in more specialized discourses. See also EXPERIENTIALITY; QUALIA

CONSONANT NARRATION Dorrit Cohn’s (1978) term for a mode of NARRATION in which a narrator’s presentation of events in the storyworld merges with a character’s vantage-point on those events. In the case of first-person or HOMODIEGETIC narration, Cohn refers to consonant self-narration. In the case of third-person or HETERODIEGETIC narration, consonant narration is the equivalent of what Stanzel calls the figural NARRATIVE SITUATION. In either case, it corresponds to what Genette terms internal FOCALIZATION. See also DISSONANT NARRATION

COUNTER NARRATIVES. See HEGEMONY

DEIXIS Deictic terms like i, here, and now are expressions whose meaning changes depending on who is uttering them in what discourse context.

DESCRIPTION A kind of text or discourse (i.e., a TEXT TYPE) core instances of which ascribe properties to situations, objects, and events, whether statically (as in That cat is elegant) or dynamically (as in Tuesdays and Thursdays I eat cereal for breakfast and on other days I eat toast and jelly).

DIALECT REPRESENTATION The representation of a speech variety used by one or more characters in a narrative text; such speech representations can be used to position and identify characters within regional, class-based, ethnic, and gender-related coordinates, suggesting alterity or otherness.

DIEGESIS In one sense, the term diegesis corresponds to what NARRATOLOGISTS call STORY; in this usage, it refers to the STORYWORLD evoked by the narrative text and inhabited by the characters. In a second usage, diegesis (along with cognate terms such as diegetic) refers to one pole on the continuum stretching between modes of speech presentation in narrative texts. In this second usage, techniques for presenting speech that are relatively diegetic are those in which a NARRATOR’S mediation is evident, as in INDIRECT DISCOURSE. By contrast, modes that are relatively MIMETIC background the narrator’s mediating role, as in direct discourse or free DIRECT DISCOURSE, where speech tags like she said are omitted to produce the sense of unfiltered access to characters’ utterances.

DIRECT DISCOURSE A technique for representing characters’ speech. In DD, a NARRATOR reproduces a character’s utterance in a manner that (one can assume) mirrors the way it was performed in the STORYWORLD.

DISCOURSE In NARRATOLOGY, the “discourse” level of narrative (in French, discours) corresponds to what Russian Formalist theorists called the sjuzhet; it contrasts with the “STORY” (histoire) level. In this usage, discourse refers to the disposition of the SEMIOTIC cues used by interpreters to reconstruct a STORYWORLD.

DISSONANT NARRATION Dorrit Cohn’s (1978) term for a mode of NARRATION in which a narrator’s presentation of events in the storyworld differs from a character’s vantage-point on those events. In the case of first-person or HOMODIEGETIC narration, Cohn refers to dissonant self-narration. In the case of third-person or HETERODIEGETIC narration, dissonant narration is the equivalent of what Stanzel calls the authorial NARRATIVE SITUATION and what Genette calls zero FOCALIZATION. See also CONSONANT NARRATION

DURATION The ratio between how long situations and events take to unfold in the STORYWORLD and how much text is devoted to their NARRATION. Variations in this ratio correspond to different narrative speeds; in order of increasing speed, these are PAUSE, STRETCH, SCENE, SUMMARY, and ELLIPSIS.

ELLIPSIS The omission of storyworld events during the process of NARRATION; in ellipsis, narrative speed reaches infinity.

EMPLOTMENT The process by which situations and events are linked together to produce a PLOT. Arguably, the more overtly or reexively a narrative emplots the events it recounts, and thereby draws attention to its status as a constructed artifact, the less immersed interpreters will be in the STORYWORLD evoked by the text. See also PLOT

EPISODE A bounded, internally coherent sequence of situations and EVENTS that can be chained together with other such narrative units to form larger narrative structures.

EVALUATION In the Labovian model, evaluation refers to the expressive resources used by storytellers to signal the point of a narrative, or why it is worth telling in the first place. Evaluation, in this sense, helps ward off the question that every storyteller dreads: “So what?”

EVENT A change of state, creating a more or less salient and lasting alteration in the STORYWORLD. Events can be subdivided into temporally extended processes, deliberately initiated actions, and happenings not brought about intentionally by any AGENT.

EXPERIENCING-I In retrospective first-person or HOMODIEGETIC (or AUTODIEGETIC) NARRATION, the younger self who lived through the experiences recounted by the older, NARRATING-I.

EXPERIENTIALITY Term used by Fludernik to denote “the evocation of consciousness [in terms of] cognitive schema of embodiedness that relate to human existence and human concerns” (1996: 168). Chapter 6 of this study builds on Fludernik’s work to highlight the impact of storyworld events on experiencing minds as a basic element of narrative – that is, as a critical property of NARRATIVE (or condition for NARRATIVITY). However, the chapter uses other terms (the consciousness factor, qualia, what it’s like, raw feels, etc.) in part to avoid the inference that the other basic elements discussed in this book (situatedness, event sequencing, and worldmaking/world disruption) can be subordinated to what it’s like as somehow less fundamental – as Fludernik’s model prima facie implies (cf. Alber 2002).

EXPLANATION A TEXT TYPE contrasted with those of NARRATIVE and DESCRIPTION in chapter 4. Different kinds of practices fall within the domain of explanation, including both qualitative explanations based on a single case study and quantitative explanations based on statistical analyses of the frequency with which a given phenomenon occurs. In the classical Covering Law Model of explanation developed in the philosophy of science, particular phenomena are explained when they can be characterized as instances of more general covering laws (e.g., water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius; substance X is water and it is below 0 degrees today; so that explains why substance X froze).

EXPOSITION A presentation, sometimes given in the form of BACKSTORY, of the circumstances and EVENTS that form a context or background for understanding the main action in a narrative.

EXTRADIEGETIC NARRATOR A NARRATOR who does not inhabit the STORYWORLD evoked by a narrative. Narrators can be extradiegetic-HOMODIEGETIC, like the older Pip who narrates his life experiences in Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations, or extradiegetic-HETERODIEGETIC, like Hemingway’s narrator in “Hills.”

FEMINIST NARRATOLOGY A strand of POSTCLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY that explores how issues of gender bear on the production and interpretation of stories.

FICTION Positively, fiction can be defined as type of discourse or communicative practice in which participants are transported, through a more or less immersive experience, to a storyworld assumed to be imaginary rather than actual. Negatively, fiction can be defined as a type of discourse or communicative practice for which questions of truth-value do not apply in the way that they do for factual discourse. Thus, whereas journalists and police detectives attempt to verify a witness’s account of events by comparing the account with those given by other witnesses, it would be a category mistake to try to ascertain the truth status of the specific events represented in Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre (i.e., whether the events actually happened) by comparing the novel with newspaper articles or historical records originating from the same period. Likewise, a subsequent fictional text that rewrites the novel, such as Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea, cannot validate or invalidate Brontë’s text, but rather constitutes another, autonomous, fiction.

FOCALIZATION Genette’s ([1972] 1980) term for modes of perspective taking in narrative discourse. In internal focalization, the viewpoint is restricted to a particular observer or REFLECTOR, whereas in zero focalization the viewpoint is not anchored in a localized position. Further, internal focalization can be fixed, variable, or multiple. In “Hills,” the focalization is variable, shifting between the vantage-points of Jig and the male character.

FREE INDIRECT DISCOURSE A technique for representing characters’ speech. Couched as a report given by a NARRATOR, FID also contains expressivity markers (for example, DIALECT REPRESENTATIONS) that point to the speech patterns of a particular character.

FREQUENCY The ratio between the number of times something is told and the number of times it can be assumed to have occurred in the STORYWORLD. In singulative NARRATION, there is a one-to-one match between how many times an EVENT occurred and how many times it is told; in iterative narration, something that happened more than once is told once; and in repetitive narration, the number of times something is told exceeds the frequency with which it occurred in the STORYWORLD.

GAPS Lacunae or omissions in what is told or in the process of telling. Omissions in the telling constitute ELLIPSES; those in the told underscore the radical incompleteness of fictional worlds. (How many siblings did Captain Kirk of Star Trek have? In The Incredible Hulk comics, where was Bruce Banner’s maternal grandfather born?).

HEGEMONY The dominance of a particular view or group over other views or groups, often through a process of manufactured consent, whereby those in a subordinate role are induced to participate in their own domination. A key question for narrative study is how stories can both shore up hegemony, in the form of “master narratives,” but also critique such domination, by way of “counter narratives” that contest entrenched accounts of how the world is (cf. Bamberg and Andrews 2004).

HETERODIEGETIC NARRATOR A NARRATOR who has not participated in the circumstances and events about which he or she tells a story.

HOMODIEGETIC NARRATOR A NARRATOR who has participated (more or less centrally) in the circumstances and events about which he or she tells a story. At the limit, homodiegetic narration shades off into AUTODIEGETIC NARRATION.

HYPODIEGETIC NARRATIVE A story within a story. In UFO or the Devil, the story about the big ball recounted by the younger Monica and Renee to Renee’s grandmother (shortly after their encounter with the apparition) is a hypodiegetic narrative.

IDEOLOGY. See HEGEMONY

IMPLIED AUTHOR In the account developed by Booth ([1961] 1983), the implied author is a role or persona assumed by an actual author. That role can be described as a set of norms and values that actual authors adopt for the purpose of producing a given narrative. For rhetorical theorists, interpreting a narrative entails searching the text for clues about these norms and values, which in turn enable the audience to detect favored versus disfavored character traits, modes and degrees of UNRELIABLE NARRATION, etc.

IMPLIED READER The intended addressee or AUDIENCE of the IMPLIED AUTHOR; another term for what rhetorical narrative theorists of narrative call the authorial audience. The implied reader of Hemingway’s “Hills” will know for example that Madrid is a city in Spain – though an actual reader unschooled in geography may not know these details.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE A technique for representing characters’ speech. In contrast to DIRECT DISCOURSE, in ID a NARRATOR reports in a more or less summary fashion characters’ utterance(s), rather than reproducing them verbatim.

INTRADIEGETIC NARRATOR A character NARRATOR, like Enid in Ghost World when she recounts to Rebecca how she previously told Naomi her loss-of-virginity story; in other words, a character in a STORYWORLD who in turn narrates a story within the story, that is, a HYPODIEGETIC NARRATIVE.

MASTER NARRATIVES. See HEGEMONY

MEDIUM For Kress and van Leeuwen (2001), media can be viewed as means for the dissemination or production of what has been designed in a given MODE; thus media “are the material resources used in the production of semiotic products and events, including both the tools and the materials used” (2001: 22). See also MODE

METALEPSIS A confusion or entanglement of narrative levels, as when characters situated in a story within a story (or HYPODIEGETIC NARRATIVE) migrate into the DIEGESIS or main narrative level. In Flann O’Brien’s At Swim-Two-Birds, for example, the protagonist writes a novel whose characters then jump up one narrative level and attack the novelist who created them.

MIMESIS An ancient Greek word meaning “imitation.” In the study of fictional narrative, the concept of mimesis is relevant both for the analysis of character (the mimetic dimension of a character accounts for the tendency of the AUDIENCE to treat him or her as a real person) and for the analysis of speech representation (in contrast with more DIEGETIC techniques for representing characters’ utterances, such as INDIRECT DISCOURSE, more mimetic techniques, such as DIRECT DISCOURSE, background the NARRATOR’s mediating role).

MODE For Kress and van Leeuwen (2001), modes are semiotic channels (or environments) that can be viewed as a resources for the design of a representation formulated within a particular type of discourse, which is in turn embedded in a specific kind of communicative interaction. See also MEDIUM

MONOMODAL NARRATION Forms of narrative practice that exploit a single semiotic channel (e.g., print text, telephone conversations, sign language) to evoke a STORYWORLD.

MULTIMODAL NARRATION Forms of narrative practice that exploit more than one semiotic channel (e.g., words and images, or utterances and gestures) to evoke a STORYWORLD.

NARRATED MONOLOGUE Cohn’s (1978) term for the mode of thought representation that is equivalent to FREE INDIRECT DISCOURSE in the realm of speech representation.

NARRATEE The AUDIENCE of the NARRATOR, like Naomi in Ghost World when Enid tells her how she lost her virginity, or Renee’s grandmother in UFO or the Devil. Insofar as the narratee is an AUDIENCE role more or less explicitly inscribed in a narrative text, it is distinct from both the actual reader and the IMPLIED READER.

NARRATING-I In retrospective first-person or HOMODIEGETIC (or AUTO-DIEGETIC) NARRATION, the older, narrating self who tells about the situations and events experienced by the younger, experiencing-I.

NARRATION The process by which a NARRATIVE is conveyed; depending on the SEMIOTIC medium used, this process can involve complex combinations of cues in different channels (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.), yielding MULTIMODAL versus MONOMODAL NARRATION. Also, some theorists of narrative make narration the third term in a tripartite model that includes the STORY level, the DISCOURSE or text level on the basis of which the story can be reconstructed, and the narration as the communicative act that produces the discourse.

NARRATIVE Analyzing stories into four basic elements – situatedness, event sequencing, worldmaking/world disruption, and what it’s like – this book defines narrative as (i) a mode of representation that is situated in – must be interpreted in light of – a specific discourse context or occasion for telling. This mode of representation (ii) focuses on a structured time-course of particularized EVENTS. In addition, the events represented (iii) introduce some kind of disruption or dis-equilibrium into a STORYWORLD, whether that world is presented as actual or fictional, realistic or fantastic, remembered or dreamed, etc. The representation also (iv) conveys what it is like to live through this storyworld-in-ux, highlighting the pressure of events on (in other words, the qualia of) real or imagined consciousnesses undergoing the disruptive experience at issue. See also STORY

NARRATIVE DISCOURSE. See DISCOURSE

NARRATIVE SITUATIONS The Austrian narrative theorist Franz Karl Stanzel ([1979] 1984), developing a nomenclature that has been especially inuential in German-language traditions of narrative inquiry, distinguished among three main narrative situations: first-person, third-person or authorial, and figural, which combines a third-person narrative voice with a REFLECTOR figure or particularized center of consciousness.

NARRATIVITY That which makes a story a story; a property that a text or discourse will have in greater proportion the more readily it lends itself to being interpreted as a NARRATIVE, i.e., the more prototypically narrative it is. As discussed in chapters 1 and 4, however, what constitutes an expected or prototypical form of narrative practice can vary, depending on the communicative circumstances involved.

NARRATOLOGY An approach to narrative inquiry developed during the heyday of STRUCTURALISM in France. Instead of working to develop interpretations of individual narratives, narratologists focused on how to describe narrative viewed as a SEMIOTIC system – that is, as a system by virtue of which people are able to produce and understand stories.

NARRATOR The AGENT who produces a NARRATIVE. Some story analysts distinguish among AUTODIEGETIC, EXTRADIEGETIC, HETERODIEGETIC, HOMODIEGETIC, and INTRADIEGETIC narrators.

ORDER A way of describing the relation between two temporal sequences: the sequence of events that can be assumed to have unfolded in the STORYWORLD, and the unfolding of the DISCOURSE used to recount that sequence. When these two sequences are aligned, the result is chronological narration. ANACHRONY results when the sequences are dis-aligned, yielding ANALEPSES (or ashbacks), PROLEPSES (or ashforwards), and sometimes complex combinations and embeddings of the two.

ORIENTATION In the Labovian model, the term orientation refers to the part of the narrative in which storytellers provide information about the context in which the COMPLICATING ACTION occurs, including time, place, characters, etc.

PARATEXT Materials accompanying a text, such as a title, authorial attribution, date of publication, preface, epigram, afterword, etc. These materials afford resources for interpretation, allowing readers to channel and delimit their inferential activities by situating texts within generic (or TEXT-TYPE) categories, historical epochs, authors’ oeuvres, sociopolitical controversies, and so on.

PARTICIPATION FRAMEWORKS As discussed in chapter 3, in place of older, dyadic models of communication, based on the “global folk categories” of speaker and hearer, Goffman decomposes these supposedly primitive terms “into smaller, analytically coherent elements” (1981: 129) that he groups into PRODUCTION FORMATS (cf. speaker) and participation frameworks (cf. hearer). Participation frameworks encompass a range of possible participant statuses, including those of addressee, unaddressed but ratified participant (= bystander), or unaddressed and unratified participant (= eavesdropper).

PAUSE The slowest possible narrative speed; a type of DURATION in which the NARRATOR’S DISCOURSE continues to unfold, even though the action has come to a standstill.

PERSPECTIVE/POINT OF VIEW Issues of perspective and point of view are now most often treated under the heading of FOCALIZATION. Genette ([1972] 1980) drew a contrast between focalization and NARRATION to distinguish between who sees or perceives and who speaks in a narrative, respectively.

PLOT Abbott (2007) distinguishes among three senses of the term plot: a type of story (as in “marriage plot”); the combination and sequencing of EVENTS that makes a story a story and not just an assemblage of events; and a sense similar to that of DISCOURSE, by which theorists emphasize how the plot rearranges and otherwise manipulates the events of the STORY. See also EMPLOTMENT

POSITIONING In Harré and van Langenhove’s account (1999: 1–31), one can position oneself or be positioned in discourse as powerful or powerless, admirable or blameworthy, etc. In turn, a position can be specified by characterizing how a speaker’s contributions are taken as bearing on these and other “polarities of character” in the context of an overarching storyline – a narrative of self and other(s) being jointly elaborated (or disputed) by participants, via self-positioning and other-positioning speech acts.

POSTCLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY Frameworks for narrative research (e.g., COGNITIVE NARRATOLOGY, FEMINIST NARRATOLOGY, and TRANSMEDIAL NARRATOLOGY) that build on the work of classical, structuralist narratologists but supplement that earlier work with concepts and methods that were unavailable to story analysts such as Roland Barthes, Gérard Genette, A. J. Greimas, and Tzvetan Todorov during the heyday of structuralism. See chapter 2 for a fuller discussion.

PRODUCTION FORMATS As discussed in chapter 3, in place of older, dyadic models of communication, based on the “global folk categories” of speaker and hearer, Goffman decomposes these supposedly primitive terms “into smaller, analytically coherent elements” (1981: 129) that he groups into production formats (cf. speaker) and PARTICIPATION FRAMEWORKS (cf. hearer). Production formats encompass the roles of author (I design the words to be uttered), animator (I give voice to words authored by another or others), principal (I am the person for whose sake the words are uttered), and figure (I give voice to an utterance produced by me in some other context).

PROLEPSIS The equivalent of a ashforward in film. Prolepsis occurs when events that occur in the order ABC are told in the order ACB or CAB.

PROSODY In linguistics, a term used for speech characteristics such as intonation, rhythm, and the distribution and length of pauses, as well as volume, tempo, and voice quality.

PSYCHO-NARRATION Cohn’s (1978) term for the mode of thought representation that is equivalent to INDIRECT DISCOURSE in the realm of speech representation.

QUALIA Term used by philosophers of mind to refer to the sense or feeling of what it is like (Nagel 1974) for someone or something to have a given experience.

QUOTED MONOLOGUE Cohn’s (1978) term for the mode of thought representation that is equivalent to direct discourse in the realm of speech representation.

REFLECTOR A term coined by the novelist Henry James to designate the center of consciousness through whose perceptions events are filtered in a narrative using third-person or HETERODIEGETIC narration. A paradigm case would be Gregor Samsa in Franz Kafka’s Metamorphosis.

REMEDIATION The inter-adaption of sign systems, whereby an artifact or representation originally produced in one medium is transposed into another. Remediation is thus a more general process than, say, film adaptation, since it encompasses everything from plastic action figures based on television series or comic books, to video games based on movies (or vice versa), to transcriptions based on audiorecorded or videorecorded communicative interactions.

RESOLUTION In the Labovian model, the resolution of a story marks the point past which it no longer makes sense to ask “And then what happened?”

SCENE Scenic presentation is a narrative speed or mode of duration in which one can assume a direct equivalence between how long it takes for things to happen in the STORYWORLD and how long it takes the NARRATOR to recount those happenings.

SEMIOTICS The study of signs. C. S. Peirce divided signs into three main types: icon, where there is a resemblance between signifier and signified (as when big eyeglasses are placed in front of an optometrist’s office); index, where there is a causal relation between signifier and signified (as when smoke signifies fire); and symbol, where there is a conventional relation between signifier and signified (as with verbal language).

SERIAL NARRATION NARRATION across multiple episodes. Individual episodes in serial narratives can be relatively autonomous (Star Trek, Law & Order) or else thoroughly enmeshed in the larger history of a storyworld that emerges incrementally, from episode to episode (The Sopranos, Friday Night Lights).

SHOT/REVERSE SHOT A sequence of shots in a film that alternates between (a) the viewpoint assumed to correspond to a character’s angle of vision and (b) a viewpoint from which that character’s facial reactions can be seen.

STORY In informal usage, story is a synonym for NARRATIVE. In NARRATOLOGY, the “story” level of narrative (in French, histoire) corresponds to what Russian Formalist theorists called the fabula; it contrasts with the “discourse” (discours) level. In this sense, story refers to the chronological sequence of situations and events that can be reconstructed on the basis of cues provided in a narrative text.

STORYWORLD The world evoked by a NARRATIVE text or DISCOURSE; a global mental model of the situations and events being recounted. Reciprocally, narrative artifacts (texts, films, etc.) provide blueprints for the creation and modification of such mentally configured storyworlds.

STRETCH A narrative speed or mode of DURATION faster than PAUSE but slower than SCENE, in which both narration and action progress but what is told transpires more rapidly than the telling.

STRUCTURALISM An approach to literary and cultural analysis, especially prominent in the 1960s and 1970s, that used linguistics as a “pilot-science” to study diverse forms of cultural expression as rule-governed signifying practices or “languages” in their own right. NARRATOLOGY was an outgrowth of this general approach.

STYLISTICS A field of study that draws on tools from linguistics to analyze how language is used (sometimes in transgressive or defamiliarizing ways) in literary works, including narratives.

SUMMARY A narrative speed or mode of DURATION faster than SCENE but slower than ELLIPSIS; summaries are more or less compressed accounts of STORYWORLD occurrences.

TELLABILITY To be tellable, situations and EVENTS must in some way stand out against the backdrop formed by everyday expectations and norms, and thus be worth reporting.

TEXT TYPE A kind of text, such as NARRATIVE, DESCRIPTION, or EXPLANATION. As discussed in chapter 4, text types are broader in scope than literary genres (Bildungsroman, psychological novel, etc.); instead, they can be equated with the “primary speech genres” characterized by Bakhtin ([1953] 1986: 60) as relatively stable types of utterance that develop within particular spheres of language use.

TRANSMEDIAL NARRATOLOGY A strand of POSTCLASSICAL NARRATOLOGY premised on the assumption that, although storytelling practices in different media share common features insofar as they are all instances of the narrative TEXT TYPE, those practices are nonetheless inected by the constraints and affordances associated with a given medium (Herman 2004; Ryan 2004). Unlike classical NARRATOLOGY, transmedial narratology disputes the notion that the story level of a narrative remains wholly invariant across shifts of medium. However, it also assumes that stories do have “gists” that can be remediated more or less fully and recognizably – depending in part on the semiotic properties of the source and target media.

UNRELIABLE NARRATION A mode of NARRATION in which the teller of a story cannot be taken at his or her word, compelling the AUDIENCE to “read between the lines” – in other words, to scan the text for clues about how the storyworld really is, as opposed to how the NARRATOR says it is.