URLs listed in these references were visited as of July 2020. Please be aware that URLs do change, even if the material still remains online. If a URL listed below is no longer valid, consider searching for the source document based on the principal author’s name, the document title, or the volume the document appeared in. Another possibility is to use the “Wayback Machine” at www.archive.org and enter the URL as of July 31, 2020 or before.
1.Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622–1632, 1670–1676: With Notes and Excerpts from Original Council and General Court Records, Into 1683, Now Lost (Richmond, VA: Colonial Press, 2011), 411.
2.See, for example, Murray Bowen and C. Margaret Hall, The Bowen Family Theory and Its Uses (Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson, 1981).
3.The precise linguist spelling of this word is √(n)gr, where the square root sign and parentheses have special linguist meanings apart from their meaning as mathematical symbols. See Martin Bernal, Black Athena, Vol. 2 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1991), 96.
1.John Frederick Dorman, “Capt William Tucker His Muster, Elizabeth Cittie,” Adventurers of Purse and Person Virginia 1607–1624/25, 4th ed. (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 2004), 51.
2.Carter G. Woodson and Rayford Logan, eds., “Muster of Capt. William Tucker, Elizabeth City,” The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 8, 1923, 258. In all likelihood they were baptized with the Portuguese names Antonio and Isabella. But as Heywood and Thornton note in Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (Cambridge Univ. Press: 2007), there was a tendency in Kimbundu (a Bantu language spoken in Angola) not to pronounce the last vowel of a name. Thus, when colonial scribes recorded their names for the 1624/25 muster, “Antoney” and “Isabell” resulted. In the 1623 census his name is spelled as “Anthony” and hers as “Isabell.” See Jamestowne Society, “Lists of the Livinge & Dead in Virginia,” May 8, 2017, http://www.jamestowne.org/1623-lists-of-living--dead.html.
3.John Rolfe, “Letter from John Rolfe to Sir Edwyn Sandys (1619/1620),” Encyclopedia Virginia, “20._and_odd_Negroes”_an_excerpt_from_a_letter_from_John_Rolfe_to_Sir_Edwyn_Sandys_1619_1620. For historical accuracy I have kept the period after “20,” which is how John Rolfe originally recorded the number.
4.Tim Hashaw, Children of Perdition: Melungeons and the Struggle of Mixed America (Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 2006), 27.
5.Roberta J. Estes, et al., “Melungeons, A Multi-Ethnic Population,” Journal of Genetic Genealogy, April 2012, http://www.jogg.info/pages/72/files/Estes.pdf.
6.See, for instance, Tim Hashaw, “Malungu: The African Origin of American Melungeons,” Eclecta, July/August 2001, Vol. 5, No. 3, http://www.eclectica.org/v5n3/hashaw.html. Much like the dispute over Jefferson’s paternity of Sally Hemings’s children, portions of which remain even after DNA evidence proved that Jefferson did father children with this slave, the dispute over the Melungeon, and therefore African origin, of these famous people is divisive and contentious.
7.Even this reference to the “Lost Colony of Roanoke” does not exclude Melungeon ancestry in Africa because evidence exists that, on his way back from raiding Cartagena in 1586, Sir Francis Drake stopped at the Colony of Roanoke and left with them some of the captive Africans he had on board. See, for example, Lydia Towns, “English Privateers and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Traversea: The Journal of Transatlantic History, Vol. 4, 2014, https://traversea.journal.library.uta.edu/index.php/traversea/article/view/23/23, 9.
8.See, for instance, Jennifer Churchill, “The Mystery of the Melungeons,” Family Tree Magazine, December 2003, https://www.familytreemagazine.com/premium/the-mystery-of-the-melungeons.
9.Robert W. Slenes, “‘Malungu, Ngoma Vem!:’ África coberta e descoberta no Brasil” (“‘Malungu, Ngoma’s Coming!’: Africa Hidden and Uncovered in Brazil”), Revista, Vol. 12 (Luanda, Angola: Museum of Slavery, 1995), 48–67, https://ppgh.ufba.br/sites/ppgh.ufba.br/files/1_-_slenes_malungu2001_pag_normal_-_19.04.18_0.pdf.
10.Linda Heywood and John Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (Cambridge Univ. Press: 2007), 5–48. Heywood and Thornton have impeccable and irrefutable documentation from English, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish sources attesting to the fact that the first wave of Africans in America, prior to approximately 1660, were the Ndongo from Angola. See also Engel Sluiter, “New Light on the ‘20. and Odd Negroes’ Arriving in Virginia, August 1619,” The William and Mary Quarterly 54, April 1997, 395–98.
11.Pope Nicholas V, Dum Diversas, Papal Bull (Rome: 1452).
12.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 6.
13.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 6.
14.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 13.
15.John Wright, The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade (London and New York: Routledge, 2007).
16.Raymond Ibrahim, “Islam’s Hidden Role in the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” American Thinker, February 6, 2020, https://www.meforum.org/60383/islam-hidden-role-in-the-transatlantic-slave-trade.
17.See Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 82–92, for an overview of the conflict between the Portuguese and the Ndongo.
18.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 114–16.
19.Thomas J. Deschi-Obi, Fighting for Honor: The History of African Martial Art Traditions in the Atlantic World (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2008), 21.
20.Deschi-Obi, Fighting for Honor, 23.
21.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 93–94.
22.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 114–23.
23.“Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Vol. 33, No. 2, April 1976, 289–99, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922166.
24.Frank Snowden, Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2020), 102–4.
25.Snowden, Epidemics and Society, 103.
26.Snowden, Epidemics and Society, 103.
27.Francis T. Bowles, “Gives the Dimensions of Pilgrims’ Ship: Admiral Bowles Finds Mayflower Was 90 Feet Long With Beam of 20 Feet,” New York Times, February 21, 1921, 3. The Mayflower was a fluyt. See also “Fluyt Dutch Cargo Vessel,” Harrison County, West Virginia Genealogical Society, http://www.wvhcgs.com/vessel.htm.
28.See The William Tucker 1624 Society, https://williamtucker1624society.org/our-story.
29.Joseph Campbell with Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth (New York: Random House, 1991), 40.
30.Violet S. de Laszlo, ed., The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung (New York: Random House, 1959).
31.Clyde W. Ford, The Hero With an African Face: Mythic Wisdom of Traditional Africa (New York: Bantam, 1999), 3–6.
32.Ford, The Hero With an African Face, 6.
33.Ford, The Hero With an African Face, 6.
34.Ford, The Hero With an African Face, 28–45, has a full presentation and discussion of the myth of Sudika-mbambi.
35.Wyatt MacGaffey, Modern Kongo Prophets (Bloomington: Univ. of Indiana Press, 1983), 136.
36.Bowles, “Gives Dimension of Pilgrims’ Ship,” 3.
1.A “dynastic union” represented a federation between two monarchies, under one monarch, where the original kingdoms retained their geographical, legal, and political autonomy. Most often, the monarchies were geographically adjacent and the union often precipitated by marriage. The Anglo-Scottish Union forming the United Kingdom represents such a “dynastic union.” Spain and Portugal joined under a dynastic union for eighty years (1580–1660) ruled by the House of Habsburg, a Philippine dynasty centered in Seville (Philip II, Philip III, and Philip IV). Sixteenth-century maritime predation of Portuguese ships by English, Dutch, and French privateers weakened Portugal’s rule over the sea trade and was a large factor in the Portuguese crown seeking an alliance, as junior partner, with Spain, a much stronger naval power. Ultimately, the Iberian Union broke down in war between Portugal and Spain, ending in the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, and the establishment of the Portuguese House of Braganza (the Brigantine Dynasty) as the independent rulers of Portugal and her colonies.
2.Angus Konstam and Angus McBride, Elizabethan Sea Dogs 1560–1605 (Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2000), 6.
3.Lydia Towns, “English Privateers and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Traversea: The Journal of Transatlantic History, Vol. 4, 2014, https://traversea.journal.library.uta.edu/index.php/traversea/article/view/23/23.
4.Nigel Pocock and Victoria Cook, “The Business of Enslavement,” BBC, February 17, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/slavery_business_gallery_11.shtml. Englishmen operated slave trading out of foreign ports, prior to Hawkins. And, Hawkins did not initiate unbroken See David Olusoga, Black and British: A Forgotten History (London: MacMillan, 2016), 51–2.
5.Ronald Pollitt, “John Hawkins’s Troublesome Voyages: Merchants, Bureaucrats, and the Origin of the Slave Trade,” The Journal of British Studies, Vol. 12, Issue 2, May 1973, 27–28.
6.Pollitt, “John Hawkins’s Troublesome Voyages,” 40.
7.Pollitt, “John Hawkins’s Troublesome Voyages,” 29.
8.Pollitt, “John Hawkins’s Troublesome Voyages,” 28–37.
9.Pollitt, “John Hawkins’s Troublesome Voyages,” 40.
10.Linda Heywood and John Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (Cambridge Univ. Press: 2007), 35.
11.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 40.
12.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 42–48.
13.Heywood and Thornton, Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 6.
14.John Rolfe, “Letter from John Rolfe to Sir Edwyn Sandys (1619/1620),” Encyclopedia Virginia, “20._and_odd_Negroes”_an_excerpt_from_a_letter_from_John_Rolfe_to_Sir_Edwin_Sandys_1619_1620.
15.Hugh Fred Jope, Maj. USAF (Ret.), “The Flying Dutchman” (1993), cited in Tim Hashaw, “Malungu: The African Origins of the American Melungeons,” Electica Magazine, July/August 2001, http://www.eclectica.org/v5n3/hashaw.html.
16.Jope, “The Flying Dutchman,” cited in Hashaw, “Malungu.”
17.Rolfe, “Letter from John Rolfe to Sir Edwyn Sandys.”
18.Rolfe, “Letter from John Rolfe to Sir Edwyn Sandys.”
19.The Treasurer and the Bautista arrived at Point Comfort sailing under different marques giving them permission to plunder Spanish and Portuguese vessels. The Bautista operated under a Dutch marque, the Treasurer under a marque from the Duke of Savoy (Savoy was then a state in what is now northeast France) obtained by the Earl of Warwick, Lord Rich. But in 1617, while the Treasurer was at sea, and presumably out of contact, the Treaty of Pavia was signed between Savoy and Spain. That meant, technically, Daniel Elfrith, captain of Treasurer, was operating not as a privateer but a pirate, under penalty of swinging from the gallows. It also meant that any privateering activities could bring the wrath of King James I, currently at peace with Spain, or cause a Spanish armada to appear off the Virginia coast.
Treasurer had once visited the Virginia colony at Jamestown, prior to her second arrival in August 1619. On her first visit, she had been under the protection of Samuel Argall, then governor of Virginia, who saw to it that her looted goods were distributed to colonists and that she was provisioned in return. But Argall was part of one faction of the Virginia Company, which ran the colony, at odds with another faction over the issue of how colonists were supplied with provisions. Though welcoming of privateers’ booty, the Company sold low-quality provisions to complaining colonists at high prices. Argall, a part owner with Lord Rich in Treasurer, saw in the ship’s raids a means to provision colonists with higher-quality goods. Thus, the other faction of the Virginia Company, supported by Rolfe and Sandys, sought to get rid of Argall.
But this second faction had a rather worrisome problem. Argall’s chief benefactor was the highly esteemed Earl of Warwick, Lord Rich, himself also a shareholder in the Virginia Company. To indict Rich would be to embroil the Company in a scandal that might also cause King James I to cancel its charter. So, this second group of shareholders focused their energies on getting rid of Argall instead. Sandys engineered the appointment of his own man, George Yeardley, as governor. Then Lord Rich sent a fast ship to pick up Argall, before Yeardley’s administration arrived from England to arrest him.
This intrigue was only heightened when the White Lion arrived in Virginia with a cargo of slaves, followed a few days later by the Treasurer, also with a cargo of slaves. Jope posed no threat to these warring factions of the Company, so his ship was allowed to trade captive Africans and resupply. But Elfrith, in command of the Treasurer, now had no benefactor in command of the colony. He dared not call on Lord Rich’s name to protect him, and the Sandys faction dared not indict Rich for fear of taking down the Company and the colony with him. So, absent a benefactor on land, Elfrith, recognizing his jeopardy, hightailed it by sea to Bermuda, where a friendly governor, Samuel Barber, awaited the Treasurer’s arrival.
Later, even Jope, captain of the White Lion, would be ensnared in this intrigue, when in a complex and extended case before the English courts, from 1620 to 1624, Argall and Elfrith testified to Jope’s primary responsibility for the capture of the São João Bautista.
20.Ellora Derencourt, “Atlantic slavery’s impact on European and British economic development,” private paper, https://eaderen.github.io/derenoncourt_atlantic_slavery_europe_2018.pdf. Cited with permission of the author.
21.Felipe González, et al., “Start-up Nation? Slave Wealth and Entrepreneurship in Civil War Maryland,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. w22483, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2819868.
22.Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern 1492–1800 (UK: Verso, 2010), 255.
23.Charles Lintner Killinger, “The Royal African Company Slave Trade to Virginia, 1689–1713,” Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects, Paper 1539624680, William & Mary College, 1969, 89, https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4997&context=etd.
24.Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, 255.
25.Hugh Thomas, “The Branding (and Baptism) of Slaves,” The Review of Arts, Literature, Philosophy and the Humanities, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1996–97, http://www.ralphmag.org/slave2.html.
26.John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (New York: Random House, 2003), 177.
27.Martha B. Katz-Hyman and Kym S. Rice, eds., World of a Slave: Encyclopedia of the Material Life of Slaves in the United States (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 259.
28.The “City of London” properly refers only to an approximately one-mile-square area of Greater London which houses London’s financial and business district. See A. D. Mills, A Dictionary of London Place Names (London: Oxford Univ. Press), 152.
29.Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, 7, 135, 141.
30.Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, 143.
31.Filipa Ribeiro da Silva, Dutch and Portuguese in Western Africa: Empires, Merchants and the Atlantic System, 1580–1674 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2011), 291.
32.Mauricio Drelichman and Hans-Joachim Voth, Lending to The Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Defaults in the Age of Philip II (Princeton Univ. Press, 2011), 96–101.
33.Bristol City Council, “Spain’s Slavery Contract,” Bristol and Transatlantic Slavery, http://www.discoveringbristol.org.uk/slavery/routes/places-involved/south-america/Spain-slavery-contract.
34.Charles R. Norgle, “In re AFRICAN-AMERICAN SLAVE DESCENDANTS LITIGATION,” MDL No. 1491, No. 02 C 7764, US District Court, N.D. Illinois, Eastern Division, July 6, 2005. Judge Norgle issued a ruling against the litigants “with prejudice,” meaning they could not file the same motion with his court again.
1.Avery Anapol, “Gayle King corrects Northam for referring to slaves as ‘indentured servants,’” The Hill, February 10, 2019, https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/429335-gayle-king-corrects-northam-for-referring-to-slaves-as-indentured.
2.Federal Writer’s Project, Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1956), 483.
3.David A. Fahrenthold, “A Dead Indian Language Is Brought Back to Life,” Washington Post, December 12, 2006, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/11/AR2006121101474.html.
4.Gregory D. Smithers, “How the Kikotan Massacre Prepared the Ground for the Arrival of the First Africans in 1619,” History News Network, September 15, 2019, https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/173032.
5.In March 1622, a group of Algonquin natives led by Chief Opechancanough mounted a series of coordinated, surprise attacks on the English settlement at Jamestown that killed 347 colonists, about one-fourth of the population there. Known popularly as the Jamestown Massacre, it provoked a sustained English reprisal that gave rise to a ten-year-long war between the English and Powhatan confederation. In May 1622, Captain William Tucker was given commission over Kecoughtan by the Virginia Company, to raise a small army to take revenge on the Powhatan, “rooting them out from being longer a people upon the face of the Earth,” William S. Powell reports the note from the Virginia Company read. See William S. Powell, “Aftermath of the Massacre: The First Indian War, 1622–1632,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 66, No. 1, January 1958, 44–75, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4246389?read-now=1&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents. In January 1623, William Tucker was ordered by the governor of Virginia to travel up the rivers of the Tidewater region “to take revenge uppon” the natives he found there. In May of that year, Tucker was ordered by the governor to take command of a small contigent who “uppon espetiall occasion are to accompanie him, in the shallops into Pamunckey Ryuer, neere the seate of Apponchankano [Chief Opechancanough],” Powell reports. Tucker was ostensibly to conduct prisoners that Opechancanough held back to Jamestown and to enter into a peace treaty with the Pamunkey tribe. Instead, at the peace ceremony, Tucker offered the Pamunkey poisoned wine, then opened fire, killing some 250 natives as a result. Opechancanough, a target, escaped unharmed, though the incident further opened a rift between the English and the Algonquin tribes that continued to the prolonged, ten-year war. See Powell, “Aftermath of the Massacre,” 61–62.
6.Sidney Lee, ed., Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. 19 (New York: Macmillan, 1909), 1212.
7.Charles E. Hatch, The First Seventeen Years: Virginia 1607–1624 (Scotts Valley, CA: Amazon.com, 2011), 71.
8.There is a minor dispute about whether Anthony and Isabella were brought over as indentured servants on the Mary & James in 1610, when William Tucker emigrated from England, or whether they arrived on the White Lion. Records of the Mary & James in 1610 show no African indentured servants brought by Tucker. The overwhelming evidence is that Anthony and Isabella came aboard the White Lion. Colonial records, while sparse, show no Africans in the Virginia colony, slaves or servants, prior to the White Lion’s arrival in 1619. The first real census, taken in 1623, shows Tucker, and “Anthony, Negro” and “Isabell, Negro.” Later a muster of Tucker’s, recorded in 1624/25, shows the couple and a child. Still, it is possible to find online references to the captain of the Mary & James bringing indentured servants Antonie and Isabell with him, though the assertion is made lacking any source documentation. See, for instance, “Famous First,” Capt. William Tucker, of Kiccowtan, https://www.geni.com/people/Capt-William-Tucker-of-Kiccowtan/6000000003853772881, which appears copied without attribution from a spurious page on Ancestry.com, https://www.ancestry.com/sharing/5921309?h=ce0899, purporting to show a picture of Captain William Tucker, along with a biography, though the picture is actually a painting of Meriwether Lewis.
9.Johannes Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things Therein Contained, Vol. 1, ed. Robert Brown (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2010), 187. This account by Leo Africanus was first published in English in 1600.
10.James H. Sweet, “The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 1, January 1997, 143–66.
11.Felicia R. Lee, “From Noah’s Curse to Slavery’s Rationale,” New York Times, November 1, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/01/arts/from-noah-s-curse-to-slavery-s-rationale.html.
12.John Camden Hotten, ed., The Original Lists of Persons of Quality (London: Chatto and Windus, 1874), 244.
13.Hotten, The Original Lists, 223.
14.Hotten, The Original Lists, 225.
15.Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1944), 7.
16.David Eltis in The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000), 57–82, notes that economically it actually may have been more efficient and legal for Europeans to hold other Europeans as slaves but Europeans were considered cultural “insiders,” while Africans were considered cultural “outsiders,” and draconian measures such as slavery would not be considered for “insiders.”
17.Linda Heywood and John Thornton in Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (Cambridge Univ. Press: 2007) make a useful distinction between the first group of Africans, called the “Charter Generation,” and those to follow, called the “Plantation Generation.”
18.Linda Heywood and John Thornton in Africans, 291–331, present a very complete account of all three positions on this question of whether the first generation of Africans were servants or slaves, and they come out squarely in favor of the third position.
19.Lerone Bennett, Jr., The Shaping of Black America: The Struggles and Triumphs of African-Americans, 1619–1990s (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), 62.
20.Bennett, The Shaping of Black America, 62.
21.David W. Galenson, “The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis,” The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 44, No. 1, 3–4.
22.Galenson, “The Rise and Fall,” 4–5.
23.Galenson, “The Rise and Fall,” 6–8.
24.John Bach McMaster, The Acquisition of Political Social and Industrial Rights of Man in America (Cleveland: Daughters of the American Revolution, 1903), 34–35.
25.Don Jordan and Michael Walsh, White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain’s White Slaves in America (New York: NYU Press, 2008), 128–29.
26.Humphrey Gilbert, A Discourse of a Discouerie for a New Passage to Cataia (London: Henry Middleton, 1576).
27.Cited in Marcus W. Jernegan, “A Forgotten Slavery of Colonial Days,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, Vol. 127, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1913), 746.
1.H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622–1632, 1670–1676 (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1924), 46.
2.H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia 1619–1658/59 (Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1915), 12–13.
3.Wesley Frank Craven, White, Red, and Black: The Seventeenth-Century Virginian (New York: Norton, 1871), 5.
4.Philip Alexander Bruce, Social Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (Richmond: Whittet & Shepperson, 1907), 255.
5.Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia or the Origin and Development of the Social Classes of the Old Dominion (Charlottesville: The Michie Company, 1910), 176.
6.Abbott Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607–1776 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1947), 306.
7.“Irish: The Forgotten White Slaves.”
8.“Irish: The Forgotten White Slaves.”
9.Lerone Bennett, Jr., “White Servitude in America,” Ebony, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, 1969), 34.
10.Craven, White, Red, and Black, 5.
11.Shawn Pogatchnik, “AP Fact Check: Irish ‘slavery’ at St. Patrick’s Day myth,” AP News, https://apnews.com/920e1c738df04555bccd56c09770b36d/AP-FACT-CHECK:-Irish-%22slavery%22-a-St.-Patrick’s-Day-myth.
12.Shawn Pogatchnik, “AP Fact Check.”
13.John Bach McMaster, The Acquisition of Political Social and Industrial Rights of Man in America (Cleveland: Daughters of the American Revolution, 1903), 34.
14.John Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, Vol. II (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1902), 206–7.
15.The phrase “Irish Slave Trade” actually came into use decades before the internet, before it became a pawn in this trade of insults and imprecations between the many groups laying claim to its truth. One early use of the phrase regards the emergence of the English seaport town Bristol as a center for ships setting off to Ireland to capture men, women, and children to be sold and used as slaves. See William Hunt, “On the Rise of Bristol Trade,” Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Vol. 14 (London: Longmans, Greed, Reader and Dyer, 1867), 4, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=o1dLAQAAMAAJ.
16.Bennett, “White Servitude in America,” 32.
17.Virginia General Assembly, Colonial Records of Virginia (Richmond: Virginia State Library: 1874), 105, https://books.google.com/books?id=qWJBAQAAMAAJ.
18.A. Leon Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period (Oxford Univ. Press), 67.
19.George Ticknor Curtis, History of the Origin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States, Vol. 2 (Frankfort, Germany: Outlook Verlag, 2018), 419.
20.Francis J. Bremer, John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father (Oxford Univ. Press, 2003), 313.
21.Bremer, John Winthrop, 313.
22.Bremer, John Winthrop, 313.
23.Bremer, John Winthrop, 313.
24.Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 67a.
25.Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 68.
26.Oliver Perry Chitwood, Justice in Colonial Virginia (Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press: 1905), 95. (Internal quotation marks omitted.)
27.See the Introduction to this book, and also Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622–1632, 1670–1676: With Notes and Excerpts from Original Council and General Court Records, Into 1683, Now Lost (Richmond: Colonial Press, 2011), 411.
28.The dynamic nature of this story, and the apparent genealogical links between Elizabeth Key and actor Johnny Depp, have led to much speculation, confusion, and inaccuracy regarding the historical facts. Some of that confusion I attempt to resolve in the notes of this chapter. Particularly regrettable, in this regard, is a silverpoint drawing of an African woman, said to be an image of Elizabeth Key, that has circulated widely on the internet, including by Elizabeth Key’s descendants (see, for example, http://jonesandrelated.blogspot.com/2012/02/elizabeth-key-grinstead.html). An online search shows the image was actually drawn by the German painter Albrecht Dürer, in 1521, and titled, “The Negress Katherina” (see, for example, https://curiator.com/art/albrecht-duerer/the-negress-katherina). She was the twenty-year-old servant of Dürer’s Portuguese art dealer, João Brandão. Katherina’s image is beautiful, and alluring. Given the year and the country she lived in, Katherina most likely came from Angola, as described earlier in this book. But under no circumstances should her image be taken as that of Elizabeth Key.
29.Contrary to most historians, and the descendants of Elizabeth Key, I strongly believe that her mother was a servant to Thomas Key, and not a slave. Elizabeth Key’s case was heard in several courts. First, in the Northumberland County Court, which ruled in her favor. Next, appealed by defendants to the Virginia General Court, in Jamestown, where the court ruled against her. Then, appealed by plaintiffs to the General Council of the Assembly (the upper chamber of the legislature acting as the Virginia Supreme Court), where the case was handed back to the lower county court for reconsideration with a report from the General Assembly supporting her petition for freedom. This reversion to the Northumberland County Court was not challenged, and the Northumberland County Court issued a 1656 order granting her freedom. Only the Northumberland County Court makes reference, once, to Elizabeth Key’s mother as a “woman slave.” Other witnesses at the proceedings refer to Elizabeth Key’s mother as “her mother,” or a “Negro Woman,” or that “said Negroe was the Mother of.” The word slave does not appear in their depositions. Warren M. Billings, in a footnote to “The Cases of Fernando and Elizabeth Key,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3, July 1973, 468, claims otherwise. He states, “It is significant, perhaps, that the depositions refer to Elizabeth Key’s mother as a slave. Since Elizabeth Key was born circa 1630, the reference to her mother’s status suggests that some blacks were already being held as slaves by the end of the 1620s.” Again, the depositions in this case state no such thing. Historians, and the descendants of Elizabeth Key, have adopted Billings’s assertions without question.
Colonial courts frequently showed discrepancies in reference to the same case as it passed from one court session to the next. In Corven v. Lucas, cited earlier, only a short time had passed between his pleading and the court’s decision. Yet, in the General Court’s actual written decision his name has been altered to read “Gowen” rather than “Corven,” and the name of the defendant changed from “Charles” Lucas to “Jno.” (Jonathan) Lucas. The Northumberland County Court was not charged with determining whether Elizabeth Key’s mother was a servant or a slave, and we cannot conclude from their single use of the word slave that she was, in fact, a slave, especially in light of other evidence that suggests she was not.
Billings is correct on one count: all the evidence points to Elizabeth Key’s birth circa 1630. This means her mother became pregnant with her in late 1629 or early 1630. The first Africans arrived in colonial Virginia on the White Lion in August 1619, with another small group on the Treasurer four days later, then more from that same original group taken from the Saõ João Bautista, on the Treasurer, again in 1620. There’s every likelihood that Elizabeth Key’s mother was part of this original group of Africans. For sure, it can be said that she was part of the first generation of Africans in Virginia.
Thomas Key arrived in the Prosperous in June 1619. His wife, Sarah, on the Truelove in 1622. The 1624/25 muster of Virginia shows them as Thomas Keie and Sarah, his wife, living on, but not owning, the Chaplain’s Choice plantation in Charles City County, just north of Jamestown. No servants of the Keys’ are listed in that muster. Thomas Key had already married his second wife, Martha, by the time she was granted land in December 1628, which implies that somewhere between January 1625 (the date of the census) and December 1628 (the date of the land grant), Sarah Key died. At most, that leaves a four- or five-year period for Thomas Key to acquire Elizabeth Key’s mother. There were no laws regarding slavery in Virginia in the late 1620s. While the first generation of Africans were more plausibly indentured servants treated as poorly as masters would later treat slaves, they were not chattel slaves.
Thomas Key was not a member of the colonial Virginia aristocracy, as some historians and genealogists assert. His passage from England to Virginia was paid for by Thomas Astley, of the Virginia Company, which alone would have disqualified Thomas Key from the ranks of the true ancient planters, who were supposed to have paid their own way (see the following note for more). A more likely scenario is that Thomas Key never purchased Elizabeth Key’s mother at all. Instead, he acquired her through his marriage to Martha. Martha Key, whose birth name or first married name I cannot locate, was a member of the colonial aristocracy, probably through her first marriage. She was among the ranks of the ancient planters. So, a more plausible explanation, I believe, is that Elizabeth’s mother was purchased or acquired by Martha’s first husband, his estate passed on to his widow, then made available to Thomas Key through marriage. To put it simply, Thomas Key “married up.”
30.Most historical accounts incorrectly describe Thomas Key as an ancient planter often simultaneously acknowledging his arrival in Virginia aboard the Prosperous in 1619. This 1619 arrival date patently disqualifies him from being an ancient planter, since the term and the privileges were conveyed only to those who arrived before 1616, remained for a period of three years, and paid their own passage. His second wife, Martha, however, was an ancient planter. She is listed on some rosters of ancient planters as Martha Key (or Keie); see, for example, “Ancient Planter,” http://www.ancientplanters.org/ancient-planters. On other lists the reference is to “Martha Key ynd Thomas Key 1619 (sic),” though “1619 (sic)” after Thomas’s name should have been a tip-off to historians and genealogists that something was amiss, since 1616 was the cutoff date for ancient planters.
31.There is also confusion among historians and genealogists regarding the grant of Algonquin land in Isle of Wight County to Martha Key and her husband. The description of the land is not in dispute for it was “lying on Warwicksqueake River, opposite the land of Captain Nathaniel Basse and adjoining that of Rice Jones.” But the date, the amount, and the basis of the grant are in question. As an ancient planter, Martha Key was entitled to a land grant of 100 acres, which an original patent scanned by the Library of Virginia shows she obtained on December 2, 1628. Some genealogists, particularly the descendants of Elizabeth Key (see http://jonesandrelated.blogspot.com/2012/02/elizabeth-key-grinstead.html and http://jonesandrelated.blogspot.com/2014/07/1628-land-patent-for-martha-key.html), believe that Thomas Key “set up” his wife, Martha, with this land so that he could be in Warwick with his African mistress, Elizabeth Key’s mother. The historical records do not support this conclusion, particularly since it was Martha not Thomas who was the actual ancient planter, entitled to the land. Some accounts show a land grant of 150 acres to Martha Key, wife of Thomas Key, on December 2, 1626 (see Phillip Alexander Bruce and William Glover, eds., The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 2 (Richmond: Virginia Historical Society, 1895), 68). The 1626 date is highly suspect since the original scanned patent shows the date of 1628. Regarding the size of the land granted, two principal possibilities exist: either the 150 acres is in error, or 100 acres was granted to Martha, and 50 acres to her husband, Thomas, since some colonists arriving after 1616 were entitled to land grants of 50 acres from the Virginia Company.
32.Warren M. Billings, ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2007), 195–96.
33.Billings, The Old Dominion, 197.
34.“Elizabeth Key,” Dictionary of Virginia Biography, https://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/dvb/bio.php?b=Key_Elizabeth_fl_1655-1660.
35.Nicholas Morris was born in England in 1605 and came to Virginia well after the first colonists did, though he established a large estate in Northumberland County. In 1652, he was appointed to the bench of the Northumberland County Court. Morris was a neighbor, and apparently a friend, of Colonel John Mottrom, whose estate was litigated against by Elizabeth Key in the case. See, “Notes & Queries,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 25, No. 2 (1917), 190–200, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4243596.
36.Billings, The Old Dominion, 195.
37.Billings, The Old Dominion, 197.
38.Billings, The Old Dominion, 198.
39.Billings, The Old Dominion, 198.
40.Billings, The Old Dominion, 199.
1.“Proceedings and Acts of the General Assembly January 1637/38–September 1664,” Vol. 1, Archives of Maryland Online, 526, https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000001/html/am1--526.html.
2.“Proceeding and Acts of the General Assembly,” Vol. 1, 533, https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000001/html/am1--533.html.
3.“Proceedings and Acts of the General Assembly April 1666–June 1676,” Vol. 2, Archives of Maryland Online, 272, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000002/html/am2--272.html.
4.Warren M. Billings, ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2007), 169.
5.Billings, The Old Dominion, 169.
6.Billings, The Old Dominion, 169.
7.William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature, in the Year 1619, Vol. 2 (New York: R. & W. & G. Bartow, 1823), 260, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol02-13.htm.
8.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 2, 491, https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/an-act-to-repeale-a-former-law-makeing-indians-and-others-ffree-1682/.
9.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 2, 170, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol02-09.htm.
10.“Proceeding and Acts of the General Assembly,” Vol. 1, 533, https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/00 0001/html/am1--533.html.
11.“Proceeding and Acts of the General Assembly,” Vol. 2, 272, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000002/html/am2--272.html.
12.Monica C. Reed, “They are Men, and Not Beasts: Religion and Slavery in Colonial New England,” PhD Thesis, Florida State Univ., 2013, 38.
13.Luke 20:20–26, Matthew 22:25–22, Mark 12:13–17, Holy Bible: King James Version.
14.Samuel Sewall, “The Selling of Joseph,” a pamphlet (Boston: Green & Allen, 1700), https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=etas.
15.Cotton Mather, “The Negro Christianized,” a pamphlet (Boston: Green, 1706), https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&context=etas.
16.Mather, “The Negro Christianized.”
17.Mather, “The Negro Christianized.”
18.The Acts and Resolves, Public and Private, of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay, Vol. VII (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1892), 537, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=zgpHAQAAIAAJ.
19.Cited in John Pinkerton, Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of America, Vol. 2 (London: Longman, Hurst et al., 1819), 262, https://books.google.com/books?id=-icZaHu5QAsC.
20.Stephen Innes, Creating the Commonwealth: The Economic Culture of Puritan New England (New York: Norton & Company, 1995), 272.
21.Scholars have debated how much Thomas Jefferson relied on the writings of English philosopher John Locke in incorporating the phrase “the pursuit of happiness” into the Declaration of Independence. Locke first used the phrase in his ponderous book Essay of Human Understanding and it was central to his political ethics but the phrase was in use throughout early-eighteenth-century England, found in the works of William Wollaston, Francis Hutcheson, Oliver Goldsmith, Richard Price, and Dr. Samuel Johnson. In his autobiography, Benjamin Franklin tells of typesetting an early edition of Wollaston’s The Religion of Nature Delineated, while a journeyman printer in London in 1726. Neil C. Olsen in Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress (Milford, CN: Nonagram Publications, 2013), 195, asserts that Locke, Wollaston, and the other philosophers of the day were merged by the Founders into an acceptable set of ideas summed up by phrases such as “the pursuit of happiness.”
22.William Wollaston, The Religion of Nature Delineated (London: Beecroft, Rivington, et al., 1759), 251–52, https://books.google.com/books?id=r7gOAAAAIAAJ.
23.Joseph Sewall, A Caveat against Covetousness (Boston: Green for Gerrish, 1718), 5, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N01683.0001.001/1:2.
24.Cited in Mark H. Johnson, “God’s Providence in Puritan New England: An Inquiry into the Nature of Ideas. Teacher and Student Manuals,” ERIC, Access No. ED 032 340, Office of Education, 1966 (US Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare: 1970), 67, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED032340.pdf.
25.Reed, “They are Men,” 142.
26.A. H. Bullen, ed., The Works of John Marston, Vol. III (London: John C. Nimmo, 1887), Act 3: Scene 3, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46312/46312-h/46312-h.htm#EH_3. The playwright uses the date ’79 (1579) in an incorrect reference to the Lost Colony of Roanoke, most likely first colonized by the English unsuccessfully in 1585, then again unsuccessfully in 1587.
27.William Strachey, For the colony in Virginea Britannia: Lavves Divine, Morall and Maratiall (London: Walter Burre, 1612), 11, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044024338592. Strachey was secretary of the colony from 1609 until 1611, when he returned to England to publish this compilation of colonial laws.
28.Strachey, Virginea Britannia, 16.
29.George Percy, A Trewe Relacyon, reprinted in Tyler’s Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine, Vol. III (Richmond: Richmond Press, 1922), 280, https://archive.org/details/tylersquarterlyh03tyle.
30.Berdache is a French term that references the practices of some indigenous North Americans, also known as two-spirit, that honors a third, nonbinary gender category.
31.Edward D. Neill, History of the Virginia Company of London (Albany, NY: Joel Musnell, 1869), 160–61.
32.Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1996), 46–47.
33.Virginia General Assembly, Colonial Records of Virginia (Richmond: Virginia State Library: 1974), 28, https://books.google.com/books?id=qWJBAQAAMAAJ.
34.Karen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2012), 75–80.
35.Susan Fair, American Witches (New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2016), 9, 30–31.
36.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 146, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-06.htm.
37.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 552, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-23.htm.
38.Until September 1752, the older Julian calendar was in use throughout Britain and her colonies. The new year began on March 25, under the Julian system, hence a date in March needs clarification of exactly which years the month spanned.
39.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 242–43, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-10.htm.
40.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 144, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-06.htm.
41.None of the Africans were killed in this raid, something that happened more than once in the colonies, causing some historians to suggest that Native Americans were well aware of the beleaguered state of Africans at the hands of the English.
42.“Proceeding and Acts of the General Assembly,” Vol. 7, 177, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000007/html/am7--177.html.
43.John Codman Hurd, The Law of Freedom and Bondage in the United States (Boston: Little Brown, 1858), 250.
44.“Proceeding and Acts,” Vol. 7, 177.
45.The Acts and Resolves, Public and Private, of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay, Vol. I. 1692–1714 (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1869), 578, https://archive.org/details/actsresolvespass9214mass/page/578/mode/2up. Note the symbol “&c” used in the title of the act is an abbreviation for the Latin et cetera, in this case meaning “and other similar things.”
1.H. R. McIlwane, ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia 1622–1632, 1670–1676 (Richmond: Library of Virginia, 1924), 466, https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/records/item/196397-minutes-of-the-council-and-general-court-of-colonial-virginia-1622–1632–1670–1676-with-notes-and-excerpts-from-original-council-and-general-court-records-into-1683-now-lost.
2.McIlwane, Minutes of the Council, 466.
3.Shirley Gay Stolberg, “Obama Has Ties to Slavery Not by His Father but His Mother, Research Suggests,” New York Times, July 30, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/us/obamas-mother-had-african-forebear-study-suggests.html.
4.William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature, in the Year 1619, Vol. 1 (New York: R. & W. & G. Bartow, 1823), 226, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-09.htm.
5.This is the same John Mottrom whose estate would be back in front of the Council in fifteen years to argue in favor of holding Elizabeth Key, and her son, slaves.
6.McIlwane, Minutes of the Council, 468.
7.McIlwane, Minutes of the Council, 468.
8.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 254, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-10.htm.
9.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 2, 26, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol02-02.htm.
10.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 2, 116–17, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol02-06.htm.
11.“George Floyd Protests,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/news-event/george-floyd-protests-minneapolis-new-york-los-angeles.
12.My sketch of Bacon’s Rebellion that follows comes primarily from James D. Rice, Tales from a Revolution: Bacon’s Rebellion and the Transformation of Early America (Oxford Univ. Press, 2013).
13.Edward Waterhouse, A Declaration of the State of the Colony and Affaires in Virginia (London: George Eld, 1622), 25, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A14803.0001.001.
14.Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 330, https://archive.org/stream/americanslaverya00morg.
15.Alan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Culture in the Chesapeake (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1986), 28.
16.William Fitzhugh, “The Letters of William Fitzhugh,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (Richmond: Virginia Historical Society, 1894), 37, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4241732.
17.Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York: Henry Holt, 1970), 170–72.
18.Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 344.
19.Rice, Bacon’s Rebellion, 221.
20.Carrisa Harris, “A History of Wench: How a medieval word meaning ‘servant’ or ‘child’ evolved to become a racist slur,” Electric Lit., June 3, 2019, https://electricliterature.com/a-history-of-the-wench.
1.Shannon Tushingham, Charles M. Snyder, et al., “Biomolecular archaeology reveals ancient origins of indigenous tobacco smoking in North American Plateau,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 115, No. 46, November 13, 2018, 11742–47, https://www.pnas.org/content/115/46/11742#ref-9.
2.Joseph C. Winter, ed., Tobacco Use By Native Americans: Sacred Smoke and Silent Killer (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2000), 305–30.
3.Iain Gatley, Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 3–5.
4.J. Franklin Jameson, “Voyages of Columbus: Journal of the First Voyage,” The Northmen, Columbus, and Cabot: 985–1503 (New York: Scribner’s, 1906), 117.
5.Jameson, “Voyages of Columbus,” 117.
6.Columbus records in his journal on October 23, 1492, “I desired to set out to-day for the island of Cub, which I think must be Cipango (Japan) . . . ,” Jameson, “Voyages of Columbus,” 127.
7.Jameson, “Voyages of Columbus,” 141.
8.Fernando Ortiz, Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 231.
9.David G. Sweet, “Black Robes and ‘Black Destiny’: Jesuit Views of African Slavery in 17th Century Latin America,” Revista de Historia de América, Vol. 86, 1978, 94.
10.James Grehan, “Smoking and ‘Early Modern’ Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries),” American Historical Review, Vol. 111, No. 5, 1352–77, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/ahr.111.5.1352.
11.Yitzhak Buxbaum, The Light and Fire of the Baal Shem Tov (New York: Bloomsbury, 2005), 192.
12.Winter, Tobacco Use By Native Americans, 9–59.
13.Carol Benedict, Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550–2010 (Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 2011), 90–94.
14.John M. Janzen, “Central African Healing Traditions,” Representations, Ritual, & Social Renewal: Essays In Africanist Medical Anthropology (Lawrence, KS: Univ. of Kansas, 2014), 30, https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/14950 for slides accompanying the lecture see, https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/14950/3%20--%20Central%20African%20Healing%20Traditions.pdf.
15.Alfred Dunhill, The Pipe Book (New York: MacMillan, 1969), 20–24. I have some trouble believing that this is an actual myth from the Bushongo instead of a myth created by entrepreneur, and salesman extraordinaire, Alfred Dunhill. While Emil Torday mentions the figure Lusana Lumunbala in connection to the introduction of tobacco into the Congo in “Bushongo Mythology,” Folk-Lore: A Quarterly Review, Vol. 22. 1911, he never once mentions this particular myth, nor does he in any of his published works. However, it is possible that Dunhill had private papers, or private correspondence with Torday, that he does not reference.
16.William Finch, “Observations of William Finch,” A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels . . . (Edinburgh: James Ballantyne and Company, 1813), 257.
17.R. Loddenkemper and M. Kreuter, eds., The Tobacco Epidemic (Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 2015), 3.
18.David Birmingham, Central Africa to 1870: Zamezia, Saire and the South Atlantic (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981), 98.
19.Malyn Newitt, “Africa and the Wider World: Creole Communities in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,” Revista Tempo, Vol. 23, No. 3. December 2017, 473.
20.William Strachey, “A true reportory of the wracke, and redemption of Sir THOMAS GATES Knight,” Pvrchas His Pilgrimes in Five Bookes (London, 1625), 1735, https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/stracheys-a-true-reportory-of-the-wreck-in-bermuda.
21.William Strachey, The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1819), 121, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=fYYMAAAAIAAJ.
22.Alfred Cave, Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011), 103.
23.Augustine D. Selby, “Tobacco Diseases and Tobacco Breeding,” The Tobacco Leaf, Vol. 42, No. 2,102, June 7, 1905, 58, https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=typLAQAAMAAJ.
24.William Henry Sanders, et. al., Vocabulary of the Umbundu Language (Boston: Beacon Press, 1885), 50.
25.Sanders, Vocabulary of the Umbundu Language, 58.
26.Catherine Molineux, “Pleasures of the Smoke: ‘Black Virginians’ in Georgian London’s Tobacco Shops,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 64, No. 2, April 2007, 352.
27.The Summer Islands are another name for Bermuda, so called after Captain George Somers shipwrecked there with John Rolfe, whom he later brought to Jamestown, and who rose to tobacco fame.
28.William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature, in the Year 1619, Vol. 1 (New York: R. & W. & G. Bartow, 1823), 210, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-09.htm.
29.“Proceedings of the County Courts of Kent (1648–1676), Talbot (1662–1674), and Somerset (1665–1668),” Archives of Maryland Online, Vol. 54, preface, 25, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000054/html/am54p--25.html.
30.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 455, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-20.htm.
31.Hening, The Statutes at Large, Vol. 1, 196, http://vagenweb.org/hening/vol01-08.htm.
32.“Bacon’s Laws of Maryland,” Archives of Maryland Online, Vol. 75, 665, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000075/html/am75--665.html.
33.“Proceedings of the Maryland Court of Appeals, 1695–1729,” Archives of Maryland Online, Vol. 77, 16, http://aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000077/html/am77--16.html.
34.W. Noel Sainsbury and J. W. Fortescue, eds., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, American and the West Indies, 1677–1680 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1896), 568.
35.Arthur Pierce Middleton, Tobacco Coast: A Maritime History of Chesapeake Bay in the Colonial Era (Newport News: The Mariners’ Museum, 1953), 123.
36.Middleton, Tobacco Coast, 124.
1.Thomas Jefferson Randolph, “Thomas Jefferson Randolph’s Newspaper Advertisement for Poplar Forest and Monticello Estate Sales,” Jefferson Quotes & Family Letters, http://tjrs.monticello.org/letter/2027.
2.Kate Mason Rowland, The Life of George Mason, 1725–1792, Vol. 1 (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892), 140.
3.For an excellent summary of the “Two-Penny Act” and Patrick Henry’s arguments against Maury, see Michael Kranish, Flight from Monticello: Thomas Jefferson at War (Oxford Univ. Press, 2010), 10.
4.Kevin Phillips, Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich (New York: Broadway Books, 2002), 301.
5.Paul Leicester Ford, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: 1784–1787, Vol. 4 (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894), 155.
6.George Washington, “Letter to Robert Cary & Company, 20 September 1765,” U.S National Archives: Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-07-02-0252-0001.
7.The Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries, Vol. 30 (Charleston, SC: Nabu Press, 2012), 122.
8.Andrew Burnaby, Burnaby’s Travels Through the Middle Settlements of North America (New York: A. Wessels, 1904), 55.
9.T. H. Breen, Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (Princeton Univ. Press, 2009), 145.
10.Burnaby, Travels, 56.
11.Breen, Tobacco Culture, 90. Breen’s short book presents an excellent discussion of the mindset of men like Jefferson, Washington, Lee, and Byrd, portraying a more honest, though less flattering, view of the Founders than that of most textbooks.
12.Breen, Tobacco Culture, 198.
13.Herbert Montfort Morais, The Struggle for American Freedom: The First Two Hundred Years (New York: International Publishers, 1944), 182.
14.This quote is frequently attributed to George Washington, but I have been unable to find an original source document or attribution. Searching the Washington papers from the National Archives turns up several letters from him discussing the sending of tobacco, but nothing with regard to a request made to send it in lieu of money for the war. There is some discussion between Washington and Jefferson of using tobacco as payment to Lord Cornwallis for prisoners, but Washington discouraged Jefferson from taking that course. Benjamin Franklin, in a pamphlet, mentions tobacco along with gold, silver, or copper as the basis of a paper currency but that was well before the Revolutionary War; see Benjamin Franklin, A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper-Currency (Philadelphia: Franklin, 1729), https://founders.archives.gov/?q=%22tobacco%22&s=1111311111&r=1. I find it hard to believe Washington ever uttered these words, although tobacco was used as a means of raising funds for the war, through credit arrangements based on tobacco with European governments.
15.Silas Deane, “The Deane Papers,” Collections of the New-York Historical Society (New York: 1889), 294–96, https://archive.org/stream/collectionsforye21newyuoft. Deane, a delegate to the Continental Congress from Connecticut, served as an ambassador to France during the war along with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. From France, Deane ran a covert operation to supply the thirteen colonies with arms in exchange for tobacco, along with his French counterpart, the playwright Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais. Deane, essentially a US intelligence operative, died under suspicious circumstances while attempting to return from Europe to America in 1789.
16.Julian P. Boyd, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. 1, 1760–1776 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1997), 318.
17.John Murray, the 4th Earl of Dunmore, “Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation,” http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/revolution/dunsmore.cfm.
18.Boyd, Papers of Jefferson, 318.
19.Thurgood Marshall, “The Bicentennial Speech,” May 6, 1987, http://thurgoodmarshall.com/the-bicentennial-speech.
20.Marshall, “The Bicentennial Speech.”
21.US Constitution, National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution-transcript.
22.William Lloyd Garrison, “No Slavery! Fourth of July! The Managers of the Mass. Anti-Slavery Soc’y,” Massachusetts Historical Society: Collection Online, https://www.masshist.org/database/431.
23.Paul Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 1–33. The description of the Constitutional Convention and the clauses of the Constitution related to slavery are summaries of the material Finkelman presents in the first chapter of this book.
24.Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders. Finkelman gives an excellent overview of the debate and the constitutional clauses related to slavery.
25.Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders, 18–19.
1.Annie Ruth Davis, “Josephine Bristow: Ex-Slave, 73 Years,” Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Works Progress Administration, 1941), 98, https://www.loc.gov/resource/mesn.141/?sp=101.
2.The “Horn of Pain” was anything from a conch shell horn to an extremely long, trumpetlike instrument.
3.M. B. Hammond, “Correspondence of Eli Whitney Relative to the Invention of the Cotton Gin,” The American Historical Review, October 1897, Vol. 3, No. 1, 100, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1832812.
4.National Archives, “To Thomas Jefferson from Eli Whitney, 24 November 1793,” Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-27-02-0407.
5.Hammond, “Correspondence of Eli Whitney,” 90–127.
6.Thomas Affleck, Affleck’s Southern Rural Almanac, and Plantation and Garden Calendar for 1851 (New Orleans: Weld & Co., 1850), 5, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951000481852h.
7.These scenes with Robert Mackay are adapted from letters he wrote to his wife from his travels to east coast US seaports and to Liverpool. See Walter Charlton Hartridge, The Letters of Robert Mackay to His Wife (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1949).
8.Knut Oyangen, “The Cotton Economy of the Old South,” Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20121125045429/http://www.history.iastate.edu/agprimer/Page28.html.
9.Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, Population Division: Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divisions, and States, Working Paper No. 56 (Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, 2002), 19, https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2002/demo/POP-twps0056.pdf.
10.Frederick M. Peck and Henry H. Earl, Fall River and its Industries: An Historical and Statistical Record (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1877), 71–72, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=r4IlAQAAMAAJ.
11.Carol Bleser, ed., Secret and Sacred: The Diaries of James Henry Hammond, a Southern Slaveholder (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988). Also see the review of this book, Rosellen Brown, “Monster of All He Surveyed,” New York Times, January 29, 1989, Section 7, 22, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/29/books/monster-of-all-he-surveyed.html.
12.Bleser, Secret and Sacred, also Brown, “Monster of All He Surveyed.”
13.Josiah Gilbert Holland and Richard Watson Gilder, eds., “The Atlanta Cotton Explosion,” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, Vol. 23, 565, https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf2wkXcBBnwC.
14.James Henry Hammond, Selections from the Letters and Speeches of the Hon. James H. Hammond (New York: John F. Trow & Co., 1866), 316, https://books.google.com/books?id=FvMeZzrWW3AC.
15.See the article on the letter by Jason Rodrigues, “Lincoln’s great debt to Manchester,” The Guardian, February 4, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2013/feb/04/lincoln-oscars-manchester-cotton-abraham. Read the full letter at https://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2013/1/31/1359635861273/Mill-workers-001.jpg.
16.Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 (Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press, 1931), 248.
17.State Street Trust Company, Some Industries of New England: Their Origin, Development and Accomplishments (Boston: 1923), 4–5, https://books.google.com/books?id=6mtqS-Xb7joC.
18.Hartridge, The Letters of Robert Mackay, 236.
1.Richard N. Frye, Thomas von Soden Wolfram, and Deitz O. Edzard, “History of Mesopotamia,” Encyclopedia Britannica, April 15, 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia.
2.See, for example, Stephen R. Haynes, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002).
3.Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York: Norton, 2003), 3–24.
4.Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 8.
5.See Chapter 1 of Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, for a full discussion of this view.
6.See “maroon,” Etymology Online, https://www.etymonline.com/word/maroon.
7.Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (NY: Knopf, 2011), 331.
8.Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation, Vol. 15 (Edinburgh: Goldsmid, 1890), 198.
9.“Ordenanzas para los negros del Yerno de Chile,” Memoria Chilena, http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-62279.html.
10.Sally E. Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001), 10.
11.Cited in John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake (New York: Random House, 2012), 62.
12.See Chapter 2 of this book for more on the Sea Dogs.
13.Hakluyt, Principal Navigations.
14.Hakluyt Society, The Original Writings & Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, Ser. 2, No. 76 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1935), 142, https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.172689/2015.172689.The-Original-Writings-Of-Correspondence-Of-The-Two-Richard-Haklutyts-vol-I_djvu.txtá.
15.Hakluyt Society, The Original Writings, 142.
16.Hakluyt Society, The Original Writings, 118.
17.See Chapter 5 of this book for more about Dale’s Code.
18.See Chapter 6 of this book for more on Bacon’s Rebellion.
19.See Chapter 8 of this book for more on the Dunmore Proclamation. The estimates for slaves taking up Dunmore’s offer range from three hundred to two thousand. For the total number of slaves crossing over to the British, the estimate ranges between 20,000 to 100,000, which is actually a significant number of the slave population at the time of the Revolutionary War. See also “The Phillipsburg Proclamation” on Black Loyalists, and Peggy Bristow, ed., We’re Rooted Here and They Can’t Pull Us Up: Essays in African Canadian Women’s History (Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994), 19.
20.Paul Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders (New York: Routledge, 2015), 30.
21.William M. Wiecek, “Somerset: Lord Mansfield and the Legitimacy of Slavery in the Anglo-American World,” Univ. of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1974, 86–146.
22.Wiecek, “Somerset,” 95.
23.Horace Bertram Nelson, “The case of JAMES SOMMERSETT, a Negro,” Selected Cases, Statutes, and Orders Illustrative of the Principles of Private International Law as Administered in England (London: Stevens & Sons, 1889), 62, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=r_w0AAAAIAAJ.
24.Wiecek, “Somerset,” 86–87.
25.Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders, 28–32.
26.Patrick Henry, cited in George Washington Frank Mellen, An Argument on the Unconstitutionality of Slavery, Embracing an Abstract of the Proceedings of the Nation and State Conventions on this Subject (Boston: Saxton & Pierce, 1841), 216.
27.Amendment II, Constitution of the United States, https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript.
28.Many popular references to policing and “slave patrols” cite Hadden, Slave Patrols. But Hadden clearly states that her study, originally a PhD thesis, covers the period 1700–1865. See, Hadden, Slave Patrols, 2. This leaves the colonial period prior to 1700 unaddressed. Slave patrols did not suddenly happen at the start of the eighteenth century, and it is important to have a better understanding of when, why, and where they first began. Hadden acknowledges as much. “Patrols were not created in a vacuum, but owed much to European institutions that served as the slave patrol’s institutional forbears,” Hadden, Slave Patrols, 3.
29.See Chapter 6 of this book for a thorough accounting of these two cases.
30.See Chapter 6 of this book for the complete text of this act.
31.George Burton Adams and Henry Morse Stephens, eds., Select Documents of English Constitutional History (New York: MacMillan, 1901), 76–79.
32.Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 78.
33.Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 77.
34.See, for example, John S. Dempsey, Linda S. Forst, and Steven B. Carter, “English Policing: Our Heritage,” An Introduction to Policing (Boston: Cengage, 2017), 4.
35.Jonathon A. Cooper, Twentieth-Century Influences on Twenty-First-Century Policing: Continued Lessons of Police Reform (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2015), 8. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Twentieth_Century_Influences_on_Twenty_F/gEawCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22statute+of+winchester%22+%22American+policing%22&pg=PA8&printsec=frontcover.
36.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 10.
37.Hadden, Slave Patrols.
38.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 99.
39.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 78.
40.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 167–202.
41.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 177–78.
42.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 180–83.
43.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 190.
44.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 190–96.
45.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 194.
46.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 200.
47.Works Progress Administration (WPA), Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1841), 18, 51, 65.
48.Hadden, Slave Patrols, 218.
49.Norma Torres, Congresswoman, “Torres to DOJ: Release FBI Report on White Supremacist Infiltration of Law Enforcement,” June 24, 2020, https://torres.house.gov/media-center/press-releases/torres-doj-release-fbi-report-white-supremacist-infiltration-law.
50.United States v. Kozminski, 487 U.S. 931 (1988), https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/487/931.
51.National Public Radio, “In the Wake of Chauvin’s Conviction, A Look Back At The Origins Of American Policing,” All Things Considered (Washington, DC: April 21, 2021). https://www.npr.org/2021/04/22/989938920/in-the-wake-of-chauvins-conviction-a-look-back-at-the-origins-of-american-polici.
52.Betsy Hodges, “As Mayor of Minneapolis, I Saw How White Liberals Block Change,” New York Times, July 9, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/09/opinion/minneapolis-hodges-racism.html.
53.Harvard Kennedy School, “The end of us-versus-them policing: a tough road ahead for reform,” October 5, 2020, https://www.hks.harvard.edu/more/policycast/end-us-versus-them-policing-tough-road-ahead-reform.
54.Parts of this section on police reform come from my opinion column, “Reforms aren’t enough to end ‘us vs. them’ policing in America,” Crosscut, May 21, 2021. https://crosscut.com/opinion/2021/05/reforms-arent-enough-end-us-vs-them-policing-america.
1.Adapted from Briton Hammon, A Narrative of the Uncommon Suffering and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon (Boston: Green & Russell, 1760), https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/hammon/menu.html.
2.W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997), 6.
3.Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for Large Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States, working paper no. 76 (Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, 2005).
4.Malcolm X, “The House Negro and the Field Negro,” transcript from Malcolm’s famous 1963 speech, “Message to the Grass Roots.” Malcolm gave a variation of this speech many times. Listen to it, for example, at https://genius.com/Malcolm-x-the-house-negro-and-the-field-negro-annotated.
5.Henry Laurens, The Papers of Henry Laurens: Sept. 1, 1763–Aug. 31, 1765, Vol. 4 (Columbia: South Carolina Historical Society, 1968), 319.
6.Laurens, The Papers of Henry Laurens, 633.
7.John Brickell, MD, The Natural History of North Carolina (Dublin: James Carson, 1737), 260, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=p4c5AAAAcAAJ.
8.Elmer Turnage, ed., “Stories from Ex-Slaves,” Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, Part 3, South Carolina Narratives (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941), 67.
9.William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South, Vol. 1 (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1863), 206.
10.Lynn B. Harris and William N. Still, Jr., Patroons and Periaguas (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2014), 56.
11.Thomas Jefferson, “Letter to James Madison,” Thomas Jefferson’s Papers, Feb. 12, 1799, https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/st-domingue-haiti.
12.Bolster, Black Jacks, 4.
13.Frederick Douglass, “My Escape from Slavery,” Century Magazine, Vol. 23 (1882), 125.
14.Bolster, Black Jacks, 14.
1.Author unknown, The Women’s Petition against Coffee and The Men’s Answer to the Women’s Petition against Coffee, pamphlet (London: 1674), https://www.amazon.com/Womens-Petition-against-Coffee-Answer-ebook/dp/B088X69HS5.
2.Author unknown, The Women’s Petition.
3.Author unknown, The Women’s Petition.
4.Ned Ward, The London Spy Compleat (1703) (London: J. Howe, 1703), 15. The London Spy was a periodical review of London public life and culture, http://grubstreetproject.net/works/T119938.
5.Pasqua Rosée, The Virtue of Coffee Drink, handbill (London: 1652), https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Virtue_of_the_Coffee_Drink.jpg.
6.Ward, The London Spy, 15.
7.Robin Pearson and David Richardson, “Insuring the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 70, No. 2, June 2019, 417–46.
8.Frederick Martin, The History of Lloyd’s and of Maritime Insurance in Great Britain (London: Macmillan and Co., 1876), 356, https://books.google.com/books?id=BEN6WlSgwxcC&pg=PA356&lpg=PA356.
9.James Oldham, “Insurance Litigation Involving the Zong and Other British Slave Ships, 1780–1807,” The Journal of Legal History, Vol. 28, No. 3, 299–318.
10.Guy Faulconbridge and Kate Holton, “Update: Lloyd’s of London Apologizes for Its ‘Shameful’ Role in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Insurance Journal, June 18, 2020, https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2020/06/18/572696.htm.
11.See the original agreement at the “Buttonwood Agreement,” Virtual Museum and Archive of the History of Financial Regulation of The Securities and Exchange Commission Historical Society, http://3197d6d14b5f19f2f440-5e13d29c4c016cf96cbbfd197c579b45.r81.cf1.rackcdn.com/collection/papers/1790/1792_0517_NYSEButtonwood.pdf.
12.Peter Eisenstadt, “How the Buttonwood Tree Grew: The Making of a New York Stock Exchange Legend,” Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural Studies, Vol. 19, 1994, 75–98.
13.Ward, The London Spy, 289. The periodical was well-known for colorful depictions of English public life.
14.Ward, The London Spy, 289.
15.Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 1685–1776, Vol. 4 (1730–1740) (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1905), 85, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433058764709?urlappend=%3Bseq=95.
16.Francis Guy, The Tontine Coffee House, painting, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tontine_Coffee_House#/media/File:Tontine_coffee_house.jpg.
17.Shane White, “Slavery in New York State in the Early Republic,” Australasian Journal of American Studies 14, No. 2, 1995, 1, www.jstor.org/stable/41053779.
18.Minutes of the Council, 88, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433058764709?urlappend=%3Bseq=98.
19.Rodney Leon, “African Burial Ground Exterior Monument,” US General Services Administration. Mr. Leon, and his firm, won the competition for creating the African Burial Ground monument, https://www.gsa.gov/about-us/regions/welcome-to-the-northeast-caribbean-region-2/about-region-2/african-burial-ground/african-burial-ground-exterior-monument.
20.See, for instance, Ira Berlin and Leslie Harris, Slavery in New York (New York: New Press, 2005).
21.See Chapter 9 of this book.
22.See Chapter 11 of this book.
23.Edward E. Baptist and Louis Hyman, “American finance grew on the back of slaves,” The Chicago Sun-Times, March 6, 2014, Internet Archive, Wayback Machine, http://chicago.suntimes.com/uncategorized/7/71/151465/american-finance-grew-on-the-back-of-slaves.
24.Thomas Jefferson, “Deed of Mortgage of Slaves to Henderson, McCaul & Company, 12 May 1796,” National Archives, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-29-02-0064.
25.Thomas Jefferson, “Deed of Mortgage of Slaves to Van Staphorst & Hubbard, 12 May 1796,” National Archives, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-29-02-0065.
26.Thomas Jefferson, “Deed of Mortgage of Slaves to Van Staphorst & Hubbard, 21 November 1796,” National Archives, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-29-02-0167.
27.David Teather, “Bank Admits it owned slaves,” The Guardian, January 21, 2005. JP Morgan apologized for its role in the slave trade, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/22/usa.davidteather. In 2007, a group of shareholders for the bank rescinded that apology on grounds that it was “absurd.” See Amy Ridenour, “JP Morgan Chase Slavery Apology Criticized,” The National Center for Public Policy Research, May 15, 2007, https://nationalcenter.org/ncppr/2007/05/15/blog-jpmorgan-chase-slavery-apology-criticized.
28.Katie Benner, “Wachovia apologizes for slavery ties,” CNN Money, June 2, 2005, https://money.cnn.com/2005/06/02/news/fortune500/wachovia_slavery/.
29.Michael Powelson, Swindlers All, a Brief History of Government Business Frauds from Alexander Hamilton to AIG (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019), 39.
30.Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Rise of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 254.
31.Supreme Court of Missouri, Milly v. Smith, 2 Mo. 139, September 1, 1829, https://cite.case.law/mo/2/139/.
32.See Chapter 9 of this book.
33.Baptist and Hyman, “American finance.”
34.Michael Ralph and William Rankin, “Decoder: The Slave Insurance Market,” Foreign Policy, January 16, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/01/16/decoder-slave-insurance-market-aetna-aig-new-york-life.
35.Baptist and Hyman, “American finance.”
1.Elizabeth Cotten, Freight Train and other North Carolina Folk Songs and Tunes, liner notes by Mike Seeger, 1989 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1989), https://folkways-media.si.edu/liner_notes/smithsonian_folkways/SFW40009.pdf.
2.Cotten, Freight Train.
3.Clara Smith, recording, “Freight Train Blues,” September 30, 1924, https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/index.php/matrix/detail/2000029830/140064-Freight_train_blues/.
4.Theodore Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience: A Photographic Journey (Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ., 2010), 1–4.
5.“African American Railroad Workers: Gandy Dancers,” US Slave, https://usslave.blogspot.com/2012/04/railroad-gandy-dancers.html. The origin of the term Gandy is controversial and disputed. Some claim it comes from the Chicago-based “Gandy Tool Company” but no company by that name has ever been conclusively shown to have existed. Others claim it comes from the duck-like (gander-like) movements of men running on rails. It may also be a transliteration of a West African word, or place, such as Ghana, from where many slaves came.
6.“Affairs of Southern Railroads,” Reports of the Committees of the House of Representatives, Second Session, Thirty-Ninth Congress, 1866–67 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1867), 603. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=iwdVAAAAcAAJ.
7.“Affairs of Southern Railroads,” 609.
8.“Affairs of Southern Railroads,” 592.
9.“Messrs, G.B. Lamar and Fernando Wood,” New York Times, November 11, 1863, 1, https://www.nytimes.com/1863/11/11/archives/messrs-gb-lamar-and-fernando-wood.html.
10.In the mid-1850s, wheat and apples were southern crops and pig iron was produced on “iron plantations,” the northeastern US, which employed slave labor. See, for example, James R. Irwin, “Exploring the affinity of wheat and slavery in the Virginia Piedmont,” Explorations in Economic History, Vol. 25, No. 3, July 1988, 295–322; Gavin Wright, “Slavery and American Agricultural History,” paper presented at The Agricultural History Society, April 2003. Albemarle County, Virginia, most likely due to Jefferson’s influence, had a brisk nineteenth-century trade in an apple known as the “Newtown Pippin.” Much of American apple production, especially in the south, was for the production of hard cider but southern apple-growing prior to the Civil War was possible because of slave labor. See Tim Hensley, “A Curious Tale: The Apple in North America,” Brooklyn Botanic Garden, June 2, 2005, https://www.bbg.org/gardening/article/the_apple_in_north_america. In the nineteenth century, pig iron was produced in many areas of the south at iron plantations, where year-round slave laborers were overseen by White managers; see, for example, Wilma A. Dunaway, Slavery in the American Mountain South (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003).
11.Richard Lathers, This Discursive Biographical Sketch: 1841–1902 of Colonel Richard Lathers (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1902), 85–112.
12.Mary Ricketson Bullard, Robert Stafford of Cumberland Island: Growth of a Planter (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1995), 288. See the footnote on this page.
13.The Commercial and Financial Chronicle, July To December, 1901, Vol. 73 (New York: William B. Dana, 1901), 317, https://books.google.com/books?id=DjpOAAAAYAAJ.
14.The editors, “Citigroup,” The Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Citigroup.
15.Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia with the Accompanying Documents (Richmond: Thomas Ritchie, 1838), 74.
16.Twenty-Second Annual Report, 76.
17.Craig Sanders, Amtrak in the Heartland (Railroads Past and Present) (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 2006), 7–8. Essentially, Amtrak took over the passenger service of the Seaboard Coast Line, and CSX took over its freight service.
18.“CSX merger family tree,” Trains, https://trn.trains.com/railroads/railroad-history/2006/06/csx-merger-family-tree.
19.William G. Thomas, The Iron Way: Railroads, the Civil War, and the Making of Modern America (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2011), 22.
20.“A Line in Time,” Norfolk Southern, http://www.nscorp.com/content/nscorp/en/the-norfolk-southern-story.html.
21.Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience, 11.
22.Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience, 23.
23.Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience, 12.
24.Board of Public Works, Biennial Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia, January 22, 1859–60 & 1860–61 (Richmond, 1862), 76, 172, 269, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=D6s4AQAAMAAJ.
25.Railroad Gazette: A Journal of Transportation, Engineering and Railroad News, Vol. 33 (New York: Railroad Gazette, 1901), 572.
26.Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience, 18.
27.See “CSX merger family tree,” and Sanders, Amtrak in the Heartland, and “History of Kansas City Southern,” https://web.archive.org/web/20080709070103/http://www.kcsouthern.com/en-us/KCS/Pages/History.aspx, and “Canadian National Railway Company,” The Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Canadian-National-Railway-Company. Note: Predecessors to today’s railways may have undergone multiple name changes, mergers, and acquisitions, not all of which are referenced in the text.
28.“Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail,” Florida Department of Environmental Protection, https://floridadep.gov/parks/unit-management-plans/documents/tallahassee-st-marks-historic-railroad-state-trail.
29.Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Publication of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Vol. 7, 1900–02 (Cambridge: John Wilson and Son, 1905), 195, https://books.google.com/books?id=x_8KAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA195.
30.William Page Johnson, “Richard Ratcliffe: The Founder,” The Fare Facs Gazette, Vol. 3, No. 1, https://www.historicfairfax.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/HFCI31-2005.pdf. Ratcliffe’s plantation was Mount Vineyard, present-day Fairfax, Virginia. In 1861, Confederate troops were headquartered at Mount Vineyard.
31.“Macadamize,” Merriam-Webster Dictionary, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/macadamize. The word macadamize did not come into use until 1824. A modern-day variation on macadamization using tar, oil, or cement as a base is still in use for many roads today.
32.Debbie Robison, “Little River Turnpike,” Northern Virginia History Notes, September 10, 2017, http://www.novahistory.org/LittleRiverTurnpike/LittleRiverTurnpike.htm.
33.Board of Public Works, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia. January 22, 1830 (Richmond: Samuel Shepherd & Co., 1830), 67, 212.
34.Stanley J. Folmsbee, “The Turnpike Phase of Tennessee’s Internal Improvement System of 1836–1838,” The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 3, No. 4, November 1977, 462.
35.Board of Public Works, Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia. 1850 (Richmond, 1850), 47.
36.Caitlin Rosenthal, Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2019), 122–25.
37.Board of Public Works, Fourteenth Annual Report, 317.
38.Twenty-Second Annual Report, 98.
39.Board of Public Works, Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia. January 22, 1826–27, 1827–28, 1828–29 (Richmond: Samuel Shepherd & Co., 1829), 215.
40.Board of Public Works, Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Public Works, to the General Assembly of Virginia. January 22, 1830 (Richmond: Samuel Shepherd & Co., 1833), 178.
41.Wayland Fuller Dunaway, History of the James River and Kanawha Company (New York: Columbia Univ., 1922), 131, https://archive.org/stream/cu31924022882330/cu31924022882330_djvu.txt.
42.Peter Wray, Common Labor: Workers and the Digging of North American Canals, 1780–1860 (Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997), 88.
43.Ryan A. Quintana, Making a Slave State: Political Development in Early South Carolina (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2018), 68–73.
44.Wray, Common Labor, 126–27.
45.Quoted in “Florida History Built on Slavery,” US Slave, http://usslave.blogspot.com/2013/06/florida-history-built-on-slavery.html. See also, Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Chicago: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1999).
46.Larry Van Dyne, “Water, Water . . . ,” The Washingtonian, March 1, 2007, https://www.washingtonian.com/2007/03/01/water-water/.
47.Alexander Pope, The Works of Alexander Pope Esq. Containing his Miscellaneous Pieces in Verse and Prose, Vol. 6 (London: J. and P. Knapton, 1751), 196, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=QyYJAAAAQAAJ.
48.Quoted in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1996), 33.
49.William and Ellen Craft, Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom (London: William Tweedie, 1860), http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/585/pg585-images.html.
50.The Underground Railroad alone is thought to have accounted for between 40,000 to 100,000 escaped slaves a year between 1860 and 1865. See Naomi Blumberg, “Fugitive Slave,” The Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/fugitive-slave.
51.James C. Cobb, “One of American History’s Worst Laws Was Passed 165 Years Ago,” TIME, September 18, 2015, https://time.com/4039140/fugitive-slace-act-165.
52.“Fugitive Slave Act 1850,” The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/fugitive.asp.
53.Harriet C. Frazier, Runaway and Freed Missouri Slaves and Those Who Helped Them, 1763–1865 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2004), 93.
54.Court documents list only “Mr. Leib” as the Hanover, Pennsylvania, ticket agent. But see The Official Railway List: A Directory, 64, which lists Joseph Leib as the Hanover ticket agent, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=JEsEAAAAMAAJ.
55.Oliver Miller, Maryland Reports, Containing Cases Argued and Determined in the Court of Appeals of Maryland, Vol. 16 (Annapolis: Robert F. Bonsall, 1861), 331–38, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=VUdFAQAAMAAJ.
56.Frederick Douglass, “The Present Condition and Future Prospects of the Negro People,” speech at the annual meeting of the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, New York City, May 11, 1853, in Philip Foner and Yuval Taylor, eds., Frederick Douglass: Selected Speeches and Writings (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1999), 260.
57.Samuel F. B. Morse, Daily Madisonian, February 7, 1844, https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn84020074/1844-02-07/ed-1.
58.Gerda Lerner, ed., Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), 8.
59.Ervin L. Jordan, Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 1995), 40.
60.The term “drum up” business originates in the antebellum era when traveling salesmen carried their wares in boxes made of leather stretched over a wooden frame. To announce their presence, salesmen would beat their leather boxes with drumsticks, making the sound of a muffled snare drum. In the south, during the Civil War, this practice was a way of distinguishing a salesman from a “Yankee” spy. See Ken Gassman, “Time to ‘Drum Up’ Business,” International Diamond Exchange, April 12, 2020, http://www.idexonline.com/FullArticle?id=36661.
61.See A. J. Rux, “Letter from A. J. Rux to E. H. Stokes,” November 17, 1860, The New York Historical Society Museum & Library, http://digitalcollections.nyhistory.org/islandora/9, and “Letter from A. J. Rux to E. H. Stokes,” December 3, 1860, The New York Historical Society Museum & Library, and “Letter fromA. J. Rux to E. H. Stokes,” February 21, 1861, Railroads and the Making of Modern America, http://railroads.unl.edu/documents/view_document.php?id=rail.gen.0028.
62.Ninbush Young, “Ninbush Young to E.H. Stokes,” telegraph, June 24, 1862. Thomas in The Iron Way refers to the originator of this message as “Winbush.” In this author’s reading of the handwritten message the first letter appears to be an N and not a W.
63.James Redpath, The Roving Editor: or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States (University Park: Pennsylvania Univ. Press, 1996), 228. This was originally published in 1859.
64.Douglass, “The Present Condition.”
65.Elmer Turnage, ed., “Stories from Ex-Slaves,” Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 7, Kentucky Narratives (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941), 71.
66.Kenneth Silverman, Lightning Man: The Accursed Life of Samuel F. B. Morse (Cambridge: Perseus Books Group, 2003), 401.
1.Unless otherwise noted, this account of Butler’s interaction with Phelps and the formation of the Louisiana Native Guard is taken directly from Butler’s autobiography; see Benjamin Franklin Butler, Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General Benj. F. Butler’s Book (Boston: A.M. Thayer & Company, 1892), 487–502, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=0LIBAAAAMAAJ.
2.M. A. DeWolfe Howe, ed., Home Letters of General Sherman (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 252.
3.Benjamin Franklin Butler, Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, During the Period of the Civil War (Privately Issued: 1917), 154, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Private_and_Official_Correspondence_of_G/Ly0OAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&kptab=getbook.
4.American Buttlefield Trust, “The Color of Bravery: United States Colored Troops in the Civil War,” https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/color-bravery.
5.Ida M. Tarbell, “Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation,” McClure’s Magazine, Vol. 12, November 1898–April 1899, 526.
6.Abraham Lincoln, “Letter to Horace Greeley,” New York Times, August 22, 1862, https://www.nytimes.com/1862/08/24/archives/a-letter-from-president-lincoln-reply-to-horace-greeley-slavery-and.html.
7.William Wells Brown, The Negro in the American Revolution (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1867), no page numbers, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/50130/50130-8.txt.
8.Brown, The Negro in the American Rebellion.
9.This description of the night the Emancipation Proclamation was issued is adapted from Frederick Douglass, Autobiographies: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, My Bondage and My Freedom, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Varna, Bulgaria: Pretorian Books, 219), 291–94.
10.Donald M. Jacobs, Courage and Conscience: Black & White Abolitionists in Boston (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1993), 22.
11.Douglass, Autobiographies, 292.
12.Abraham Lincoln, “The Emancipation Proclamation,” National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html.
13.Butler, Autobiography, 497.
14.Butler, Autobiography, 497.
15.There are many sources to consult on the Black soldiers and the Siege of Port Hudson. See John D. Winters, The Civil War in Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1991); James M. McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Blacks Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (New York: Vintage Books, 2003); and, “Black Soldiers in the U.S. Military During the Civil War,” National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/blacks-civil-war.
16.Winters, The Civil War, 242–67.
17.Winters, The Civil War, 242–67.
18.1844, from berserk (n.), “Norse warrior” (by 1835), an alternative form of berserker, a word which was introduced (as berserkar) by Sir Walter Scott in “The Pirate” (1822), from Old Norse berserkr (n.), “raging warrior of superhuman strength.” It is probably from *ber- “bear” + serkr “shirt,” thus literally “a warrior clothed in bearskin” (see bear (n.) + sark). Thus not, as Scott evidently believed, from Old Norse berr, “bare, naked,” and meaning “warrior who fights without armor.” From Etymology Online, https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=berserk.
19.Lerone Bennett, Jr., “The Negro in the Civil War,” Ebony, Vol. 17, No. 8, June 1962, 136.
20.“The Funeral of Captain Andre Cailloux,” Harper’s Weekly, Vol. 7, August 29, 1963, 511, https://archive.org/details/harpersweeklyv7bonn.
21.United States, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series 1, Vol. 26, Part 1: Reports (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1880–1901), 45, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924077743049.
22.Erin Blakemore, “How an Enslaved African Man in Boston Helped Save Generation from Smallpox,” History, February 1, 2019, https://www.history.com/news/smallpox-vaccine-onesimus-slave-cotton-mather.
23.Michael Kinch, Between Hope and Fear: A History of Vaccines and Human Immunity (NY: Pegasus Books, 2018), 81, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Between_Hope_and_Fear/yu8_DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT81.
24.Adam Serwer, “Why a Statue of the ‘Father of Gynecology’ Had to Come Down,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/04/why-a-statue-of-the-father-of-gynecology-had-to-come-down/558311/.
25.James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (NY: Simon & Schuster, 1993).
26.Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Lie of Henrietta Lacks (NY: Random House, 2011).
27.Madeline Drexler, “Deadly Parallels: Health disparities in the COVID-19 pandemic mirror those in the lethal 1918 flu,” Harvard Public Health Magazine, Fall 2020, https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/magazine/magazine_article/deadly-parallels/.
28.Drexler, “Deadly Parallels.”
29.Michael W. Sjoding, M.D., et al., “Racial Bias in Pulse Oximetry Measurement,” New England Journal of Medicine, Letters, Dec. 17, 2020.
30.Bennett, “The Negro in the Civil War,” 136.
31.Butler, Autobiography, Appendix, 47.
32.Bennett, “The Negro in the Civil War,” 136.
33.“Acts of Individual Bravery,” “Men of Color to Arms,” Virginia Historical Society Online Exhibitions, http://vahistorical.org/civilwar/wagingwar.htm. Butler was removed from office by executive order from President Lincoln in January 1865.
34.Read the full inscription at https://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMEDNW_South_Carolina_Memorial_Gettysburg_PA/.
35.Lincoln, “The Emancipation Proclamation.”
36.Katherine Calos, “Black soldiers in the Civil War: Who did they fight for and why?” Richmond Times-Dispatch, March 14, 2015, https://richmond.com/black-soldiers-in-the-civil-war-who-did-they-fight-for-and-why/article_317568c2-1ba4-5f88-a18a-45d24a900a22.html.
37.Paul D. Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro?”: Lincoln, White Racism, and Civil War America (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2009), 185–86.
38.Edward Davis Townsend, Assistant Adjutant-General in “Negroes of Savannah,” https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Negroes_of_Savannah/.
39.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
40.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
41.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
42.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
43.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
44.Townsend, “Negroes of Savannah.”
45.John Roger Stephens and Lonnie Rashid Lynn, Glory lyrics (Nashville, TN: EMI Music Publishing, 2014).
1.“The Convention,” Charleston Daily News, January 15, 1868, 1.
2.J. Woodruff, reporter, Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of South Carolina (Charleston: Denny & Perry, 1868), 6.
3.“The President’s Last Proclamation,” The Spectator, No. 1789, October 11, 1862. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=DdkhAQAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA1124
4.Benjamin Franklin Butler, Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major-General Benj. F. Butler’s Book (Boston: A.M. Thayer & Company, 1892), 500, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=0LIBAAAAMAAJ.
5.Paul M. Angle, ed., Abraham Lincoln’s Speeches and Letters 1832–1865 (New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1897), 220, https://libsysdigi.library.illinois.edu/OCA/Books2012-06/abrahamlincolnsspee00linc.
6.“Appendix to the Congressional Globe,” The Congressional Globe, Vol. 36, Part 5, 39th Congress of the United States, First Session (Washington, DC: Congressional Globe Office, 1866), 710, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=i2M9AQAAMAAJ.
7.John Palmer, Personal Recollection of John Palmer: The Story of an Earnest Life (Cincinnati: The Robert Clarke Company, 1901), 127, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t77s7s742.
8.“Appendix to The Congressional Globe,” 707.
9.William Francis Allen, Charles Pickard Ware, and Lucy McKim Garrison, Slave Songs of the United States (New York: A. Simpson & Company, 1867), 55, https://archive.org/details/slavesongsunite00allegoog.
10.“Our Next Vice-President,” The New York Times, June 16, 1864, 2, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1864/06/16/issue.html.
11.“Our Next Vice-President,” New York Times.
12.“Our Next Vice-President,” New York Times.
13.“Our Next Vice-President,” New York Times.
14.Journal of the Senate of the State of South Carolina Being the Extra Session of 1865 (Columbia: Julian A. Selby, 1865), 23.
15.Edmund Rhett, “Letter to Armistead Burt,” cited in Richard Zuczek, State of Rebellion: People’s War in Reconstruction South Carolina, 1865–1877, PhD Thesis (Columbus: Ohio State Univ., 1993), 32.
16.For South Carolina’s Black Codes, see “The Code,” Edgefield Advertiser, January 3, 1866, 1, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/data/batches/scu_jinx_ver01/data/sn84026897/00211101209/1866010301/0416.pdf. Most southern states’ Black Codes were similar; see a survey of the Black Codes in Page Smith, Trial By Fire: A People’s History of the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Penguin Books, 1990).
17.“Memphis Riots and Massacres,” Reports of the Committees of the House of Representatives, 39th Session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1866), 1.
18.Philip H. Sheridan, “The New-Orleans Riot, Its Official History,” The Dispatches of Gens. Sheridan, Grant, and Baird, https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/rbc/lcrbmrp/t2602/t2602.pdf.
19.Proceeding of the Pennsylvania Yearly Meeting of the Progressive Friends (Philadelphia: John Craig & Son, 1875), 1, https://play.google.com/books/reader.
20.“Let’s Have a New Divide,” Iowa Plain Dealer, July 12, 1867, 1, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025167/1867-07-12/ed-1/seq-1.
21.Martin Luther King, Jr., “Beyond Vietnam,” The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford Univ., https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/beyond-vietnam.
22.Lerone Bennett, Jr., Black Power U.S.A.: The Human Side of Reconstruction, 1867–1877 (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1967), 31.
23.Frederick Douglass, speech, Proceedings of the American Anti-Slavery Society, at its Third Decade (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1864), 118, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t9r212f95.
24.Frederick Douglass, “The Mission on the War,” New-York Daily Tribune, January 14, 1864, 2, https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030213/1864-01-14/ed-1.
25.Frederick Douglass, “The Work of the Future,” Douglass’ Monthly, Vol. 5, No. 5, November 1862, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000007703097.
26.Charles Sumner, “Rights and Duties of Our Colored Fellow-Citizens,” A Letter to the National Convention of Colored Citizens at Columbia, South Carolina, October 12, 1871, Charles Sumner: His Complete Works, Vol. 19 (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1900), 165, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/50386/50386-h/50386-h.htm.
27.F. & J. Rives, eds., The Congressional Globe: The Debates and Proceedings of the First Session of the Thirty-Ninth Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Globe Office, 1866), 2459–60.
28.“Wanted—A Policy!” and “Emancipation in Russia,” New York Times, April 3, 1861, 4, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1861/04/03/78655534.html.
29.Thaddeus Stevens, “Reconstruction,” speech delivered in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Beverly Wilson Palmer, ed., The Selected Papers of Thaddeus Stevens, Volume 2: April 1865—August 1868 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998), 25, https://books.google.com/books?id=_IjlJeXn0UAC.
30.Proceedings of the Colored People’s Convention of the State of South Carolina (Charleston: Leader Office, 1865), 25–26, https://omeka.coloredconventions.org/files/original/fb7ce2e02cc45786fb4530926135de24.pdf.
31.Proceedings of the Colored People’s Convention, 27–31.
32.New-York Daily Tribune, November 14, 1865, 4, https://www.newspapers.com/image/466694786.
33.New York Times, January 4, 1866, 1, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1866/01/04/issue.html.
34.Cleveland Leader, November 13, 1865, 1, https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A125C1B91E57C8E0A%40GB3NEWS-125DE28BA2073283%402402554–125C317DEBFF878B%400–125C317DEBFF878B%40.
35.“Black Code of Mississippi,” Chicago Tribune, December 1, 1865, 2, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014064/1865-12-01/ed-1.
36.Frederick Douglass, “What the Black Man Wants,” The Equality of all Men before the Law” (Boston: Geo. C. Rand & Avery, 1865), 38, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=MG9DAQAAMAAJ.
37.Wendell Phillips, “The Immediate Issue,” The Equality of all Men, 32.
38.Elizur Wright, “Suffrage for the Blacks Sound Political Economy,” The Equality of all Men, 40–41.
39.New-York Daily Tribune, December 4, 1867, 3, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/data/batches/dlc_delphi_ver02/data/sn83030214/0020653087A/1867120401/0671.pdf.
40.Bennett, Black Power, 57.
41.Woodruff, Proceedings, 89.
42.James S. Pike, The Prostrate State: South Carolina Under Negro Government (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1874), 10–12.
43.Pike, The Prostrate State.
44.Pike, The Prostrate State, 11.
45.Pike, The Prostrate State, 15.
46.Pike, The Prostrate State, 45.
47.Eric Foner, “Rooted in Reconstruction: The First Wave of Black Congressmen,” The Nation, October 15, 2008, https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/rooted-reconstruction-first-wave-black-congressmen.
48.Pike, The Prostrate State, 52.
49.Pike, The Prostrate State, 14.
50.Pike, The Prostrate State, 19–20.
51.Pike, The Prostrate State, 17.
52.Pike, The Prostrate State, 23.
53.“The Carolinas,” New York Herald, June 13, 1871, 15, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030313/1871-06-13/ed-1/seq-15.
54.Woodruff, Proceedings, 80.
55.Woodruff, Proceedings, 358.
56.Barack Obama, “State of the Union,” January 28, 2014, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/01/28/president-barack-obamas-state-union-address.
57.Woodruff, Proceedings, 868.
58.“The Murder of G.W. Dill in South Carolina,” New York Times, June 13, 1868, 2, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1868/06/13/78919321.html. The Times article casts doubt on the involvement of the KKK. Hyman I. Rubin in “Ku Klux Klan,” South Carolina Encyclopedia, http://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/ku-klux-klan/ and J. Michael Martinez in Carpetbaggers, Cavalry, and the Ku Klux Klan: Exposing the Invisible Empire During Reconstruction (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 25, suggest that Dill’s killing fits the pattern of KKK violence against White Republicans in the south at the time.
59.Bennett, Black Power, 302.
60.Bennett, Black Power, 302.
61.Being a Black landowner did not automatically bring compassion for poor tenant farmers. Lawrence Graham in The Senator and the Socialite: The True Story of America’s First Black Dynasty (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 114, tells of how Bruce employed “poorly compensated” Black sharecroppers on his plantation in Mississippi, who lived in “flimsy wooden shacks,” not unlike the conditions on plantations owned by Whites.
62.Pike, The Prostrate State, 259.
63.Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 376.
64.Woodruff, Proceedings, 264.
65.Woodruff, Proceedings, 265.
66.The description of the Rollin sisters and their work comes from Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., “‘The Remarkable Misses Rollin’: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” The South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 92, No. 3, July 1991, 172–88.
67.Gatewood, “‘The Remarkable Misses Rollin’,” 180.
68.Gatewood, “‘The Remarkable Misses Rollin’,” 182.
1.This description of the Ku Klux Klan attack on Alfred Richardson is taken from his testimony before a joint congressional committee, Testimony Taken by The Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs of the Late Insurrectionary States. Georgia, Vol. 1, July 7, 1871 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 1–19, https://archive.org/details/reportofjointsel06unit.
2.Mathew Pulver, “How Alf Richardson Fought the Klan and Became Athens’ First Black State Representative,” Flagpole, March 4, 2020, https://flagpole.com/news/news-features/2020/03/04/how-alf-richardson-fought-the-klan-and-became-athens-first-black-state-representative.
3.Claudia Isler and Barbara Jean Quinn, Understanding Your Right to Vote (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2012), 44, place the number between 20,000 and 40,000. Herbert Shapiro in “Afro-American Responses to Race Violence During Reconstruction,” Science and Society, Vol. 36, No. 2, Summer 1972, 1, makes reference to a figure of 20,000. Rick Selzer and Grace M. Lopes “The Ku Klux Klan: Reasons for Support or Opposition Among White Residents,” Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, September 1986, 92, cite a figure of 3,500 Blacks murdered by the Klan.
4.“Governor’s Proclamation,” Southern Watchman, February 8, 1871, 2.
5.Testimony Taken by The Joint Select Committee, Vol. 1, 235–36.
6.“The Ku-Klux Klan,” The Moulton Advertiser, April 10, 1868, 3, https://www.newspapers.com/image/355634019.
7.Testimony Taken by The Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs of the Late Insurrectionary States. Mississippi, Vol. 12, November 17, 1871 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 1133, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=tnQUAAAAYAAJ.
8.Testimony Taken by The Joint Select Committee, 1134–35.
9.US Congress, Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire Into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Alabama, Vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 92.
10.The Civil Rights Act of 1871 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §1983 and commonly referred to as Section 1983). For the original act see https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/42nd-congress/session-1/c42s1ch22.pdf. From civil rights to reproductive rights to child welfare and police brutality, the successful legal actions of many groups have Black Americans to thank for the violence and intimidation they suffered bringing forth this act.
11.Jean Edward Smith, Grant (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 547.
12.In 1957, President Dwight Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce school integration in Little Rock, Arkansas, as a result of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling by the Supreme Court. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy sent federal troops to enforce integration on the campus of the University of Mississippi. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson sent federal troops to protect some fifty thousand civil rights marchers from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. In July 2020, President Donald Trump sent federal troops to arrest people protesting for civil rights in major US cities. But none of these presidents has ever suspended habeas corpus for the sake of supporting or denying civil rights.
13.Most scholarship on the Ku Klux Klan cites three phases of its existence, though four may now be required. Phase I: From its inception in 1866 with founder, Confederate general Nathan Bedford, to the action of President Grant in South Carolina in 1871; Phase II: From its second founding by William Joseph Simmons in 1915 in Stone Mountain, Georgia, to the pre–World War II years; Phase III: From the early 1950s and the rise of the Civil Rights Movement until the election of 2016; and, Phase IV: From 2016 and the vocal encouragement and support given by President Donald Trump and other modern-day Republicans to “white nationalist” and “white supremacist” groups until the present.
14.Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont letter to Governor Adelbert Ames, expressing the views of President Ulysses S. Grant, “Pierrepont to Ames,” National Republican, September 17, 1875, 1, https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86053573/1875-09-17/ed-1.
15.“The Eternal Nigger,” New York Herald, June 13, 1871, 15, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030313/1871-06-13/ed-1/seq-15.
16.“The Threatened Danger,” Memphis Daily Appeal, June 28, 1872, 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/163990564.
17.The Southern Home, October 31, 1871, 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/66367849.
18.“Who Are Africanizing Louisiana?” Daily Picayune, July 9, 1872, 4, https://www.newspapers.com/image/27006891.
19.“Sambo in Excelsis,” New York Herald, January 11, 1874, 3, https://www.newspapers.com/image/329390464.
20.“Defining Our Position,” The Perry County Democrat, July 5, 1871, 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/351531574.
21.“Letter from New Orleans,” Cincinnati Enquirer, October 20, 1873, 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/31307170.
22.“The Jury Box,” New National Era, June 11, 1874, 1, https://www.newspapers.com/image/587861660.
23.Robert Somers, The Southern States Since the War, 1870–1 (New York: MacMillan and Company, 1871).
24.Malcolm C. McMillan, “Introduction” to Robert Somers, The Southern States Since the War, 1870–1 (Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 1965).
25.Somers, The Southern States, 94.
26.Somers, The Southern States, 131.
27.Somers, The Southern States, 132.
28.James S. Pike, The Prostrate State: South Carolina Under Negro Government (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1874), 230.
29.Pike, The Prostrate State, 88–89.
30.Adelbert Ames, “Letter to Lieutenant John W. Clous,” cited in Stephen Budiansky, The Bloody Shirt: Terror After the Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2008), 27.
31.“The White League: Its Platform in Full,” Times-Picayune, July 2, 1874, 1, https://www.newspapers.com/image/26993619.
32.“Opinions of the Press,” Memphis Daily Appeal, December 13, 1874, 1, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/data/batches/tu_chet_ver01/data/sn83045160/00200293101/1874121301/0582.pdf.
33.“Opinions of the Press,” 1.
34.Albert Dorsey, Jr., “Vicksburg’s Troubles”: Black Participation in the Body Politic and Land Ownership in the Age of Redeemer Violence, PhD Thesis (Tallahassee: Florida State Univ., 2012), 109.
35.“Vicksburg Troubles,” Report No. 26, House of Representatives, 43rd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875), 291, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=UVpHAQAAIAAJ.
36.Testimony of G.W. Walters, Congressional Record, Containing the Proceedings and Debates of the Forty-Third Congress, Second Session, Vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875), 1123, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=K6RmAAAAcAAJ.
37.“The Shooting of Sheriff Crosby,” Weekly Clarion, June 9, 1875, 3, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83016926/1875-06-09/ed-1/seq-3.
38.Charles E. Furlong, Origin of the Outrages at Vicksburg (Vicksburg Herald Press, 1874), 16, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yale.39002014225610.
39.Blanche Butler Ames, Chronicles from the Nineteenth Century: Family Letters of Blanche Butler and Adelbert Ames, Vol. 2 (Clinton, MA, 1957), 142–43.
40.“The Mississippi Murder: Slaughter of Negroes by White-Leagues,” Wisconsin State Journal, September 15, 1875, 2, https://www.newspapers.com/image/397436760.
41.“Pierrepont to Ames.”
42.Blanche Butler Ames, Chronicles from the Nineteenth Century, 216–17.
43.W. H. Hardy, “Recollections of Reconstruction in East and Southeast Mississippi,” Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, Vol. 4 (Oxford: The Mississippi Historical Society, 1901), 129–30, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039481992.
44.“Mississippi in 1875,” Report of the Select Committee to Inquire into the Mississippi Elections of 1875, Vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876), 805, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1&idno=AEY0467.0001.001.
45.“President Grant Replies to the South Carolina Governor,” The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy on Facing History and Ourselves, https://www.facinghistory.org/reconstruction-era/president-grant-replies-south-carolina-governor-1876.
46.“Mississippi in 1875,” xxviii.
47.Ben Tillman, “The Struggle of ’76: Address Delivered at Red Shirt Reunion of Anderson, August 25th, by Senator B. R. Tillman,” Abbeville Press and Banner, September 28, 1909, 10, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/data/batches/scu_kingjulius_ver01/data/sn84026853/00202192932/1909092901/0388.pdf.
48.H. N. Borrey, letter, “To his Excellency Daniel H. Chamberlain,” The Miscellaneous Documents of the Senate of the United States. Second Session of the Forty-Fourth Congress, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1877), 551.
49.For an overview of sexual violence against Black women during Reconstruction, see Rebecca A. Kosary, To Degrade and Control: White Violence and The Maintenance of Racial and Gender Boundaries In Reconstruction Texas, 1865–1868, PhD Thesis (Texas A&M Univ., May 2006), https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4272881.pdf.
50.Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., “‘The Remarkable Misses Rollin’: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” The South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 92, No. 3, July 1991, 184.
51.“The Georgia Election,” Charleston Daily News, December 21, 1870, 1.
52.Melanie Susan Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 1854–1924 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2001), 52.
53.Lysistrata, from the Greek lysis, meaning to “break apart” or “loosen,” and stratos, meaning “army,” literally means to break apart the army. Lysistrata is an ancient Greek play by Aristophanes in which the main character, a woman named Lysistrata, is on an extraordinary mission to end the Peloponnesian War (an ancient Greek civil war) by convincing other women to deny sex to fighting men.
54.Testimony of John Bird before the House of Representatives on February 13, 1877, Papers in the Case of Tillman v Small, Fifth District South Carolina (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1877), 27, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=pSRynWZOwroC&hl=en&pg=GBS.RA1-PA1.
55.D. T. Corbin, letter to “Governor D. H. Chamberlain,” Miscellaneous Documents, 523–24.
56.Ulysses S. Grant, “Letter to D.H. Chamberlain, Governor of South Carolina,” Teaching American History, https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/letter-to-d-h-chamberlain-governor-of-south-carolina.
57.Lerone Bennett, Jr., Black Power U.S.A.: The Human Side of Reconstruction, 1867–1877 (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1967), 379.
58.“Persecutions in the South,” New-York Tribune, September 3, 1879, 1.
59.W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935), 30.
1.The description of the Emancipation Day celebration in Elmira, New York, comes from “Emancipation: Why and How the Colored People Celebrate To-Day,” Daily Advertiser, August 3, 1880, 5, https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83030951/1880-08-03/ed-1/seq-5.pdf and “The Colored People: How They Observed the Emancipation Anniversary,” Daily Advertiser, August 4, 1880, 5, https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83030951/1880-08-04/ed-1/seq-5.pdf.
2.Read the act in its entirety at http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1833/act/73/enacted/en/print.html.
3.Douglass’s speech at Elmira is found at “Fred Douglass! His Great Speech Yesterday,” Daily Advertiser, August 4, 1880, 8, https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn83030951/1880–08–04/ed-1/seq-8.pdf. Douglass includes an extract of the speech in his third and last autobiography, Frederick Douglass: Written by Himself, His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History to the Present Time (Hartford: Park Publishing Company, 1882), 601–18.
4.Martin Luther King, Jr., “I Have A Dream,” speech at March on Washington, August 28, 1963, https://www.naacp.org/i-have-a-dream-speech-full-march-on-washington.