Chapter 10: Mesilla, New Mexico

1 José Angel Hernández, Mexican American Colonization During the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 170.

2 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 2.

3 Hernández, Mexican American Colonization During the Nineteenth Century, p. 72.

4 Quoted ibid., p. 69.

5 Ibid., p. 168.

6 Paula Rebert, La Gran Línea: Mapping the United States–Mexico Boundary, 1849–1857 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 6.

7 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 28.

8 Ibid., pp. 28–29; see also Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 127; Rebert, La Gran Línea, pp. 7–8.

9 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 24; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 11; Rebert, La Gran Línea, p. 12.

10 Allman, Finding Florida, p. 180.

11 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 40–41.

12 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, p. 304.

13 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 22, 35, 46.

14 Ibid., p. 31.

15 Mesilla was also famous for its association with the outlaw Billy the Kid, as he was tried and sentenced in the town.

16 Schama, The American Future, p. 270.

17 Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, “‘We Feel the Want of Protection’: The Politics of Law and Race in California, 1848–1878,” California History 81, no. 3/4 (2003): 99.

18 Ibid., p. 105.

19 Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 26.

20 James L. Ord to Henry Cerruti, Answers to Questions Concerning U.S. Conquest of California and Impressions of Events and People, as Surgeon with Company F, 3d U. S. Artillery, Landed, Jan. 27, 1847 at Monterey from U.S. Ship, Lexington, BANC MSS C-E 63-65, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, p. 2.

21 Ibid., p. 4.

22 Christopher David Ruiz Cameron, “One Hundred Fifty Years of Solitude: Reflections on the End of the History Academy’s Dominance on the Scholarship on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,” Bilingual Review 25, no. 1 (2000): 6.

23 “Proclamation to the People of California from Stephen W. Kearny,” March 1, 1847, Letters sent by the Governors and by the Secretary of State of California, 1847–1848, NARA, RG 94, Microfilm 94/07.

24 Richard Barnes Mason to L. W. Boggs. June 7, 1847, ibid.

25 Richard Barnes Mason to William Blackburn, June 21, 1847, ibid.

26 Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines, pp. 14–15.

27 Quoted in Tamara Venit-Shelton, “‘A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found’: Squatters’ Rights, Secession Anxiety, and the 1861 ‘Settlers’ War’ in San Jose,” Western Historical Quarterly 41, no. 4 (2010): 478.

28 Donald J. Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” Western Historical Quarterly 25, no. 3 (1994): 290.

29 Ibid., p. 277; Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 476.

30 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” pp. 282–83.

31 Ibid., p. 277.

32 Ibid., p. 288.

33 Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, p. 73.

34 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p. 287.

35 Starr, California: A History, p. 105.

36 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p.290-92.; Paul Kens, “The Frémont Case: Confirming Mexican Land Grants in California,” in Gordon Morris Bakken (ed.), Law in the Western United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), pp. 329–30.

37 Pisani, “Squatter Law in California, 1850–1858,” p. 287; Starr, California: A History, p. 104. Pisani puts the number of confirmed grants at 553, while Starr says it is 604.

38 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 479.

39 Kanellos et al., Herencia, p. 111.

40 Quoted ibid.

41 Paul Bryan Gray, A Clamor for Equality: Emergence and Exile of Californio Activist Francisco P. Ramírez (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2012), pp. 1–14.

42 Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850–1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 1.

43 Gray, A Clamor for Equality, p. 15.

44 Daniel Lynch, “Southern California Chivalry: Southerners, Californios, and the Forging of an Unlikely Alliance,” California History 91, no. 3 (2014): 60.

45 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” pp. 483–84.

46 Lynch, “Southern California Chivalry,” p. 61.

47 El Clamor Publico, October 30, 1855, no. 20, p. 2. Digitized editions of the newspaper are available at http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p15799coll70.

48 Stacey L. Smith, “Remaking Slavery in a Free State: Masters and Slaves in Gold Rush California,” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 1 (2011): 29.

49 Robert F. Heizer and Alan J. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination Under Spain, Mexico and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 124.

50 Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 109; Heizer and Almquist, The Other Californians, p. 124.

51 Gray, A Clamor for Equality, pp. xvii, 17.

52 El Clamor Publico, July 24, 1855, no. 20, p. 2.

53 El Clamor Publico, December 31, 1859, no. 20, p. 2.

54 Ruiz Cameron, “One Hundred Fifty Years of Solitude,” p. 4.

55 Quoted ibid., p. 4.

56 Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, pp. 54, 182.

57 Ibid., pp. 81–82.

58 Venit-Shelton, “A More Loyal, Union Loving People Can Nowhere Be Found,” p. 474.

59 Frank H. Taylor, “Through Texas,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, October 1879, p. 713; De León, They Called Them Greasers, p. 27.

60 Martha Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism: A Historical Account of Racial Repression in the United States,” American Ethnologist 20, no. 3 (1993): 586.

61 Heizer and Almquist, The Other Californians, p. 95; Donald E. Hargis, “Native Californians in the Constitutional Convention of 1849,” Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly 36, no. 1 (1954): 4.

62 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 123.

63 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 587; Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 109.

64 Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, p. 171.

65 John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988), p. 10.

66 Elliott West, “Reconstructing Race,” Western Historical Quarterly 34, no. 1 (2003): 10–11.

67 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 590.

68 Constitution ibid., p. 589.

69 Ibid., p. 589.

70 Statement of J. H. Watts to H. H. Bancroft, November 25, 1878, BANC MSS P-E 1-3, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 14–15.

71 Zaragosa Vargas, Crucible of Struggle: A History of Mexican-Americans from Colonial Times to the Present Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 151.

72 Case quoted in Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 53.

73 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 592–95.

74 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, pp. 43–44.

75 Moore, “We Feel the Want of Protection,” p. 115.

76 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 102.

77 William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, “The Lynching of Persons of Mexican Origin or Descent in the United States, 1848 to 1920,” Journal of Social History 37, no. 2 (2003): 414.

78 Ibid., p. 416.

79 William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence Against Mexicans in the United States, 1848–1928 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 6.

80 Albert L. Hurtado, “Sex, Gender, Culture, and a Great Event: The California Gold Rush,” Pacific Historical Review 68, no. 1 (1999): 4.

81 Ibid., p. 13.

82 Carrigan and Webb, “The Lynching of Persons of Mexican Origin or Descent in the United States, 1848 to 1920,” p. 69.

83 Jerry Thompson, Cortina: Defending the Mexican Name in Texas (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2007), pp. 13–17.

84 Ibid., pp. 17–21.

85 Ibid., p. 23.

86 Quoted ibid., p. 30.

87 Ibid., pp. 40–41.

88 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 700–11; Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 103.

89 Thompson, Cortina, pp. 228, 236, 245.

90 Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, p. 675.

91 From Shaler Papers and quoted in Lewis, The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood, pp. 36–37.

92 Quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 105; for more on this entire period, see Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002).

93 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 105.

94 Ibid.

95 Daily Crescent, May 27, 1850, III, no. 72, p. 1.

96 “The Ostend Manifesto,” October 18, 1854, online version at http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/hns/ostend/ostend.html (accessed March 20, 2016).

97 Ibid.

98 William V. Wells, Walker’s Expedition to Nicaragua (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1856), p. 24.

99 Ibid., p. 25.

100 Juan Nepomuceno Almonte to William L. Marcy, December 21, 1853, Notes from the Mexican Legation in the United States to the Department of State, 1821–1906, NARA, RG 59, M0054, loc. 1/1/5, Mexico and the United States, Roll 3.

101 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 41–42.

102 Starr, California: A History, p. 113.

103 Donald S. Frazier, Blood & Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1995), pp. 4–5; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 683; see also May, The Southern Dream of Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861.

104 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 130.

105 Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 103; for more detail, see pp. 98–105.

106 Mark J. Stegmaier, “A Law That Would Make Caligula Blush? New Mexico Territory’s Unique Slave Code, 1859–1861,” in Bruce Glasrud (ed.), African-American History in New Mexico: Portraits from Five Hundred Years (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015), pp. 47–48.

107 Ibid., p. 59.

108 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, pp. 131–32; Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, p. 128.

109 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 131.

110 Ibid., p. 134.

111 Jerry Don Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue & Gray (Austin, Tex.: Presidial Press, 1976), p. 81; Frazier, Blood & Treasure, pp. 40, 104.

112 Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue & Gray, pp. 5–6.

113 For more on this period, see Anne Eller, We Dream Together: Dominican Independence, Haiti, and the Fight for Caribbean Freedom (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016).

114 Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826, p. 327.

115 Paul Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom? The Reform Period: 1855–75,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, pp. 352–53.

116 “The Fate of Mexico,” United States Democratic Review, May 1858, pp. 340–41.

117 Karl Marx, “The Intervention in Mexico,” New York Daily Tribune, November 23, 1861; also in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marx and Engels: Collected Works, vol. 19 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2010), pp. 71–78.

118 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 358.

119 Hale, “The War with the United States and the Crisis in Mexican Thought,” p. 169; Jasper Ridley, Maximilian and Juárez (London: Constable, 1993), chapter 2.

120 Leslie Bethell, “Brazil and ‘Latin America,’” Journal of Latin American Studies 42, no. 3 (2010): 460; John Leddy Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” in Juan A. Ortega y Medina (ed.), Conciencia y autenticidad históricas: escritos en homenaje a Edmundo O’Gorman (México: UNAM, 1968), p. 279.

121 Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” pp. 279–81. For the development of the idea of “Latin America” see Michael Gobat, “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,” American Historical Review 118, no. 5 (2013): 1345-75.

122 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 358.

123 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 683.

124 M. M. Chevalier and W. Henry Hurlbut (trans.), France, Mexico, and the Confederate States (New York: C. B. Richardson, 1863), p. 6; Phelan, “Pan-Latinism, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America,” pp. 279–81.

125 Chevalier, France, Mexico, and the Confederate States, p. 7.

126 Andrew Rolle, The Lost Cause: The Confederate Exodus to Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), p. 89. See chapter 10 for more on Sterling Price.

127 Letter from Sterling Price to Col. Thomas L. Snead, November 15, 1865, Rice University, Woodson Special Collection, Americas Collection MS 518, Series III and Series IV, Box 3, Folder 3.6.

128 Rolle, The Lost Cause, pp. 95–96.

129 Vanderwood, “Betterment for Whom?” p. 362.

130 Hahn, A Nation Without Borders, p. 391.

131 The emperor’s death was depicted soon afterward in a series of paintings by the French artist Édouard Manet, https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/edouard-manet-the-execution-of-maximilian.

132 Rolle, The Lost Cause, pp. x, 187; also see Robert E. May, “The Irony of Confederate Diplomacy: Visions of Empire, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Quest for Nationhood,” Journal of Southern History 83, no. 1 (2017): 96–98.

133 Gregory P. Downs, “The Mexicanization of American Politics: The United States’ Transnational Path from Civil War to Stabilization,” American Historical Review 117, no. 2 (2012): 387.

134 Mark Wahlgren Summers, “Party Games: The Art of Stealing Elections in Late-Nineteenth-Century United States,” Journal of American History 88, no. 2 (2001): 431.

135 “What Is ‘Mexicanisation’?” Nation, December 21, 1876, p. 365.

136 Ibid.

137 Summers, “Party Games,” p. 431.

138 “What Is “Mexicanisation?” p. 366.

139 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 450.

140 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 67.

141 Willa Cather, Death Comes for the Archbishop (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927), loc. 152, Kindle.

142 For more on the “copper borderlands” and the rise of the mining industry in the Southwest, see Samuel Truett, Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006).

143 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 818.

144 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 63.

145 Ibid., pp. 91–94.

146 Ibid., p. 85.

147 Ibid., p. 77.

148 Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, pp. 80–81; Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 176.

149 David V. Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star: New Mexico’s Struggle for Statehood (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), p. 6.

150 David L. Caffey, Chasing the Santa Fe Ring: Power and Privilege in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014), pp. xiii–xv.

151 Ibid., p. 42.

152 Ibid., p. 16.

153 David L. Caffey, Frank Springer and New Mexico: From the Colfax County War to the Emergence of Modern Santa Fe (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006), pp. 25–26; John M. Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood: The Making of Spanish-American Identity in New Mexico, 1880s–1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004), p. 61; Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star, p. 78.

154 Caffey, Frank Springer and New Mexico, pp. 48–49.

155 Ibid., pp. 65–70.

156 Much of this explanation about the Maxwell grant case comes from Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood, p. 61; Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star, p. 78.

157 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 103; Anselmo Arellano, “The People’s Movement: Las Gorras Blancas,” in Erlinda Gonzales-Berry and David Maciel (eds.), The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000), pp. 59–83.

158 Arellano, “The People’s Movement,” p. 66.

159 Report to Samuel D. King, Surveyor General for California, from Leander Ransom, September 28, 1852, NARA RG 49: Records of the Bureau of Land Management, Special Act Files, 1785–1926, no. 124 (1860), United States–California Boundary, Box 27.

160 Charles F. Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers and the California Missions (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1936), p. 304.

161 Thomas G. Andrews, “Towards an Environmental History of the Book: The Nature of Hubert Howe Bancroft’s Works,” Southern California Quarterly 93, no. 1 (2001): 36.

162 Ibid., p. 39.

163 Ibid., p. 42.

164 Proceedings of the Society of California Pioneers in Reference to the Histories of Hubert Howe Bancroft (San Francisco: Sterett, February 1894).

165 María Amparo Ruiz de Burton, and Beatrice Pita and Rosaura Sánchez (eds.), The Squatter and the Don (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1997), Kindle. For more oral histories, see Rosaura Sánchez, Telling Identities: The Californio Testimonies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Marissa López, “The Political Economy of Early Chicano Historiography: The Case of Hubert H. Bancroft and Mariano G. Vallejo,” American Literary History 19, no. 4 (2007): 874–904. For more on the life of women in Mexico and early American California, see Miroslava Chávez-García, Negotiating Conquest: Gender and Power in California, 1770s to 1880s (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2004).

166 María Amparo Ruiz de Burton to Platón Vallejo, April 23, 1859, in Rosaura Sánchez and Beatrice Pita (eds.), Conflicts of Interest: The Letters of María Amparo Ruiz De Burton (Houston: Arte Público Press, 2001), pp. 157–58.

167 Ruiz de Burton, The Squatter and the Don, loc. 1114.

168 Ibid., loc. 1290.

169 Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona, Translated and with an Introduction by José Martí, in Gonzalo de Quesada (ed.), Obras completas de Martí, no. 57 (La Habana: Editorial Trópico, 1994), p. 12.

170 Ibid., p. ix.

171 James J. Rawls, “The California Mission as Symbol and Myth,” California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 347.

172 Jackson, Ramona, p. 350.

173 Ibid., p. 387.

174 Lummis, The Spanish Pioneers and the California Missions, p. 295.

175 Starr, California: A History, p. 148.

176 Barbara A. Wolanin, Constantino Brumidi: Artist of the Capitol (Washington, D.C.: Featured Senate Publications 103d Congress, 1998), p. 164.

177 Montgomery C. Meigs to Emanuel Leutze, February 8, 1857, quoted ibid., p. 149.

178 Francis V. O’Connor, “The Murals by Constantino Brumidi for the United States Capitol Rotunda, 1860–1880,” in Irma B. Jaffe (ed.), The Italian Presence in American Art, 1860–1920 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1992), pp. 87–88.

179 Special thanks to Andrés Bustamante for drawing my attention to the frieze as well as the influence of William Prescott’s work on U.S. troops during the Mexican-American War.

180 Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Holt and Company, 1920), p. 1, Kindle.

Chapter 11: Ybor City, Florida

1 Juan González, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), p. 238.

2 Luis Martínez-Fernández, “Political Change in the Spanish Caribbean During the United States Civil War and Its Aftermath, 1861–1878,” Caribbean Studies 27, no. 1/2 (1994): 56.

3 Ulysses S. Grant: Seventh Annual Message, December 7, 1875, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29516 (accessed March 21, 2016); Louis A. Pérez Jr., Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), p. 53.

4 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 54.

5 Laird W. Bergad, “Toward Puerto Rico’s Grito De Lares: Coffee, Social Stratification, and Class Conflicts, 1828–1868,” Hispanic American Historical Review 60, no. 4 (1980): 641–42.

6 Martínez-Fernández, “Political Change in the Spanish Caribbean During the United States Civil War and Its Aftermath, 1861–1878,” p. 55.

7 Ibid., p. 54.

8 Ibid.

9 Louis A. Perez, “Vagrants, Beggars, and Bandits: Social Origins of Cuban Separatism, 1878–1895,” American Historical Review 90, no. 5 (1985): 1094–98.

10 Ibid., p. 1098.

11 Louis A. Pérez Jr., “Cubans in Tampa: From Exiles to Immigrants, 1892–1901,” Florida Historical Quarterly 57, no. 2 (1978): 129.

12 Lisandro Pérez, “Cubans in the United States,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 487, no. 1 (1986): 128.

13 José Martí, Philip Foner (ed.), and Elinor Randall (trans.), Our America: Writings on Latin America and the Struggle for Cuban Independence (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977), p. 249.

14 Paul J. Dosal, Tampa in Martí/Tampa En Martí (Matanzas: Ediciones Vigía, 2010), p. 21.

15 Gerald E. Poyo, “Tampa Cigarworkers and the Struggle for Cuban Independence,” Tampa Bay History 7, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 1985): 103; Yoel Cordoví Núñez, La emigración cubana en los Estados Unidos: Estructuras directivas y corrientes de pensamiento, 1895–1898 (Santiago de Cuba: Editorial Oriente, 2012), p. 32.

16 Cordoví Núñez, La emigración cubana en los Estados Unidos, p. 44.

17 Gerald Horne, Race to Revolution: The United States and Cuba During Slavery and Jim Crow (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2014), p. 159.

18 Martí, Our America, p. 93.

19 César Jacques Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom: The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, 1989–1934 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 25–26.

20 Philip S. Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), p. 164.

21 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, pp. 56–57.

22 Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom, pp. 56–57.

23 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, pp. 57–58.

24 Ibid., p. 62.

25 Ibid., p. 71; César Brioso, Havana Hardball: Spring Training, Jackie Robinson, and the Cuban League (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2015), p. 1.

26 Louis A. Perez, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting: The Quest for Nationality in Cuba, 1868–1898,” Journal of American History 81, no. 2 (1994): 505.

27 Ibid., p. 511.

28 Ibid., p. 504.

29 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 3906.

30 George Marvin, “Puerto Rico, 1900–1903,” Puerto Rico Herald, August 1, 1903, no. 105.

31 Tom Dunkel, Color Blind: The Forgotten Team That Broke Baseball’s Color Line (New York: Grove/Atlantic, 2013), p. 53.

32 Leslie Bethell, Cuba: A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 28.

33 Horne, Race to Revolution, p. 158.

34 Colored American, August 13, 1898, quoted ibid.

35 Horne, Race to Revolution, pp. 147–48.

36 Ibid., p. 149.

37 Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom, p. 58.

38 Memorial to the Secretary of State, May 17, 1897, quoted in Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902, p. 213.

39 Henry Cabot Lodge, “Our Blundering Foreign Policy,” Forum 19 (March 1895): 17–18.

40 Piero Gleijeses, “1898: The Opposition to the Spanish-American War,” Journal of Latin American Studies 35, no. 4 (2003): 686–707.

41 Quoted ibid., p. 704. For more on Afro-Cuban participation in the independence movement, see Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).

42 Carmen Diana Deere, “Here Come the Yankees! The Rise and Decline of United States Colonies in Cuba, 1898–1930,” Hispanic American Historical Review 78, no. 4 (1998): 732.

43 Evan Thomas, The War Lovers: Roosevelt, Lodge, Hearst, and the Rush to Empire, 1898 (New York: Little, Brown, 2010), p. 200.

44 Quoted ibid., p. 204.

45 Quoted ibid., p. 209.

46 “The Maine Disaster,” New York Times, February 17, 1898, p. 1.

47 Thomas, The War Lovers, pp. 210–11.

48 “William McKinley: War Message,” Digital History, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=1373 (accessed March 22, 2016).

49 Ibid.

50 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 95.

51 “William McKinley: War Message.”

52 Stephen Kinzer, The True Flag: Theodore Roosevelt, Mark Twain, and the Birth of the American Empire (New York: Henry Holt, 2017), p. 38, Kindle.

53 Deere, “Here Come the Yankees!” p. 732; Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 96.

54 Quoted in Louis Pérez Jr., Cuba Between Empires, 1878–1902 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983), p. 95.

55 For an examination of how Cuban participation after the United States arrived was either denigrated or ignored, see chapter 4 in Louis A. Pérez, The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).

56 Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, p. 187; Pérez, The War of 1898, p. 83.

57 Quoted in Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, p. 188.

58 Quoted ibid.

59 Philip Hanna to J. B. Moore, June 21, 1898, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College, Microfilm Collection, U.S. Consuls in Puerto Rico, San Juan, reels covering 1898–99, Roll 21.

60 New York Journal, August 13, 1898.

61 Albert J. Beveridge, “March of the Flag,” September 16, 1898, Voices of Democracy: U.S. Oratory Project, http://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/beveridge-march-of-the-flag-speech-text/ (accessed January 20, 2017).

62 Ibid.

63 W. E. B. Du Bois and Nahum Dimitri Chandler (ed.), “The Present Outlook for the Dark Races of Mankind (1900),” in The Problem of the Color Line at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), p. 118.

64 For more on the anti-imperialism movement more widely in the United States in this period, see Michael Patrick Cullinane, Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 1898–1909 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

65 Thomas McCormick, “From Old Empire to New: The Changing Dynamics and Tactics of American Empire,” in Alfred McCoy and Francisco Scarano (eds.), Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), chapter 3.

66 Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine, pp. 213–14; Kinzer, The True Flag, p. 66.

67 Quoted in Kinzer, The True Flag, pp. 170–71.

68 Ibid., p. 171.

69 Quoted in Pérez, The War of 1898, p. 23.

70 Ibid., p. 33; Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, pp. 186, 277.

71 General William Ludow to the New York Chamber of Commerce, quoted in Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, p. 307.

72 Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, pp. 310–11.

73 Deere, “Here Come the Yankees!” p. 737.

74 Pérez, The War of 1898, pp. 33–34.

75 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, pp. 121–22; Pérez, Cuba Between Empires, p. 363.

76 Louis A. Perez, “Insurrection, Intervention, and the Transformation of Land Tenure Systems in Cuba, 1895–1902,” Hispanic American Historical Review 65, no. 2 (1985): 234.

77 Ibid., p. 240.

78 Ibid., p. 252.

79 Deere, “Here Come the Yankees!” p. 742.

80 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 122.

81 Philip Hanna to J. B. Moore, June 21, 1898, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College, Microfilm Collection, U.S. Consuls in Puerto Rico, San Juan, reels covering 1898–99, Roll 21.

82 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 239.

83 Sam Erman, “Meanings of Citizenship in the U.S. Empire: Puerto Rico, Isabel Gonzalez, and the Supreme Court, 1898 to 1905,” Journal of American Ethnic History 27, no. 4 (2008): 10.

84 “The New Governor,” Puerto Rico Herald, August 15, 1903, no. 107.

85 Suarez, Latino American, loc. 1155; José A. Cabranes, “Citizenship and the American Empire: Notes on the Legislative History of the United States Citizenship of Puerto Ricans,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 127, no. 2 (1978): 392.

86 Leonard Wood, William Taft, Charles H. Allen, Perfecto Lacoste, and M. E. Beale, Opportunities in the Colonies and Cuba (London: Lewis, Scribner, 1902), pp. 279, 290.

87 Ibid., pp. 316–17.

88 Ibid., p. 369.

89 Ibid., p. 280.

90 “Porto Rico Not Prospering Under United States Rule,” New York Times, October 4, 1903.

91 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 144; Vicki L. Ruiz and Virginia Sánchez Korrol, Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2006), p. 591.

92 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, pp. 243–44.

93 Erman, “Meanings of Citizenship in the U.S. Empire,” p. 6.

94 Ibid., p. 11.

95 Ibid.

96 Ibid., p. 12.

97 Ibid.

98 Ibid., p. 13.

99 Ibid., p. 15.

100 Ibid., p. 23.

101 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1259.

102 Quoted in César J. Ayala and Rafael Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History Since 1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2007), p. 57; Harry Franqui-Rivera, “National Mythologies: U.S. Citizenship for the People of Puerto Rico and Military Service,” Memorias: Revista digital de historia y arqueología desde el Caribe 10, no. 21 (2013): 8.

103 Nancy Morris, Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995), pp. 31–33.

104 Franqui-Rivera, “National Mythologies,” p. 14.

105 Ibid.

106 Ibid., p. 15.

107 Truman R. Clark, “Governor E. Mont. Reily’s Inaugural Speech,” Caribbean Studies 11, no. 4 (1972): 106–8.

108 E. Mont. Reily to Warren Harding, August 31, 1921, E. Mont. Reily Papers, 1919–23, New York Public Library MSS and Archives Division, 1919, Folders 1.1–1.4, 1919 to June 1923.

109 Juan B. Huyke to Warren Harding, September 22, 1921, ibid.

110 E. Mont. Reily to Warren Harding, March 22, 1922, and Juan B. Huyke to Warren Harding, September 22, 1921, both ibid.

111 Clark, “Governor E. Mont Reily’s Inaugural Speech,” pp. 106–8.

112 For more on the history of the Panama Canal, see Matthew Parker, Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal (London: Hutchinson, 2007).

113 Theodore Roosevelt, Fourth Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1904, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29545 (accessed March 22, 2016).

114 Ibid.

115 Ibid.

116 Linda Noel, “‘I Am an American’: Anglos, Mexicans, Nativos and the National Debate over Arizona and New Mexico Statehood,” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 3 (2011): 432–33.

117 Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star, p. 34.

118 John M. Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” in Gonzales-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 105.

119 Private note to Stephen B. Elkins, May 22, 1874, Washington, D.C., MS 0033, Box 1, Folder 2, A&M no. 53, Stephen B. Elkins Papers, Archives and Manuscripts Section, West Virginia Collection, West Virginia University Library, accessed in Archives and Special Collections Department, New Mexico State University Library, Stephen B. Elkins Papers, Rio Grande Historical Collection.

120 New Mexico: Its Resources and Advantages, Territorial Bureau of Immigration, 1881, New Mexico history collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, MSS 349, BC, Box 11, Folder 11.

121 Ibid.

122 Speech of Hon. Casimiro Barela in the [Colorado] State Senate, Upon the Joint Memorial to the President and Congress, Praying for the Admission of New Mexico into the Union, February 8, 1889, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Thomas B. Catron Papers, 1692–1934, MSS 29, BC, Series 102, Box 2, Folder 5.

123 Prince quoted in Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” pp. 117–18.

124 Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood, p. 1.

125 Miguel Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, 1897–1906 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), p. 35.

126 Ibid., p. 36.

127 Ibid., p. 50.

128 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 180.

129 Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, p. 200.

130 John Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” Arizona and the West 10, no. 4 (1968): 313; Beveridge, “March of the Flag.”

131 Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, p. 212.

132 Ibid., p. 216.

133 For more on English-language education, see Erlinda Gonzales-Berry, “Which Language Will Our Children Speak? The Spanish Language and Public Education Policy in New Mexico, 1890–1930,” in Gonzales-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 173; Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, p. 214.

134 Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 318.

135 Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” p. 122.

136 Orville Platt to Stephen Elkins, February 5, 1889, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Thomas B. Catron Papers, 1692–1934, MSS 29, BC, Series 102, Box 2, Folder 5.

137 Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 322.

138 Theodore Roosevelt, Fifth Annual Message, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29546 (accessed October 5, 2016).

139 Noel, “‘I Am an American,’” pp. 435, 450; see also Linda C. Noel, Debating American Identity: Southwestern Statehood and Mexican Immigration (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2014); Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 327; Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 181.

140 Noel, “I Am an American,” p. 434.

141 La Voz del Pueblo, February 25, 1911, quoted in Noel, “I Am an American,” p. 445.

142 For more detail on this, see Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” pp. 123–24.

143 “Taft Rebukes New Mexicans: Sharply Answers Speakers Who Utter Doubts on Statehood Promises,” New York Times, October 17, 1909.

144 For more on this marginalization, see Noel, “I Am an American,” pp. 461–65.

145 Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star, pp. 231–32.

146 Ibid., p. xiii.

Chapter 12: Del Rio, Texas

1 This photo is reproduced in Carole Nagger and Fred Ritchin (eds.), México: Through Foreign Eyes/Visto Por Ojos Extranjeros, 1850–1990 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), pp. 138–39. See also Claire F. Fox, The Fence and the River: Culture and Politics at the U.S. Mexico Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), pp. 81–85.

2 Fox, The Fence and the River, p. 81.

3 For a starting point for much more detail about the Mexican Revolution in the English-language literature, see Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, Porfirians, Liberals and Peasants, and vol. 2, Counter-Revolution and Reconstruction (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990).

4 Fox, The Fence and the River, p. 69.

5 See chapter 2 in Gilbert M. Joseph and Jürgen Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution: Social Upheaval and the Challenges of Rule Since the Late Nineteenth Century (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2013).

6 John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp. 258–67.

7 Ibid., pp. 269–70.

8 Ibid., pp. 283–84; John Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” in Leslie Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), vol. 5, p. 82.

9 Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, pp. 289, 298.

10 John Mason Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, pp. 409–10.

11 Quoted in Chasteen, Born in Blood and Fire, p. 194.

12 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 409; Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, p. 46.

13 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 35–36.

14 Ibid., pp. 34–35. See extracts in English at Document #4: “Plan de San Luis de Potosí,” Brown University Library, Center for Digital Scholarship, https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-3-mexico/primary-documents-with-accompanying-discussion-questions/document-4-plan-de-san-luis-de-potosi-francisco-madero-1910/; or in Spanish at http://www.bibliotecas.tv/zapata/1910/plan.html (accessed October 18, 2016).

15 Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, p. 181.

16 Ibid., p. 184.

17 For a detailed account of Zapata and Morelos during the revolution, see John Womack Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (London: Penguin, 1972).

18 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 42–43.

19 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 84.

20 Ibid., p. 85.

21 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 412.

22 Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 202–18.

23 Joseph and Buchenau. Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 42–43.

24 Ibid., pp. 49–51; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 413.

25 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 415.

26 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 52.

27 Ibid., p. 53.

28 Ibid., p. 56; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 419.

29 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 59.

30 Ibid., p. 60; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 132.

31 Nancy Brandt, “Pancho Villa: The Making of a Modern Legend,” Americas 21, no. 2 (1964): 155.

32 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, pp. 137–38.

33 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 122–23.

34 Ralph S. Connell to Albert B. Fall, July 29, 1913, Albert B. Fall family papers, MS 0008, New Mexico State University Library, Archives and Special Collections Department, MS 8, Box 7, Folder 15.

35 Albert Fall to Ralph S. Connell, August 16, 1913, ibid.

36 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 421.

37 Telegraph from W. H. Austin to T. B. Catron, April 23, 1914, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Thomas B. Catron Papers, 1692–1934, MSS 29, BC, Series 501, Box 6, Folder 1.

38 Letter from Thomas B. Catron to William Jennings Bryan, April 23, 1914, ibid.

39 Frank McLynn, Villa and Zapata: A Biography of the Mexican Revolution (London: Jonathan Cape, 2000), pp. 214–15; Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 99.

40 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 131; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, pp. 219–20.

41 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 422; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 220.

42 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” pp. 422–24; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 131.

43 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 60–61.

44 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 425.

45 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 106.

46 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 423; Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, pp. 296–301.

47 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 63–64; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 261.

48 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 63–65.

49 Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, pp. 303–5.

50 Ibid., p. 306.

51 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 113.

52 L. W. Mix to Frederick Simpich, January 29, 1916, NARA, RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Relating to Internal Affairs of Mexico, 1910–1920, M274, Roll 190.

53 Langston Hughes, The Big Sea (New York: Hill and Wang, 2015), pp. 39–40, Kindle.

54 McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 399.

55 Oscar J. Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution: Personal Accounts from the Border (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), p. 248.

56 Ibid., pp. 254–55.

57 Charles H. Harris III and Louis R. Sadler, The Plan De San Diego: Tejano Rebels, Mexican Intrigue (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2013), p. 1.

58 Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 85.

59 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, pp. 1-5.

60 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, p. 146.

61 Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, p. 185; Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 19.

62 David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp. 122–25.

63 Ibid., p. 119; Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 86.

64 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 27; Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, p. 117.

65 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 73; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 428.

66 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 121; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 436.

67 Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, pp. 337–39.

68 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 6.

69 James Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson’s Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered,” Journal of Latin American Studies 13, no. 2 (1981): 300.

70 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, pp. 250–53.

71 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 431.

72 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, pp. 178–79.

73 Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security,” p. 295.

74 Ibid., p. 293.

75 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, p. 182.

76 Narrative Report, 13th U.S. Cavalry, Concerning the Part the Regiment Took in the Punitive Expedition, U.S. Army, into Mexico, from March 15, 1916, to June 2, 1916, March 16, 1916, NARA, RG 395: Records of the U.S. Army Overseas Operations and Commands, 1898–1942, Box 1, NM-94, E-1201, HM 1999.

77 Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security,” p. 303.

78 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 78.

79 Zimmermann Telegram, NARA, RG 59, General Records of the Department of State, 1756–1979, available online at https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/zimmermann/#documents.

80 For more on Germany’s involvement in Mexico, see Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).

81 Quoted in Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 8–83, 92; Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 130; Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, p. 340. For a full text of the current Mexican constitution, see https://www.oas.org/juridico/mla/en/mex/en_mex-int-text-const.pdf.

82 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 434.

83 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 84–85.

84 Ibid., pp. 92–95.

85 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 143–45.

86 Monica Muñoz Martinez, “Recuperating Histories of Violence in the Americas: Vernacular History-Making on the U.S.-Mexico Border,” American Quarterly 66, no. 3 (2014): 667–69.

87 Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 64.

88 Ibid., pp. 85–86.

89 Muñoz Martinez, “Recuperating Histories of Violence in the Americas,” pp. 667–69; Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, pp. 124–25.

90 Timothy Henderson, Beyond Borders: A History of Mexican Migration to the United States (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 32–33; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 182.

91 Richard Delgado, “The Law of the Noose: A History of Latino Lynching,” Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review 44 (2009): 305.

92 Starr, California: A History, p. 169.

93 Ibid., p. 170.

94 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 181.

95 Ibid., p. 182.

96 Ibid., pp. 182–83.

97 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 216.

98 Starr, California: A History, p. 170; Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 212.

99 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 214.

100 Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986; see chapter 5.

101 This decline was later compounded by Japanese internment during the Second World War. See Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), pp. 22–23.

102 Ibid., p. 37; St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 103–4.

103 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 97.

104 Ibid., p. 99.

105 Ibid.

106 Ibid., p. 163.

107 Ibid., pp. 151–53.

108 Ibid., pp. 156–57, 160.

109 Ibid., p. 110.

110 Ibid., pp. 166, 172–73.

111 Katherine Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants: Mexicans and the Dillingham Commission of 1907–1911,” Journal of American Ethnic History 30, no. 2 (2011): 33.

112 For the full text of the legislation, see http://library.uwb.edu/static/USimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf (accessed July 15, 2016); Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants,” p. 37.

113 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 25.

114 Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants,” p. 37.

115 Ibid., p. 38.

116 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 31.

117 Ibid.

118 Karl De Laittre, “The Mexican Laborer and You,” Nation’s Business 18 (November 1930). For more on the idea of the Mexican as being a “temporary” worker, see Noel, Debating American Identity.

119 Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, pp. 181–82, 228.

120 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 186.

121 Quoted in Hernández, Migra! p. 35.

122 Ibid., pp. 53–55.

123 Ibid.

124 Julie M. Weise, “Mexican Nationalisms, Southern Racisms: Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the U.S. South, 1908–1939,” American Quarterly 60, no. 3 (2008): 749.

125 Ibid., p. 754.

126 Ibid., pp. 755, 758.

127 Ibid., p. 772.

128 WPA Tampa Office Records 1917–1943, University of South Florida Special Collections, 1929, p. 241.

129 Ibid.

130 Evelio Grillo and Kenya Dworkin y Méndez (intro.), Black Cuban, Black American: A Memoir (Houston, Tex.: Arte Público Press, 2000), loc. 192, Kindle.

131 Ibid., loc. 200.

132 Ibid., loc. 216.

133 Natalia Molina, “‘In a Race All Their Own’: The Quest to Make Mexicans Ineligible for U.S. Citizenship,” Pacific Historical Review 79, no. 2 (2010): 168, 176.

134 Ibid., pp. 178–80.

135 Jovita González Mireles and María Eugenia Cotera (ed.), Life Along the Border: A Landmark Tejana Thesis (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006), p. 6.

136 Priscilla Solis Ybarra, “Borderlands as Bioregion: Jovita González, Gloria Anzaldúa, and the Twentieth-Century Ecological Revolution in the Rio Grande Valley,” MELUS 34, no. 2 (2009): 175–89.

137 González Mireles and Cotera, Life Along the Border, p. 41.

138 Ibid.

139 Ibid., p. 113. González later married and worked as a teacher in Corpus Christi and died in 1983. She also cowrote two novels, Dew on the Thorn and Caballero: A Historical Novel, with Eve Raleigh, but the manuscripts were not discovered until her papers were donated to the library at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi in 1992. They have since been published.

140 Julián Juderías, La leyenda negra (Madrid: Editorial Swan, 1986), p. 28.

141 Ibid.

142 Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 245.

143 Michael Kammen, The Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), p. 55.

144 Flores, “Private Visions, Public Culture: The Making of the Alamo,” p. 99.

145 Ibid.

146 Ibid., p. 101.

147 Ibid., p. 103.

148 Kenneth Baxter Ragsdale, The Year America Discovered Texas: Centennial ’36 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1987), p. 1.

149 James Early, Presidio, Mission, and Pueblo: Spanish Architecture and Urbanism in the United States (Dallas, Tex.: Southern Methodist University Press, 2004), p. 210.

150 Kammen, The Mystic Chords of Memory, p. 47.

151 Carey McWilliams, and Dean Stewart and Jeannine Gendar (eds.), Fool’s Paradise: A Carey McWilliams Reader (Santa Clara, Calif.: Santa Clara University, 2001), p. 4.

152 Monroy, “The Creation and Re-Creation of Californio Society,” pp. 73–195.

153 Phoebe S. Kropp, California Vieja: Culture and Memory in a Modern American Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), p. 28.

154 Richard Amero, “The Making of the Panama-California Exposition, 1909–1915,” San Diego Historical Society Quarterly 36, no. 1 (1990).

155 Christopher Reynolds, “How San Diego’s, San Francisco’s Rival 1915 Expositions Shaped Them,” http://www.latimes.com/travel/california/la-tr-d-sd-sf-1915-panama-expos-20150104-story.html (accessed December 10, 2015).

156 Harral Ayres, “Building of Old Spanish Trail as Thrilling as the Romance of Its Padres and Conquistadores,” 1929, Briscoe Center for American History, 978 AY22B.

157 James W. Travers, From Coast to Coast Via the Old Spanish Trail (San Diego, Calif.: 1929).

158 Benny J. Andrés Jr., “La Plaza Vieja (Old Town Alburquerque): The Transformation of a Hispano Village, 1880s–1950s,” in Gonzalez-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 243.

159 Ibid., pp. 252–56.

160 Ibid., p. 240.

161 Ibid., pp. 252–56.

162 Patricia Galloway, “Commemorative History and Hernando de Soto,” in Patricia Galloway (ed.), The Hernando De Soto Expedition: History, Historiography, and “Discovery” in the Southeast, pp. 419, 421.

163 Annelise K. Madsen, “Reviving the Old and Telling Tales: 1930s Modernism and the Uses of American History,” in Judith A. Barter (ed.), America After the Fall: Painting in the 1930s (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2016), p. 93; Galloway, “Commemorative History and Hernando de Soto,” p. 422.

164 David J. Weber, “Turner, the Boltonians, and the Borderlands,” American Historical Review 91, no. 1 (1986): 69; Albert L. Hurtado, “Bolton and Turner: The Borderlands and American Exceptionalism,” Western Historical Quarterly 44, no. 1 (2013): 6.

165 John Francis Bannon, “Herbert Eugene Bolton—Western Historian,” Western Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1971): 268; Helen Delpar, Looking South: The Evolution of Latin Americanist Scholarship in the United States, 1850–1975 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2008), p. 28.

166 Hurtado, “Bolton and Turner,” pp. 9–10; Delpar, Looking South, pp. 41–42.

167 Herbert Eugene Bolton, The Spanish Borderlands: A Chronicle of Old Florida and the Southwest (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1921). Bolton’s work today—when it is discussed—comes under fire for what it does not do and who it does not include, particularly indigenous people. Despite its shortcomings, Bolton did influence and develop the idea of borderlands, Latin American, and hemispheric studies.

168 “The Epic of Greater America,” in John Francis Bannon (ed.), Bolton and the Spanish Borderlands (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), p. 302. Also on Bolton, the frontier, and borderlands, see Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron, “From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States, and the Peoples in Between in North American History,” American Historical Review 104, no. 3 (1999): 814–41.

169 Franklin D. Roosevelt, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14473 (accessed October 10, 2016).

170 Susannah Joel Glusker, Anita Brenner: A Mind of Her Own (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), pp. viii–27.

171 Ibid., p. 26.

172 Anita Brenner and George R. Leighton (photos), The Wind That Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1942 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), p. 4.

173 “Anita Brenner, Wrote on Mexico: Author and Journalist Dies—Detailed Life of Indians,” New York Times, December 3, 1974.

Chapter 13: New York

1 Mitchell Codding, “Archer Milton Huntington, Champion of Spain in the United States,” in Richard L. Kagan (ed.), Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), p. 147.

2 Mike Wallace, “Nueva York: The Back Story: New York City and the Spanish-Speaking World from Dutch Days to the Second World War,” in Edward J. Sullivan (ed.), Nueva York, 1613–1945 (New York: Scala and New-York Historical Society, 2010), pp. 59–61.

3 James D. Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” in Sullivan, Nueva York, 1613–1945, p. 220.

4 Richard L. Kagan, “Blame It on Washington Irving: New York’s Discovery of the Art and Architecture of Spain,” in Sullivan, Nueva York, 1613–1945, pp. 162–64; Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930.” See also Kagan, Spain in America.

5 “City’s Spanish Colony Lives in Its Own Little World Here,” New York Times, March 23, 1924.

6 Ibid.

7 Wallace, “Nueva York,” p. 59.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid., pp. 62–63.

10 Ana Maria Varela-Lago, “Conquerors, Immigrants, Exiles: The Spanish Diaspora in the United States (1848–1948)” (PhD diss., University of California, San Diego, 2008), pp. 65–69.

11 Federico García Lorca, Christopher Maurer (ed.), and Greg Simon and Steven F. White (trans.), Poet in New York (New York: Penguin Classics, 2002), p. 202.

12 Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” p. 225.

13 García Lorca, Poet in New York, p. 11.

14 Ibid., p. 189.

15 Ibid., p. 212; Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” pp. 226–27.

16 Gabriel Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City: Early 19th Century to the 1990s,” in Claudio Iván Remeseira (ed.), Hispanic New York: A Sourcebook (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 37.

17 Jonathan Gill, Harlem: The Four Hundred Year History from Dutch Village to Capital of Black America (New York: Grove Press, 2011), pp. 211–18.

18 Club Cubano Inter-Americano, Inc. Records, New York Public Library Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, 1945, Manuscript and Rare Books Division, Box 1, Folder 1, “Proyeto de Reglamento,” November 1945.

19 Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City,” p. 37; Wallace, “Nueva York,” p. 64; Peter Kihss, “Flow of Puerto Ricans Here Fills Jobs, Poses Problems,” New York Times, February 23, 1953; David F. García, “Contesting That Damned Mambo: Arsenio Rodríguez and the People of El Barrio and the Bronx in the 1950s,” in Miriam Jiménez Román and Juan Flores (eds.), The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2010), p. 190.

20 Exhibition: “Shaping Puerto Rican Identity: Selections from the DivEdCo Collection at Centro Library & Archives,” accessed November 2014, Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, Hunter College, City University of New York.

21 Ibid.

22 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 63.

23 Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City,” p. 37.

24 Gill, Harlem, p. 219.

25 Armando Rendon, “El Puertorriqueño: No More, No Less,” Civil Rights Digest 1, no. 3 (Fall 1968): 30.

26 Ibid.

27 Judith Ortiz Cofer, The Line of the Sun (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), pp. 171–72.

28 Rafael Angel Marín to Israel Weinstein, October 22, 1947, Oscar García Rivera Collection, Hunter Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, New York, 1947, Series IV: Subject Files, Box 2, Folder 9.

29 Jorge Duany, “Transnational Migration from the Dominican Republic: The Cultural Redefinition of Racial Identity,” Caribbean Studies 29, no. 2 (1996): 254.

30 Bernardo Vega, “Al Margen de la Lucha,” Alma Boricua (New York), October 1934, p. 8.

31 Julia Alvarez, How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents (New York: Plume, 1992), p. 139.

32 Ed Morales, The Latin Beat: Rhythms and Roots of Latin Music from Bossa Nova to Salsa and Beyond (New York: Da Capo Press, 2003), p. xviii.

33 Ruth Glasser, “From ‘Indianola’ to ‘Ño Colá’: The Strange Career of the Afro-Puerto Rican Musician,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States, p. 157.

34 Gill, Harlem, p. 324.

35 Gustavo Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2010), p. 51.

36 Ibid., pp. 55–56.

37 Morales, The Latin Beat, pp. 5–6.

38 Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, p. 60.

39 Glasser, “From ‘Indianola’ to ‘Ño Colá,’” p. 170.

40 Morales, The Latin Beat, pp. 34–35.

41 Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, pp. 103–5.

42 García, “Contesting That Damned Mambo,” p. 187.

43 For more on “latune,” see Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, pp. 53–55.

44 For more on “mamboid,” see ibid., pp. 110–11.

45 Ibid., pp. 116–17.

46 Juan Flores, “Boogaloo and Latin Soul,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader, p. 190.

47 Ed Morales, “The Story of Nuyorican Salsa,” in Remeseira, Hispanic New York, p. 367.

48 Ibid., p. 367.

49 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 105.

50 Augusto Espíritu, “American Empire, Hispanism, and the Nationalist Vision of Albizu, Recto, and Grau,” in Alyosha Goldstein (ed.), Formations of United States Colonialism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2014), pp. 158, 165, Kindle.

51 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 105.

52 Espíritu, “American Empire, Hispanism, and the Nationalist Vision of Albizu, Recto, and Grau,” p. 105.

53 Pedro Albizu Campos, “Puerto Rican Nationalism,” in Robert Santiago (ed.), Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings—An Anthology (New York: One World, 1995), pp. 28–29.

54 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 256.

55 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 85.

56 José Trías Monge, Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 96–97.

57 José Acosta Velarde to Charles West, Acting Secretary of the Interior, June 12, 1936, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.

58 James L. Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 169.

59 Blanton Winship to Harold Ickes, Secretary of the Interior, June 1, 1936, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.

60 Lorrin Thomas, Puerto Rican Citizen: History and Political Identity in Twentieth-Century New York City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), p. 119.

61 Ibid.

62 “Report on the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico,” May 22, 1937, p. 10.

63 Ibid., p. 12.

64 Ibid., pp. 17, 21.

65 Ibid., pp. 28–29.

66 Ernest Gruening, Director of the Division of Territories & Islands, to Blanton Winship, April 5, 1937, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.

67 John W. Wright, Colonel, 65th Infantry, to Ernest Gruening, Director of the Division of Territories & Islands, March 24, 1937, ibid.

68 “Report on the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico,” p. 15.

69 Ibid., p. 28.

70 Jorge Rodríguez Beruff, “From Winship to Leahy: Crisis, War, and Transition in Puerto Rico,” in McCoy and Scarano, Colonial Crucible, pp. 435–36.

71 Congressional Record 84, 1939, p. 4063. Extracts also available in Annette T. Rubinstein (ed.), “I Vote My Conscience: The Debates, Speeches, and Writings of Congressman Vito Marcantonio, May 11, 1939,” http://www.vitomarcantonio.org/chapter_9.php#76th_8 (accessed October 27, 2016).

72 Ibid.

73 Monge, Puerto Rico, p. 98.

74 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 98.

75 Ibid., p. 137.

76 Luis Muñoz Marín to Franklin D. Roosevelt, November 28, 1940, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 1, Selected Documents Concerning Puerto Rico, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.

77 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 148.

78 Ibid., p. 149. See Nelson A. Denis, War Against All Puerto Ricans: Revolution and Terror in America’s Colony (New York: Nation, 2015); see chapters 11 and 17.

79 William D. Leahy to Dr. Rupert Emerson, Director of the Divisions of Territories & Island Possessions, July 18, 1940, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.

80 Memorandum for the Secretary from the U.S. Department of the Interior, December 24, 1943, ibid.

81 Rexford Tugwell, The Stricken Land: The Story of Puerto Rico (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1947), pp. 42–43, quoted in Monge, Puerto Rico, pp. 97–98.

82 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 157.

83 Rexford Tugwell to Harold Ickes, May 28, 1943, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 2, Rexford Tugwell Papers, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.

84 J. Edgar Hoover to Harry L. Hopkins, July 17, 1943, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 3, Hopkins Papers, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.

85 J. Edgar Hoover to Harry L. Hopkins, September 15, 1943, ibid.

86 Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico, pp. 206–10.

87 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 181.

88 Ibid.; Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico, p. 238.

89 Katherine T. McCaffrey, Military Power and Popular Protest: The U. S. Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002), p. 30.

90 Ibid., p. 32.

91 Ibid., pp. 35–36.

92 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 159.

93 Ibid., p. 158

94 Ibid., p. 160.

95 Ibid., p. 164.

96 Monge, Puerto Rico, p. 114.

97 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 165.

98 Pedro A. Malavet, America’s Colony: The Political and Cultural Conflict Between the United States and Puerto Rico (New York: New York University Press, 2004), p. 92.

99 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 165.

100 Malavet, America’s Colony, p. 92.

101 Arthur Krock, “In the Nation: The Tragedy in Pennsylvania Avenue,” New York Times, November 2, 1950.

102 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 167.

103 Ibid., p. 168.

104 Ibid.

105 Clayton Knowles, “Five Congressmen Shot in House by 3 Puerto Rican Nationalists: Bullets Spray from Gallery,” New York Times, March 2, 1954.

106 Ibid.

107 Irene Vilar, The Ladies’ Gallery: A Memoir of Family Secrets (New York: Vintage, 1998), p. 99.

108 Ibid., p. 88.

109 Ibid., p. 72.

110 Ibid., p. 117.

111 Ibid., p. 96.

112 For more detail on Albizu, the nationalist struggle, and the United States’ operation against it, as well as Albizu Campos’s imprisonment, see Denis, War Against All Puerto Ricans.

113 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 277.

114 Hunter S. Thompson, The Rum Diary: The Long Lost Novel (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015), pp. 42–43, Kindle.

115 Frederick E. Kidder to Alan Cranston, January 22, 1979, U.S. Senator for California, NARA, RG 204, Office of the Pardon Attorney, Entry #P3: Security-Classified Pardon Case Files: 1951–1991, Container #3.

116 Department of Justice Press Release, September 6, 1979, ibid.

117 Kenneth H. Neagle, Warden of Alderson Federal Correctional Institution, to Norman A. Carlson, Director, Bureau of Prisons, September 10, 1979, ibid.

118 Tony Schwartz, “2 Freed Puerto Rican Nationalists Say They Can’t Rule Out Violence,” New York Times, September 12, 1979.

119 Joseph Egelhof, “2 Puerto Ricans Tell of U.S. Offer to Deal,” Chicago Tribune, September 12, 1979, p. 16.

120 Wayne King, “4 Nationalists Are Welcomed as Heroes in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, September 13, 1979.

121 Ed Pilkington, “‘I’m No Threat’—Will Obama Pardon One of the World’s Longest-Serving Political Prisoners?” Guardian, October 16, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/16/obama-pardon-mandela-puerto-rico-oscar-lopez-rivera- (accessed March 28, 2018).

122 “Filiberto Ojeda Ríos,” Economist, September 29, 2005. https://www.economist.com/node/4455267 (accessed April 3, 2018); Abby Goodnough, “Killing of Militant Raises Ire in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, September 28, 2005. https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/28/us/killing-of-militant-raises-ire-in-puerto-rico.html (accessed April 3, 2018).

Chapter 14: Los Angeles, California

1 Kropp, California Vieja, p. 211.

2 William D. Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” Western Folklore 58, no. 2 (1999): 110.

3 Ibid., pp. 110–13.

4 Quoted in Jean Bruce Poole and Tevvy Ball, El Pueblo: The Historic Heart of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute and J. Paul Getty Museum, 2002), p. 43.

5 Quoted ibid., p. 48.

6 Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 116.

7 Quoted ibid., p. 117.

8 Kropp, California Vieja, pp. 228–29.

9 Quoted in Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 115.

10 Quoted in Poole and Ball, El Pueblo, pp. 50–51.

11 Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1924, quoted in Gustavo Arellano, Taco USA: How Mexican Food Conquered America (New York: Scribner, 2012), pp. 54–56.

12 Quoted in Poole and Ball, El Pueblo, p. 75.

13 Quoted ibid., p. 77.

14 Quoted in Sarah Schrank, Art and the City: Civic Imagination and Cultural Authority in Los Angeles (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), p. 49.

15 Leslie Rainer, “The Conservation of América Tropical: Historical Context and Project Overview,” presented at The Siqueiros Legacy: Challenges of Conserving the Artist’s Monumental Murals, Getty Center, Los Angeles. October 16, 2012, http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/historical_context.pdf (accessed April 2, 2018.)

16 Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 116.

17 Helen Delpar, The Enormous Vogue of Things Mexican: Cultural Relations Between the United States and Mexico, 1920–1935 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992), p. 55.

18 Ibid., p. 55; James Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico (Singapore: Fundación Televisa/Aperture, 2010), p. 18.

19 Johnston McCulley, The Mark of Zorro: The Curse of Capistran (2009), p. 9, Kindle.

20 Ibid., p. 3.

21 Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico, p. 17.

22 Ibid., pp. 37, 69.

23 Ibid., pp. 42–43.

24 Moreno Figueroa and Tanaka, “Comics, Dolls and the Disavowal of Racism,” pp. 187–90. Contributing significantly to the mestizaje movement was an influential essay, La raza cosmica, by José Vasconcelos in 1925. He went on to be Mexico’s education minister and also promoted the development of public murals. His legacy and that of his idea of Mexicans as a blended “cosmic race” have come under scrutiny in more recent years and been criticized for their inherent racism, for example the exclusion of indigenous people, among others.

25 Katherine Ware, “Photographs of Mexico 1940,” in Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico, pp. 267–68.

26 Lawrence Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897–1931 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980), pp. 91–94.

27 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 51.

28 Starr, California: A History, p. 204.

29 Ibid., p. 205.

30 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 54.

31 Ibid., p. 56.

32 Zaragosa Vargas, “Tejana Radical: Emma Tenayuca and the San Antonio Labor Movement During the Great Depression,” Pacific Historical Review 66, no. 4 (1997): 556.

33 Alan Knight, “Mexico, c. 1930–46,” in Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 7, pp. 3–5.

34 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 124.

35 Knight, “Mexico, c. 1930–46,” pp. 19–20.

36 Ibid., pp. 43–48; Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 132–33.

37 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 189.

38 Starr, California: A History, p. 179; Kropp, California Vieja, p. 231.

39 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 45; Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), p. 59.

40 Balderrama and Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal, p. 55.

41 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 163; Carlos K. Blanton, “George I. Sánchez, Ideology, and Whiteness in the Making of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, 1930–1960,” Journal of Southern History 72, no. 3 (2006): 569–604; Balderrama and Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal, p. 195.

42 F. Castillo Nájera to Cordell Hull, September 26, 1940 NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4 to 811.4016/449, Box 3804, Folder 1: 811.40/7-811.4016/299, File 811.4016/272.

43 Culbert L. Olson to Sumner Welles, April 11, 1941, ibid.

44 Geraldo L. Cadava, Standing on Common Ground: The Making of a Sunbelt Borderland (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), p. 21, Kindle.

45 Ibid., p. 23.

46 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1679.

47 Richard Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited: Mexican and Latin American Perspectives,” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 16, no. 2 (2000): 367.

48 Mauricio Mazón, The Zoot Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), p. 20.

49 Luis Alvarez, The Power of Zoot: Youth Culture and Resistance During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), p. 2.

50 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1664.

51 Starr, California: A History, pp. 230–34.

52 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 370; Mazón, The Zoot Suit Riots, p. 2.

53 Quoted in Alvarez, The Power of Zoot, p. 155.

54 Henry S. Waterman to Secretary of State, June 11, 1943, NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4016/450 to 811.4016/637, Box 3805, File 811.4016/560.

55 Ibid.

56 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 369.

57 Quoted ibid., p. 386.

58 El Nacional (Mexico City), June 17, 1943, in NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4016/450 to 811.4016/637, Box 3805, File 811.4016/568.

59 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 379.

60 Ibid., pp. 369, 382.

61 McWilliams, Stewart, and Gendar, Fool’s Paradise, p. 206.

62 Carlos Kevin Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice: Mexican Americans, the Saunders-Leonard Report, and the Politics of Immigration, 1951–1952,” Western Historical Quarterly 40, no. 3 (2009): 300.

63 Steven H. Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White’: Mexican Americans’ Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits,” Law and History Review 21, no. 1 (2003): 154.

64 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 157.

65 Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice,” p. 300.

66 Neil Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 97.

67 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1522.

68 Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, p. 97.

69 Ibid.

70 Ibid., p. 100.

71 Ibid., pp. 101–2.

72 Ibid., p. 117.

73 Thomas H. Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García: Twentieth Century Mexican-American Leader,” in Donald Willett and Stephen J. Curley (eds.), Invisible Texans: Women and Minorities in Texas History (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2005), p. 207.

74 See, for instance, Steve Rosales, “Fighting the Peace at Home: Mexican American Veterans and the 1944 GI Bill of Rights,” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 4 (2011): 597–627.

75 Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García,” p. 208.

76 Ibid., pp. 208–9.

77 Molina, “‘In a Race All Their Own,’” p. 192.

78 Ibid., pp. 199–200.

79 Roberto R. Treviño, “Facing Jim Crow: Catholic Sisters and the ‘Mexican Problem’ in Texas,” Western Historical Quarterly 34, no. 2 (2003): 141.

80 Alonso Perales, “Lista que contiene los nombres de las poblaciones en Texas en donde se les ha negado servicio a los mexicanos,” University of Houston, Special Collections, Alonso S. Perales Papers, Box 8, Folder 5. 1944. Also available at http://digital.lib.uh.edu/collection/perales/item/65.

81 William P. Blocker to Cordell Hull, February 27, 1940, “Transmitting Results of a Confidential Survey of the Problem of Racial Discrimination Against Mexican and Latin American Citizens in Texas and New Mexico,” NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4 to 811.4016/449, Box 3804, Folder 3: 811-4106/337-360.

82 Ibid.

83 Ibid.

84 For more detail, see Thomas A. Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History 92, no. 4 (2006): 1212; Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, p. 79.

85 Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, pp. 83–84.

86 Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights,” pp. 1220–30.

87 Rosie Escobar to Hector García, October 29, 1951, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector Garcia Collection, Box 215, Folder 10.

88 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 163.

89 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1657.

90 Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 78–79.

91 Ibid., pp. 62–63.

92 Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice,” p. 299.

93 Ibid., p. 303.

94 Lyndon B. Johnson to Hector García, October 13, 1949, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 223, Folder 5.

95 What Price Wetbacks? 1953, Arizona State University, Hayden Library, Department of Archives and Special Collections, Chicano Research Collection CHI NM-37, p. 1.

96 Ibid., p. 5.

97 Michelle Hall Kells, Héctor P. García: Everyday Rhetoric and Mexican American Civil Rights (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006), p. 132.

98 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 58; Albert M. Camarillo, “Mexico,” in Mary C. Waters, Reed Ueda, and Helen B. Marrow (eds.), The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration Since 1965 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 508–9.

99 Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 72, 85.

100 Ibid., pp. 74–76.

101 Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 258; Elizabeth Hull, Without Justice for All: The Constitutional Rights of Aliens (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), p. 24.

102 Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 261.

103 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 102; Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 261.

104 Don Parson, Making a Better World: Public Housing, the Red Scare, and the Direction of Modern Los Angeles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), p. 164; Ronald López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles: The Battle for Chavez Ravine,” Latino Studies 7, no. 4 (2009): 459.

105 Ibid.

106 Parson, Making a Better World, p. 165.

107 Ibid., p. 167.

108 López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles,” p. 460.

109 Quoted ibid., p. 467.

110 Parson, Making a Better World, pp. 164–71.

111 Ibid., p. 172

112 Ibid., p. 173.

113 Ibid., p. 174; López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles,” p. 457.

114 Parson, Making a Better World, p. 174.

115 Ibid., p. 177.

116 Nick Wilson, Voices from the Pastime: Oral Histories of Surviving Major Leaguers, Negro Leaguers, Cuban Leaguers, and Writers, 1920–1934 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000), p. 138.

117 Ibid., pp. 141–42.

118 Brioso, Havana Hardball, p. 70.

119 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, pp. 138–39.

120 Ibid., p. 141.

121 Adrian Burgos Jr., “An Uneven Playing Field: Afro-Latinos in Major League Baseball,” in Jiménez and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States, p. 129.

122 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, p. 139.

123 Brioso, Havana Hardball, p. 82.

124 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, p. 140.

125 Ibid., p. 141.

126 Burgos, “An Uneven Playing Field,” pp. 131–32.

127 Ibid., pp. 133–34.

128 Mark Armour and Daniel R. Levitt, “Baseball Demographics, 1947–2012,” Society for American Baseball Research, http://sabr.org/bioproj/topic/baseball-demographics-1947-2012 (accessed May 27, 2015).

129 Robert B. Fairbanks, “The Failure of Urban Renewal in the Southwest: From City Needs to Individual Rights,” Western Historical Quarterly 37, no. 3 (2006): 303.

130 Ibid., pp. 305–6.

131 Ibid., p. 406.

132 Robert B. Fairbanks, “Public Housing for the City as a Whole: The Texas Experience, 1934–1955,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 103, no. 4 (2000): 429.

133 Ibid., p. 409.

134 Ibid., p. 423.

135 Fairbanks, “The Failure of Urban Renewal in the Southwest,” p. 312. On these sorts of later schemes, see, for instance, Lydia Otero, La Calle: Spatial Conflicts and Urban Renewal in a Southwest City (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010), regarding the case of Tucson.

136 James W. Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2005), p. 4.

137 Ibid., pp. 75–76.

138 Declarations of Restrictions: Homeowners Estates, Phoenix, AZ, 1950, Chicano Research Collection, Hayden Library, Arizona State University, ME CHI LC-3.

139 Cadava, Standing on Common Ground, p. 13.

140 Ibid., p. 82.

141 David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), p. 2.

142 Michael E. Martin, Residential Segregation Patterns of Latinos in the United States, 1990–2000: Testing the Ethnic Enclave and Inequality Theories (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 8, 42–43.

143 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 598.

144 David Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican: Segregated Schools and Social Scientists in Southern California, 1913–1946,” Southern California Quarterly 94, no. 1 (2012): 127.

145 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 597–98.

146 Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican,” p. 96.

147 George I. Sánchez, Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), pp. 17, 32.

148 Ibid., pp. 13–14.

149 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 155; Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 598; Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican,” p. 107.

150 San Miguel Guadalupe, “The Struggle Against Separate and Unequal Schools: Middle Class Mexican Americans and the Desegregation Campaign in Texas, 1929–1957,” History of Education Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1983): 344.

151 “Before ‘Brown v. Board,’ Mendez Fought California’s Segregated Schools,” http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2014/05/16/312555636/before-brown-v-board-mendez-fought-californias-segregated-schools (accessed January 18, 2015).

152 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 598–99.

153 Gary Orfield, Erica Frankenberg, Jongyeon Ee, and John Kuscera, Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat and an Uncertain Future, Civil Rights Project UCLA. May 15, 2014, https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/brown-at-60-great-progress-a-long-retreat-and-an-uncertain-future/Brown-at-60-051814.pdf (accessed April 3, 2018).

154 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 148.

155 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 296.

156 Gill, Harlem, pp. 353–54.

157 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” pp. 181–82.

158 Ibid., p. 183.

159 “School Desegregation in Corpus Christi, Texas,” May 1977, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 30, Folder 10.

160 Draft of the Texas Advisory Committee’s Proposed Publication, October 22, 1976, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 9, Folder 16.

161 González, Harvest of Empire, pp. 170–71.

162 Ibid., p. 171.

163 Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García,” p. 210.

164 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 174.

165 Raymond Telles to Hector García, April 2, 1966, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 195, Folder 48.

166 Miriam Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez: A Biography (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), p. 13.

167 Ibid., p. 15.

168 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 206.

169 Quoted in Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez, p. 2.

170 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 203.

171 Ibid.

172 David R. Mariel and Juan José Peña, “La Reconquista: The Chicano Movement in New Mexico,” in Gonzales-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 270.

173 Andrés Bustamante, “American Aztlán: Cultural Memory After the Mexican-American War,” presentation given at Legacies of Conquest conference, April 11, 2017, http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/events/26941.

174 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 203.

175 Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, p. 185.

176 Lorena Oropeza and Dionne Espinoza (eds.), Enriqueta Vasquez and the Chicano Movement: Writings from el Grito del Norte (Houston: Arte Publico, 2006), pp. 86–87.

177 Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood, p. x.

178 Ibid., p. xi.

179 Ibid.

180 Joseph A. Rodríguez, “Becoming Latinos: Mexican Americans, Chicanos, and the Spanish Myth in the Urban Southwest,” Western Historical Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1998): 166–67.

181 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 212.

182 Mariel and Peña, “La Reconquista,” p. 280.

183 Ibid., p. 283.

184 Quoted in Robert Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” Chicano-Latino Law Review 16, no. 141 (Winter 1995): 148.

185 FBI Memorandum, June 16, 1964, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Reies López Tijerina Papers, 1954–2003, MSS 654 BC, Box 2.

186 Alianza pamphlet, n.d., MSS 628 BC, Oversized drawer C9, Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libros Collection, 1963–1997, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico.

187 Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” pp. 144–45; Lorena Oropeza, “Becoming Indo-Hispano: Reies López Tijerina and the New Mexican Land Grant Movement,” in Goldstein, Formations of United States Colonialism, p. 184.

188 Oropeza, “Becoming Indo-Hispano,” p. 185.

189 Ibid., p. 193.

190 Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” p. 150.

191 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 4.

192 Pablo Guzmán, “Before People Called Me a Spic, They Called Me a Nigger,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, Afro-Latin@ Reader, pp. 235–36.

193 Robert M. Utley, Changing Courses: The International Boundary, United States and Mexico, 1848–1963 (Tucson, Ariz.: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, 1996), p. 100.

194 Ibid., p. 101.

195 Ibid., p. 109.

Chapter 15: Miami, Florida

1 Louis Pérez Jr., “Between Encounter and Experience: Florida in the Cuban Imagination,” Florida Historical Quarterly 82, no. 2 (2003): 178.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid.

5 Ibid., p. 179.

6 Ibid., p. 186.

7 Ibid., pp. 179–80.

8 Ibid., pp. 179–80, 189; Pérez, “Cubans in the United States,” p. 128.

9 C. N. Rose, “Tourism and the Hispanicization of Race in Jim Crow Miami, 1945–1965,” Journal of Social History 45, no. 3 (2011): 736.

10 Ibid.

11 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 245.

12 “Impide el departamento de estado la salida de los Cubanos de su territorio,” Noticias de Hoy, February 1, 1961, p. 1.

13 “Llegan a nuestra patria repatriados cubanos perseguidos en los Estados Unidos,” Noticias de Hoy, March 15, 1961, p. 11.

14 Jack Kofoed, “Miami Already Has Too Many Refugees,” Miami Herald, October 5, 1965.

15 Ibid.

16 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 254.

17 María de los Angeles Torres, In the Land of Mirrors: Cuban Exile Politics in the United States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), pp. 85, 100–101.

18 Brendan I. Koerner, The Skies Belong to Us: Love and Terror in the Golden Age of Hijacking (New York: Crown, 2013), p. 35.

19 Ibid., p. 37.

20 Ibid., p. 50.

21 Ibid., p. 45.

22 Ibid., p. 48.

23 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 255.

24 Ibid.

25 María Cristina García, “Central American Migration and the Shaping of Refugee Policy,” in Dirk Hoerder and Nora Faires (eds.), Migrants and Migration in Modern North America: Cross-Border Lives, Labor Markets, and Politics (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011), p. 354.

26 David M. Reimers, Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People (New York: New York University Press, 2005). See chapter 5 on Central and South America.

27 García, “Central American Migration and the Shaping of Refugee Policy,” p. 356.

28 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 156–57, 172–75.

29 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 99.

30 “Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States,” Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2016/04/19/statistical-portrait-of-hispanics-in-the-united-states-key-charts/ (accessed November 6, 2016); “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2010, Office of Immigration Statistics, Department of Homeland Security,” February 2011, https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2010.pdf (accessed August 29, 2017).

31 Starr, California: A History, p. 312.

32 Ibid.

33 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 269.

34 Joan Didion, Miami (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), p. 65.

35 Milton Weiss, “Letter to the Editor: Pre-Cuban Miami Was a Good Place to Live,” Miami Herald, October 15, 1990.

36 Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera, p. 75.

37 Starr, California: A History, p. 315.

38 Hector Tobar, “Tucson School Board Lifts Ban on Latino Studies Books,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/oct/25/entertainment/la-et-jc-tucson-school-board-latino-studies-books-20131025 (accessed January 19, 2015).

39 James C. McKinley, “Texas Conservatives Win Curriculum Change,” New York Times, March 12, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html?_r=0 (accessed March 31, 2016); Gail Collins, “How Texas Inflicts Bad Textbooks on Us,” New York Review of Books, June 21, 2012.

40 Cindy Casares, “A Textbook on Mexican Americans That Gets Their History Wrong? Oh, Texas,” Guardian, May 31, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/31/texas-textbook-mexican-american-heritage-public-schools-us-history?CMP=share_btn_fb (accessed November 7, 2016).

41 U.S. Census 2000: Chapter 8: Language, p. 124, report available at https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/censusatlas/pdf/8_Language.pdf (accessed November 6, 2016).

42 Ibid., p. 125.

43 María de Los Angeles, “¿Qué Pasa, U.S.A.? Gets a Modern Update for the Miami Stage,” Miami New Times, December 18, 2017, http://www.miaminewtimes.com/arts/que-pasa-usa-at-arsht-center-may-17-to-may-19-9903994 (accessed January 20, 2018).

44 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 3408–31.

45 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 391.

46 Ibid.

47 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 2.

48 “Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790–2010,” United States Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/MREAD_1790_2010.html (accessed March 28, 2016).

49 Ibid.

50 Grace Flores-Hughes, A Tale of Survival: Memoir of an Hispanic Woman (Bloomington, Ind.: Author House, 2011), pp. xviii, 222.

51 Ibid., p. 226.

52 Ibid., p. 227.

53 Ibid.

54 “Special Report: America’s Hispanics: From Minor to Major: A Suitable Box to Tick,” Economist, March 14, 2015, p. 6.

55 “Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790–2010”; Painter, The History of White People, loc. 6351–65.

56 Laura E. Gómez, “The Birth of the ‘Hispanic’ Generation: Attitudes of Mexican-American Political Elites Toward the Hispanic Label,” Latin American Perspectives 19, no. 4 (1992): 46; Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 150.

57 “‘Mexican,’ ‘Hispanic,’ ‘Latin American’ Top List of Race Write-Ins on the 2010 Census, Pew Research Center,” http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/04/mexican-hispanic-and-latin-american-top-list-of-race-write-ins-on-the-2010-census/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

58 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 167. See the 2010 census form at https://www.census.gov/schools/pdf/2010form_info.pdf (accessed November 18, 2016).

59 Alex Wagner, “The Americans Our Government Won’t Count,” New York Times, April 1, 2018, Opinion, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/30/opinion/sunday/united-states-census.html (accessed April 2, 2018).

60 Mora, Making Hispanics, pp. 4–5.

61 “Special Report: America’s Hispanics,” p. 4.

62 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 153.

63 Marilyn Halter, Shopping for Identity: The Marketing of Ethnicity (New York: Schocken Books, 2000), p. 51.

64 Arellano, Taco USA, p. 90.

65 Ibid., p. 93.

66 David E. Hayes-Bautista, Cinco de Mayo: An American Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), chapters 3 and 6.

67 Frances Negrón-Muntaner, Chelsea Abbas, Luis Figueroa, and Samuel Robson, The Latino Media Gap: A Report on the State of Latinos in U.S. Media, Columbia University, 2014, p. 1.

68 “Hollywood Fails to Represent U.S. Ethnic Diversity, Says Study,” theguardian.com, August 5, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/05/hollywood-fails-to-represent-ethnic-diversity-study-usc (accessed January 20, 2015).

Chapter 16: Tucson, Arizona

1 See the full text, for instance, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-a-presidential-bid/ (accessed January 21, 2018).

2 Ioan Grillo, “Why Did Peña Nieto Invite Trump to Mexico?” New York Times, September 1, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/02/opinion/why-did-pena-nieto-invite-trump-to-mexico.html (accessed November 11, 2016).

3 Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, “Latino Voters in the 2012 Election,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/11/07/latino-voters-in-the-2012-election/ (accessed January 19, 2015).

4 About SVREP, http://svrep.org/about_svrep.php (accessed September 1, 2017).

5 Jeremy Schwartz and Dan Hill, “Silent Majority: Texas’ Booming Hispanic Population Deeply Underrepresented in Local Politics,” Austin American-Statesman, October 21, 2016, http://projects.statesman.com/news/latino-representation/index.html (accessed November 7, 2016); Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends: “Latinos in the 2016 Election: Texas,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/fact-sheet/latinos-in-the-2016-election-texas/ (accessed August 29, 2017).

6 “The Status of Latinos in California: An Analysis of the Growing Latino Population, Voting Trends and Elected Representation, 2015,” http://leadershipcaliforniainstitute.org/sites/all/files/Status%20of%20Latinos%20Report%20Preview.pdf. Also http://latinocaucus.legislature.ca.gov/news/2015-07-09-report-despite-recent-gains-california-latinos-continue-be-underrepresented-every-le (accessed January 21, 2018).

7 Adam Nagourney and Jennifer Medina, “This City Is 78% Latino, and the Face of a New California,” New York Times, October 11, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/12/us/california-latino-voters.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-colum&_r=0 (accessed November 7, 2016).

8 Rafael Bernal, “Latino Representation in Congress Record High, but Far from Parity,” Hill, September 14, 2017, http://thehill.com/latino/350673-latino-representation-in-congress-at-record-high-but-far-from-parity (accessed January 21, 2018).

9 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 256; Josefina Zoraida Vázquez and Lorenzo Meyer, México frente a Estados Unidos: un ensayo histórico, 1776–2000 (Mexico, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2013), p. 215.

10 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 257.

11 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 181.

12 Zoraida Vázquez and Meyer, México frente a Estados Unidos, p. 234.

13 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 123.

14 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 266.

15 Ibid., p. 269.

16 Ibid., p. 258; Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 93–94.

17 Mark Weisbrot, Stephan Lefebvre, and Joseph Sammut, “Did NAFTA Help Mexico? An Assessment After 20 Years,” Center for Economic and Policy Research (2014), p. 1.

18 Azam Ahmed and Elisabeth Malkin, “Mexicans Are the Nafta Winners? It’s News to Them,” New York Times, January 4, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/world/americas/mexico-donald-trump-nafta.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&mod&_r=0 (accessed September 1, 2017).

19 Weisbrot et al., “Did NAFTA Help Mexico?” p. 1.

20 “NAFTA 20 Years Later: PIIE Briefing No 14-3,” Peterson Institute for International Economics (2014), p. 4.

21 Shawn Donnan, “Renegotiating Nafta: 5 Points to Keep in Mind,” Financial Times, January 1, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/4c1594c6-e18d-11e6-8405-9e5580d6e5fb (accessed September 1, 2017).

22 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 200.

23 Ibid., p. 201.

24 Ibid., p. 203.

25 Nora Caplan-Bricker, “Who’s the Real Deporter-in-Chief: Bush or Obama?” New Republic, April 18, 2014, https://newrepublic.com/article/117412/deportations-under-obama-vs-bush-who-deported-more-immigrants (accessed March 29, 2016); Brian Bennett, “High Deportation Figures Are Misleading.” LA Times, April 1, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-obama-deportations-20140402-story.html (accessed March 27, 2018).

26 Julia Preston and Randal C. Archibold, “U.S. Moves to Stop Surge in Illegal Immigration,” New York Times, June 21, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/21/us/us-plans-to-step-up-detention-and-deportation-of-migrants.html?_r=1&asset-Type=nyt_now (accessed January 19, 2015).

27 Richard Fausset and Ken Belson, “Faces of an Immigration System Overwhelmed by Women and Children,” New York Times, June 6, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/06/us/faces-of-an-immigration-system-overwhelmed-by-women-and-children.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

28 “Southwest Border Unaccompanied Alien Children,” United States Customs and Border Protection, http://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children/fy-2015 (accessed January 19, 2015).

29 Preston and Archibold, “U.S. Moves to Stop Surge in Illegal Immigration.”

30 “Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean,” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012, https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Studies/TOC_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean_english.pdf (accessed January 20, 2015).

31 Editorial, “America’s Test at the Border,” New York Times, July 21, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/21/opinion/Americas-Test-Children-at-the-Border.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

32 Editorial, “A Tale of Two Migration Flows,” New York Times, August 1, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/01/opinion/a-tale-of-two-migration-flows.html; U.S. Customs and Border Protection, https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children/fy-2016 (accessed November 12, 2016).

33 “A Tale of Two Migration Flows”; Kirk Semple, “Fleeing Gangs, Central American Families Surge Toward U.S.” New York Times, November 12, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/13/world/americas/fleeing-gangs-central-american-families-surge-toward-us.html?_r=0 (accessed November 13, 2016). For FY 2017 U.S. Border Patrol figures, see https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2017-Dec/USBP%20Stats%20FY2017%20sector%20profile.pdf (accessed April 4, 2018).

34 Patrick J. McDonnell, “Mexico Rejects U.S. Plan to Deport Central Americans to Mexico,” Los Angeles Times, February 24, 2017, http://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-essential-washington-updates-mexico-rejects-u-s-plan-to-deport-1487988401-htmlstory.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

35 Colleen Shalby, “Parents Ask: What Happens to My Child If I’m Deported?” Los Angeles Times, March 22, 2017, http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-questions-trump-immigration-20170322-htmlstory.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

36 Sabrina Siddiqui and Oliver Laughland, “Trump Plans to Greatly Expand Number of Immigrants Targeted for Deportation,” Guardian, February 21, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/feb/21/donald-trump-immigration-deportation-guidelines-homeland-security (accessed September 1, 2017).

37 Elliot Spagat, “Immigration Judges to Be Sent to Border Detention Centers,” Associated Press, March 18, 2017, https://apnews.com/5b824828b2d647e589c004afd43ec858/immigration-judges-be-sent-border-detention-centers (accessed September 1, 2017).

38 Miriam Jordan, “Trump Administration Says That Nearly 200,000 Salvadorans Must Leave,” New York Times, January 8, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/08/us/salvadorans-tps-end.html (accessed March 27, 2018.Miriam Jordan and Manny Fernandez. “Judge Rejects Long Detentions of Migrant Families, Dealing Trump Another Setback.” New York Times, July 9, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/09/us/migrants-family-separation-reunification.html (accessed July 20, 2018).

39 María DeGuzmán, Spain’s Long Shadow: The Black Legend, Off-Whiteness, and Anglo-American Empire (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2005), p. xxvii.

40 Pew Research Center, “5 Facts About Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” April 27, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/27/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

41 Janet Adamy and Paul Overberg, “Immigration Source Shifts to Asia from Mexico,” Wall Street Journal, September 7, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/immigration-source-shifts-to-asia-from-mexico-1473205576 (accessed November 12, 2016).

42 Ibid.

43 Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “More Mexicans Leaving Than Coming to the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, November 19, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/11/19/more-mexicans-leaving-than-coming-to-the-u-s/ (accessed March 29, 2016).

44 Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Key Facts About How the U.S. Hispanic Population Is Changing,” Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/08/key-facts-about-how-the-u-s-hispanic-population-is-changing/(accessed September 1, 2017).

45 Ibid.

46 See, for instance, Michael Deibert, In the Shadow of Saint Death: The Gulf Cartel and the Price of America’s Drug War in Mexico (Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press, 2014), p. 233.

47 Christopher Ingraham, “Legal Marijuana Is Finally Doing What the Drug War Couldn’t,” Washington Post, March 3, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/03/03/legal-marijuana-is-finally-doing-what-the-drug-war-couldnt/ (accessed November 12, 2016). FY 2016 figures at https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2017-Jan/USBP%20Stats%20FY2016%20sector%20profile.pdf.

48 Ibid.

49 See Department of State: Merida Initiative, https://www.state.gov/j/inl/merida/(accessed November 13, 2016).

50 Harel Shapira, Waiting for José: The Minutemen’s Pursuit of America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 3; Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, ch 8.

51 Shapira, Waiting for José, p. 13.

52 Ibid., p. 2.

53 James Marcus, “Easy Chair: Beyond a Boundary,” Harper’s, June 2014, p. 5.

54 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 392.

55 Ibid.

56 Mari Herreras, “All Souls All Community,” Tucson Weekly, November 6–12, 2014, p. 11.

57 Jeremy Harding, “The Deaths Map,” London Review of Books, October 20, 2011, pp. 7–13.

58 See http://www.humaneborders.org/wp-content/uploads/deathpostercumulative_letter16.pdf. Also, the charity provides a searchable map for deceased migrants at http://www.humaneborders.info/app/map.asp.

59 Miriam Jordan, “Desert Castaways Get Second Life in Art Exhibition,” Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2008.

60 Marcus, “Easy Chair,” p. 5; U.S. Border Patrol, Sector Profile, FY 2015, CBP FY15 Border Security Report: Department of Homeland Security, December 22, 2015, p. 3, https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/documents/USBP%20Stats%20FY2015%20sector%20profile.pdf (accessed March 29, 2016).

61 Bob Davis, “The Thorny Economics of Illegal Immigration,” Wall Street Journal, February 9, 2016, online edition, http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-thorny-economics-of-illegal-immigration-1454984443 (accessed March 29, 2016); also see http://www.migrationpolicy.org/data/unauthorized-immigrant-population/state/AZ.

62 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 394.

63 Harding, “The Deaths Map,” pp. 7–13; Jude Joffe-Block, “Ahead of Arizona Primary, Business Community Fears Trump Will Inspire Backlash,” NPR, March 16, 2016, http://www.npr.org/2016/03/19/471000171/ahead-of-arizona-primary-business-community-fears-trump-will-inspire-backlash (accessed September 1, 2017).

64 Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Pardons Joe Arpaio, Who Became Face of Crackdown on Illegal Immigration,” New York Times, August 25, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/25/us/politics/joe-arpaio-trump-pardon-sheriff-arizona.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

65 William Finnegan, “Sheriff Joe,” New Yorker, July 20, 2009, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/07/20/sheriff-joe (accessed January 19, 2015).

66 Ibid.

67 Jaques Billeaud, “Taxpayer Costs of Sheriff Joe Arpaio’s Profiling Case: Another $13M on Top of $41M,” Associated Press, May 12, 2016, https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix/2016/05/12/taxpayer-costs-sheriff-joe-arpaios-profiling-case-another-13m-top-41m/84293950/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

68 Julia Preston, “Tension Simmers as Cubans Breeze Across U.S. Border,” New York Times, February 12, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/13/us/as-cubans-and-central-americans-enter-us-the-welcomes-vary.html. (accessed April 27, 2018); Tom Dart, “Cuban Immigrants Face Resentment in Texas over ‘Preferential Treatment,’” Guardian, March 14, 2016, http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/mar/14/cuban-immigrants-texas-resentment-us-policy (accessed March 29, 2016).

69 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 281.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid., pp. 282–84.

72 Lizette Alvarez, “Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus,” New York Times, February 9, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

73 Mary Williams Walsh, “A Surreal Life on the Precipice in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, August 6, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/business/dealbook/life-in-the-miasma-of-puerto-ricos-debt.html (accessed November 15, 2016).

74 Mary Williams Walsh, “Puerto Rico Declares a Form of Bankruptcy,” New York Times, May 2, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/03/business/dealbook/puerto-rico-debt.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=first-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news (accessed September 1, 2017).

75 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 293.

76 Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Historic Population Losses Continue Across Puerto Rico,” Pew Research Center Fact Tank, March 24, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/24/historic-population-losses-continue-across-puerto-rico/(accessed November 15, 2016).

77 Patricia Mazzei and Nicholas Nehamas, “Florida’s Hispanic Voter Surge Wasn’t Enough for Clinton,” Miami Herald, November 9, 2016, http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/election/article113778053.html (accessed November 15, 2016).

78 Ed Pilkington, “Puerto Rico Governor to Take Statehood Case to Washington but Faces US Snub,” Guardian, June 12, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/12/puerto-rico-governor-washington-statehood-us (accessed September 1, 2017).

79 Frances Robles, Kenan Davis, Sheri Fink, and Sarah Almukhtar, “Official Toll in Puerto Rico: 64. Actual Deaths May Be 1,052,” New York Times, December 9, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/08/us/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-death-toll.html?_r=0 (accessed January 21, 2018).

80 Kyle Dropp and Brendan Nyhan, “Nearly Half of Americans Don’t Know Puerto Ricans Are Fellow Citizens,” New York Times, September 26, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/26/upshot/nearly-half-of-americans-dont-know-people-in-puerto-ricoans-are-fellow-citizens.html?mcubz=1 (accessed January 21, 2018).

81 Rebecca Spalding, “Puerto Rico to Lose Tax Advantages Under GOP Plan, Expert Says,” Bloomberg, December 16, 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-16/puerto-rico-to-lose-tax-advantages-under-gop-plan-expert-says (accessed January 21, 2018).

Epilogue: Dalton, Georgia

1 Interview with Beth Jordan, Dalton, Georgia, June 25, 2015.

2 Interview with Jennifer Phinney, Dalton, Georgia, June 2, 2015.

3 “Georgia Project,” The New Georgia Encyclopedia, September 25, 2009, http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/georgia-project (accessed November 22, 2015).

4 Miriam Jordan, “Georgia Town Is Case Study in Immigration Debate,” Wall Street Journal (online) (accessed January 20, 2015).

5 See figures from Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, http://www.pewhispanic.org/states/county/13313/ (accessed November 14, 2016).

6 Interview with Esther Familia-Cabrera, Dalton, Georgia, March 24, 2015.

7 Samuel p. Huntington, “The Hispanic Challenge,” Foreign Policy, no. 141 (2004): 31.

8 Toni Morrison, “Mourning for Whiteness,” New Yorker, November 21, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/21/aftermath-sixteen-writers-on-trumps-america (accessed November 13, 2016).

9 “Hispanic Population Growth and Dispersion Across U.S. Counties, 1980–2014,” Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, September 6, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/interactives/hispanic-population-by-county/ (accessed November 18, 2016).

10 Huntington, “The Hispanic Challenge,” p. 32.

11 Walter D. Mignolo, “Afterward,” in Greer et al., Rereading the Black Legend, p. 324.

12 Edna Ferber, Giant (New York: Perennial Classics, 2000), pp. 74–75.

13 Richard Simon, “Little-Remembered Revolutionary War Hero a Step Closer to Citizenship,” Los Angeles Times, July 10, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-honorary-citizen-galvez-20140710-story.html (accessed March 31, 2016).

14 The following section draws from Cadava, Standing on Common Ground, chapter 6, Kindle.

15 Ibid., p. 244.

16 “Remains of Lost Spanish Fort Found on South Carolina Coast,” New York Times, July 26, 2016. For more on the Luna settlement, see http://uwf.edu/cassh/departments/anthropology-and-archaeology/luna-settlement/.