3

What Dogs Value

The most important question for the thoughtful dog owner is: What do dogs value and why? The answer will help us assess our dog’s behavioral needs. Instead of merely accepting that dogs like food, we should ask: What is it about food that makes them work for it and fight for it? Instead of simply marveling at a sniffer dog’s approach to detective work, we should consider why its tail is wagging. Instead of just knowing that dogs enjoy exercise, we should explore what an exciting walk can offer a dog and how a bland walk or, worse still, no exercise at all can frustrate it. All of these questions help us to avoid judging dogs by our own standards. To understand what a dog values is to take a walk in its paws.

Consumer demand theory

Animal welfare science has blossomed over the past two decades. Among other studies, it measures the needs of domestic and captive animals and helps us to rank the importance of the resources we offer them. One of the most common principles in this work is called consumer demand theory: the harder you are willing to work for something, the more you must value it. So, when assessing an animal’s demand for a given commodity, counting the number of responses it makes to get the resource shows how much work the animal is prepared to invest. This relies on the animal viewing the resource as a reward. In the early stages the animal needs to make only a few responses to obtain a particular reward. The number of responses required is increased by some fixed amount after each reward until the break point—when the animal stops responding. At this point, the animal is saying, in effect, the price is too high. For some resources an animal may be prepared to pay any price. In the language of economic theory, such demands are inelastic.

Of course, such preference measures can only judge the immediate appeal of some object, situation or substance, and may not always reflect wise choices. Like people, animals sometimes choose things that in the long run are harmful, such as sweet foods and addictive drugs. In experiments on addictions in animals, it’s been found that the break point can be very high, so it would be a mistake to assume that animals always know what’s good for them. For example, dogs would work long and hard for the fat and sugars in chocolate, but these ingredients can cause diabetes and obesity. Even more important in the short term, the theobromine content of chocolate can cause death by over-stimulating the heart.

The good stuff: food, drink, fun, company and comfort

Although they have yet to be “costed out,” food and drink, fun, company and comfort seem to be key resources for dogs of all ages. By watching dogs as they respond to certain things, we get to know what they regard as the good stuff. It might be the smell of cheese in the kitchen or a glimpse of the park through the car window. It might be the sound of Scooby Snack packaging or the leash being rattled. It could be the sound of the front door opening or of a ball being thrown. What dogs do with these resources, how they rank them and how they work to access and defend them, gives us fascinating insight into what it means to be canine. The lesson we must learn as dog watchers and handlers is when to use the most valued resources as bargaining chips in trying to shape the behaviors we want. Some of you may recoil from such a calculating approach to a human-animal bond, but to dismiss this strategy is to pass over some extremely valuable tools and run the risk instead of becoming your dog’s dutiful servant. If you are one of those people who deplores requiring animals to work for a living and would rather just give them endless pleasure and liberty to do as they wish, consider getting a cat instead of a dog.

Learn from your dog and be an opportunist, too

This chapter explains what it is like to be a dog in a human social group. Dogs are opportunists, and when you share your world with a dog you’d better know how to be an opportunist, too. Not only will you understand what dogs are looking for in life, you will understand how they optimize their environment and how you, as their life-coach, can become the source of their very best opportunities.

A bowlful of training opportunities

Dogs don’t spend long enough tasting food to reliably detect the difference between one snack and another (Uncle Wolf would wonder why manufacturers bother to push new flavors of dog food, chews, snacks, training rewards, dental “bones” and pig body-parts). While he made do with rabbit every day of the month, his descendants can expect a constantly changing menu with a semi-digestible garnish and a side order of aspic. We imagine that a dog’s need for variety and treats is the same as ours, and pet food marketers applaud our naïveté as we hurl ourselves happily into their trap. Indeed, dogs have evolved to investigate new types of food and new ways of sourcing it, but they can manage very well on one well-designed diet. Their bowels thrive on consistency, and they never notice a lack of chef’s specials, seasonal menus or plats du jour.

However, we can capitalize on the opportunistic nature of dogs by using new and different foods in training. When we want to let the dog know that it has done really well, we pay out a jackpot. Making the jackpot especially novel and tasty increases the value of the reward and makes the dog work harder in the future (much more of this in chapter 10 (The Dogs of Opportunity) and chapter 12 (Fine-Tuning).

Dogs are generally well behaved before they are fed. For example, many sit beautifully, with the canine version of a winning smile, as their food is delivered. Unfortunately, very few owners realize that when they feed their dog its evening meal, they are holding a bowlful of training opportunities. As the “holders of the resources,” we should consider mimicking the sniffer-dog trainers who insist that their dogs earn each bit of their keep (their daily ration) by offering trained responses. We can usually estimate the value of a food item to a dog in terms of its energy content or novelty. Dogs generally prefer a lump of cheese to a lump of carrot and a slice of roast beef to a can of economy dog food. Their desire to obtain preferred resources is reflected in the work they are willing to perform to get them—dogs are at their most attentive at feeding times. We also observe dogs offering almost their entire repertoire of trained responses to trigger us to give a highly fancied reward. By the same token, dogs will pay high costs to defend valuable resources, costs that may even include risk of injury.

CHEW ON THIS

In many cases, dogs’ attitude to food provides a convincing argument for them being unable to project well into the future. In contrast, rats in so-called cafeteria-style feeding trials that offer all-you-can-eat (ad libitum) feeding for set periods will alter their intake at one meal in anticipation of the size of the next. Dogs do not seem to have this skill. As extreme opportunists that evolved to eat as a competitive social activity, dogs are obliged to start eating at every opportunity and to keep wolfing the food down until it’s all gone. Clearly, some breeds are more challenged than others when it comes to learning moderation. Labradors and beagles are always at the back of the class drooling over their lunchboxes. Members of other breeds, such as Maltese, are notoriously fussy, especially if their owners fold easily under emotional pressure and have plenty of time on their hands to stare at uneaten food.

Bones and chewing

For a dog, chewing is an activity as essential to its being as licking its genitals, pulling its lip back when scratching its neck or scooting its anus along the ground to relieve irritated anal sacs. Chewing is a means of discovery. Chew something for long enough and you can swallow it to see if it will cause illness. Chewing is also a source of comfort. Only by chewing things can a dog meet its needs for oral satisfaction when left alone. It’s worth considering how many wild dog pups would ever be left by their pack without a barrage of chewable items from sticks to bits of prey (hide, hooves and bones) to play with and nibble on. Chewing makes life better, especially for youngsters, and even more especially for youngsters who are teething.

Dogs place considerable value on bones, even those with no apparent calorific content (such as bones without any meat or gristle attached, or artificial bones, such as Nylabones™). In addition, dogs commonly chew bones at times of arousal and after eating a meal. This suggests that chewing bones might help digestion and possibly even reduce stress. So, it’s advisable to give dogs plenty of opportunities to chew. However, two main stumbling blocks arise—from other dogs and pet food manufacturers. Other dogs regularly compete (fight) for access to bones, even when plenty are available, while pet food manufacturers claim that dogs’ diets are complete and that further supplementation is unnecessary. Strictly speaking, commercial diets are adequate nutritionally, but their physical structure fails to meet a dog’s need to chew for a prolonged period. Who knows why pet food manufacturers emphasize the complete nature of their diets so strongly? Perhaps they’d rather owners did not experiment with other foods.

Veterinarians may appreciate the enjoyment dogs get from chewing bones, but they’re also aware of the dangers of foreign bodies and so are reluctant to suggest feeding bones, since these may cause a future intestinal obstruction or penetration. Nobody wants a dog to chew greasy, gristly bones indoors, so I recommend a nylon equivalent as a means of meeting your dog’s fundamental need to chew. Helping the dog learn what to chew and where is the only challenge that remains. My own dogs have all been quick to learn that the inside (synthetic) bone does not go outside—and so does not get covered in mud—and the outside (real) bones stay outside so that the carpet does not get covered in blood.

Toys and possessions

Recent studies have shown that dogs issue a distinctive growl when forced to guard their food and that, when played back, recordings of this characteristic sound reliably deter most dogs from approaching an unattended bone. Bones, bits of hoof, rags are all chewable, but so are chair legs, shoes and clothes off the washing line. These items can therefore be as precious to a dog as the toys we supply. Balls, sticks, rope tugs and so on are simply the items we designate as appropriate dog playthings. We add value to them by putting energy into them—throwing them, seizing them, possessing them. The extent to which we can add value in this way is limited by our enthusiasm but, more importantly, by our perceived leadership. The leader determines which is the preferred toy. Running after a pup that has picked up an Italian leather slipper may seem the most obvious thing to do, but it usually sends the pup at least three potentially troublesome messages: You have my attention; you have got a valuable item in your mouth; I am your follower. A more astute response is to spring to life, cavort and gambol to the nearest appropriate item and play with it as ostentatiously as modesty will permit. The item could be anything vaguely plausible as a new toy for the pup . . . a paper tissue, a newspaper, even a pair of knickers can be sacrificed to save the slipper. When the pup drops the slipper, reward it with a game with the more appropriate item.

If we can add value to an item by playing with it, dogs can do the same. When a dog sees another dog entering its domain it is likely to run up to it and say hello. Next it confirms whether it recognizes the incoming traffic as a previous play partner. If it does, then it usually races to its favorite toy to reduce the chance of it being misappropriated. Some behavior counselors encourage this as a way of giving dogs something “constructive” to do when human guests arrive. It is an interesting approach, since it can invite play and certainly fills a mouth that might otherwise do something as potentially unacceptable as lick the visitors. Of course, the downside is that the toy may be a stuffed animal that visiting children see as cuddle-worthy. If they immediately reach for the article, they may be bitten. Indeed, if they go to pick up the item some time later, the dog may rush to defend it.

The same urgent rush for resources is sometimes seen in parks and other areas shared by dogs. Some may rush for sticks as playthings and tug-of-war ropes; they race to trees to mark them, and they run towards other dogs to investigate their potential as playmates, sexual partners or challengers. Why the rush? Because they are social animals that have evolved to compete with their group for all the good things in life, and once they have possession, they take pride in it. Pride can explain why dogs can appear quite ostentatious with a prized possession. Instead of skulking around with it and enjoying it covertly, they will flag up their tails and parade the trophy for all to see.

Water is a reward

Drink, or more specifically, water, is easily overlooked as a reward. This is perhaps because it is so often readily available, since all pet-care books rightly, but rather relentlessly, insist that dogs should always have plenty of fresh drinking water. When a dog really needs a drink he will pull out all the stops to access water, even if it means slurping a parking lot puddle. This is a clear signal as to how valuable water is to a thirsty animal. Water can be used to lure feral pigs into a one-way funnel of fencing around a waterhole, and horses can be trained to enter trailers for access to water. So dogs could certainly be trained to undertake very challenging and even dangerous activities on the promise of a drink. But would it be right to train a dog in this way? We’ll discuss the manipulation of motivation in a later section, but for now please just consider the price a dog will pay for its various nutritional needs, including water. Plainly, the price will tend to vary according to transient demands. The need for water will vary with ambient temperatures, humidity and exercise, among many things.

The internal motivation to drink depends on cues such as a dry mouth, concentrated blood (after a salty meal) and reduced blood volume. These are the physiological stimuli, but there are other prompts that aren’t so well understood. Social facilitation is one that’s worth considering. Just as the sight of a model chicken pecking at the ground can trigger foraging behavior in a well-fed observer bird, so the sight of a dog drinking can stimulate an observing dog to join in. The other prompt is the return of the pack. Many owners report that when they return home, their dogs greet them and then trot to the water bowl and drink with great gusto. It may be that these dogs are trying to capitalize on a limited resource and so rush to the bowl in case their owners have the same goal in mind. Alternatively, the distress of being left alone may be sufficient to cause both apathy and an adrenaline response that dries the mouth. The apathy means that they do not bother to drink, and the adrenaline leaves them with a dry mouth. When their owner returns, they are roused enough to register that they are thirsty, a sense that may be especially strong if they have been snoring.

Dogs in transit provide a good example of dogs with an unusual need for water. Air-conditioning often dehydrates dogs on long journeys, so this is when fresh water really should be available at all times. However, because of danger of serious spillage, it rarely is. Next time you stop on a long road trip to give your dog a drink, notice how attentive he is as you ease the lid off his bottle of water. He is highly motivated. Becoming aware of your dog’s behavioral needs identifies you as a good owner but also empowers you to be an excellent trainer.

In terms of their response to novel foods, dogs are described as being less neophobic than cats. This means that they experiment with novel foods—sometimes paying a heavy price in terms of gastric health—whereas cats avoid the unknown. But when it comes to water, dogs seem to enjoy the familiar more than the novel. As long as it is not heavily chlorinated, water straight from the tap is often favored over standing water. This may be an innate response that helps dogs avoid water that may be carrying persistent saliva-borne diseases such as distemper. Cold water may be preferred to warm water but chiefly when the dog is trying to cool off. So you are doing your dog a favor if you carry a vacuum flask of cool water for his refreshment during car journeys in warm weather.

Fun is the optimal reward

More than anything else dogs enjoy having fun—it can easily eclipse food as a reward, and many of us should use it in our coaching more often than we do. Unlike Uncle Wolf, an older dog still enjoys play. Running is fun, jumping onto beds is fun, jumping off beds is fun, and playing with other dogs is the best fun of all. Cajoling a playful response out of another dog is a particular joy. The way a young dog teases his elders speaks of an active if not sophisticated sense of humor. Indeed, the scientific study of dog laughter is now a very serious business.

The fun of racing ahead of the pack to get somewhere or to reach something first is difficult to overestimate. So I always feel a twinge of sympathy for little dogs in the company of big dogs, since they must resign themselves to never being the race winner. The small ones often redirect their enthusiasm for such pursuits towards an impressive attachment to their owners that confirms their value as a sanctuary when all around is teeth and legs and massiveness. The same can be said of older dogs that replace the thrill of the chase with the pleasure of the plod.

Dogs that lose all games of possession generally become less competitive. Those that get bullied during play become withdrawn. In general, opportunism and finding fun go hand-in-hand with optimism. There is emerging evidence that animals kept in frustrating environments behave as if they expect to find fewer rewards in life than those kept in appropriately enriching environments. This means that they are effectively less optimistic—the glass is half full—and less likely to offer new responses. For dogs, I sense that this can manifest as a lack of creativity when it comes to solving problems. For me, this is an argument against formal training sessions and a call for integrating training into everyday living. The more we turn our dogs’ lives into one giant enriching opportunity, the easier they are to train.

Happiness is a tired puppy

Exercise out of the den is exciting because it offers so many opportunities: to “play, pee and poo,” explore and eat food, meet and greet, mark and have sex—in other words, do most of the things that never arise as opportunities in the den. The excitement is greater than Feral Cheryl and her pack might experience at the onset of hunting forays because those dogs already have their liberty, and they can explore without boundaries. And to an extent the mission is possibly more exciting for domestic dogs because their free-ranging cousins rarely leave the home range. They have no cars that can take them to the “beach that is freshly washed” or the “forest that smells like no other.”

The first step onto the grass of a park reminds owners how exciting a walk is for a dog. There is a great urgency for the dog to be off the leash and do all the things that have to be done: sniffing, marking, socializing, rolling and running. We get confirmation of their importance, but do we really know why these opportunities are so valued by dogs? We can imagine that rolling, especially after swimming, is somehow akin to rubbing oneself dry with a luxurious towel. But in a world of smells, it is an activity that may be critical in spreading odors. So, it’s worth reminding ourselves that dogs find many activities intrinsically rewarding in ways that we will never understand. Consider chasing and pulling. When a husky pulls a sled or a border collie chases a sheep (or a jogger or a cyclist), there is no need for rewards. The activities are innately rewarding. For certain breeds, they are primary reinforcers. For the sled dog, the thrill of the activity is enhanced by novel surroundings and the ever-present possibility of encountering a sleepy rabbit. For the border collie, the worst outcome is that he is commanded to stop chasing the sheep, which is what shepherds do to punish unwanted responses such as biting the sheep.

We underestimate a dog’s need for activity at our peril. As you can see in the table below, Professor Danny Mills, of Lincoln University in the UK, has published data from a survey of more than 500 dog owners showing a mismatch between what our dogs and we regard as appropriate activity levels.

Perception of appropriate activity levels

Reported behavior	% reported
Initiate interaction with the owners	81.4
Watch the owners all the time	47.5
Interfere with the owners when they were	42.1
doing something unrelated to the dog
Very playful	72.8
Easily overexcited	48.2
Restless during the day	12.3
Restless during the night	8.9

For me, these important statistics point to a misunderstanding of what is normal. If more than 70 percent of dogs are very playful and more than 80 percent take an active role in initiating activity, those that do not are abnormal. These figures also suggest that many dogs are frustrated by lack of exercise, and pester their owners (with varying success) to make life more fun for them. Many of us struggle to meet our dog’s appetite for play, and that’s when we need to accept that the best toy for a dog is another dog. And that doesn’t mean buy another one. Consider finding a suitable neighborhood dog and arranging for them to play together. As the immortal Snoopy once said, “Happiness is a tired puppy . . . ”

Dogs are social animals

Animals that have evolved to live within groups seem to enjoy being stroked and groomed more than members of solitary species. Most socialized dogs, for example, enjoy being petted. This may reflect the social nature of Canidae (the scientific name for the animal family that includes dogs, wolves, foxes, jackals and coyotes) but, in contexts other than courtship and parenting, dogs groom other dogs (allogroom) less than cats or horses groom their fellows. Given the close proximity of canine group members in a pack, especially at rest, this is surprising.

Many dog owners acknowledge that it is a great joy to discuss private matters with their dogs. It seems unlikely that dogs gain much from these fireside monologues other than one-on-one attention. But they seek our company regardless of discomfort, following us into inclement weather, strange places and unpleasant crowds. They often move closer when we are distressed. So what is it about attention that is so important? Ask yourself what a dog can expect to gain from the company of another dog, and you’ll come up with some interesting ways of providing the sort of companionship he has evolved to thrive on. Warmth, comfort, surveillance and membership of a team are important to consider here.

People who enjoy the companionship of warm-blooded animals, such as cats and dogs, frequently stroke or pet their animals. This may have benefits for both participants. During positive dog-human interactions, such as gentle scratching of the body and ears, concentrations of enjoyable, naturally occurring chemicals, such as endorphins, oxytocin, prolactin and phenylethylamines, increase in both species.

Of course there are a number of things that canine companions cannot provide one another, for example, chest scratching, smiles, tidbits, ball throwing, idle conversation and confidences. Although its value is debatable, we may use physical contact, such as petting, as a reward for desired behavior, as an alternative to offering food. This is regularly practiced by people who want to reward horses without using food. By scratching the horse at the base of its neck as another horse would, an interaction that is calming and rewarding, they are effectively hijacking a naturally rewarding response.

Grooming: transporting your dog straight to heaven

Anecdotal reports suggest that many companion dogs prefer to be groomed in certain areas, such as the front of the chest. Despite this, humans tend to stroke the top of the head and down the neck. It is believed that in some dogs, contact in these areas may result in displays of aggression because dog-dog contact with those regions (and especially the shoulders) has been related to attempts to assert status.

In one of my recent projects, I tried to determine the effect on a dog’s heart rate of grooming in different anatomical areas. I was hoping to better understand the effect of human touch on our canine companions. I’d been discussing with colleagues the best way to make physical contact with a dog. We were mainly interested in this from a practical perspective, to work out how best to advise children and “non-doggy” folk on the topic. In our preliminary discussions we agreed that although certain under-groomed and often allergic dogs learn to position themselves so that they can be scratched towards the end of their backs, for most other dogs there seemed to be something generally magical about the chest area, the zone between the collar and the two front legs. Being tickled, scratched and groomed in this spot seems to transport most reasonably confident dogs directly to heaven.

Why might this be? Are they unable to attend to itches in this part of their body? Possibly, since even when completely curled round for some serious auto-grooming (scratching to the nontechnical) the hind legs struggle to reach the furthest parts of the so-called thoracic inlet (either side of the breast bone). Or maybe being touched here affects the flow of blood to the heart and simply makes dogs feel light-headed? The veins in this part of the dog are among the most exposed of any animal so this is possible, but why would dogs subject themselves to light-headedness when most of us don’t enjoy it?

Some dogs hate having their faces touched (and almost all hate blowing—an important tip for children who might wonder why whistling near their dog’s face makes it snap at them), while others get really irritable when their feet are handled. In contrast, the average dog just loves being petted, scratched and tickled in his hard-to-reach places. And yes, dogs can roll on their backs to relieve an irritation lying above the level their hind legs can reach. This point is critical. A dog depends heavily on its hind legs for grooming areas that are especially hard to reach. No wonder the worst flea-bite allergies manifest in one of the trickiest-to-reach places: just in front of the tail.

Of course, the extent to which dogs are rewarded by physical contact depends on their socialization with humans in general and their relationship with the people who are grooming them in particular. Indeed, acceleration of heart rate has been observed when someone who had previously punished a dog petted it. If the groomer and his technique are rewarding, then of course grooming and physical contact with the groomer are a resource. We are all familiar with the apparent jealousy that one dog shows when its owner makes a fuss of another dog. Attempts to intervene by slithering between the groomer and the “groomee” are far from subtle and sometimes spill over into aggression, quite possibly because there is so little room to maneuver that threats are poorly transmitted (among the tangle of heads and necks and hands and knees) and therefore go unheeded.

The duration of grooming and petting by humans is probably greater than any canine self-grooming bout. The effect of physical contact on heart rate may constitute a reward but only after some time. So, the immediate reinforcing effects of physical contact are likely to be secondary to other benefits, such as being generally close to social affiliates (friends). That said, grooming will always improve appearance and hygiene. This is particularly important for older dogs. Although the temptation may be to leave them alone as they snooze on the veranda, five minutes spent grooming away matted hair seems to pay enormous dividends in making them more presentable and comfortable and possibly even dignified.

Relaxed and comfortable

Do all breeds have the same need for sleep? Do dogs sleep when they are sleepy? Or do they use sleep to escape frustrating environments, for example, when the pack is away. This seems to be an acquired skill that some dogs take much longer to master than others.

Dogs relish comfort and seem to want others around them to know it. I am thinking of the ubiquitous sighing that comes from dogs of any age when (they reckon) they have found the best place to lie or the best way to lie in a place that can never be altogether comfortable. The sigh is generally emitted moments before the last opening of the eyes, as if to check that all is well before truly relaxing.

Conking out on the spot is a feature of puppy behavior, while turning around prior to lying down is characteristic of older dogs. The rotations seem haphazard and clumsy as they lower the dog to the ground, but they have emerged through evolution as a useful prelude to a good night’s sleep—they are less common during the day, except in very senior dogs. The function of the spinning is the source of some debate, with some arguing that it is a means of checking for snakes before lying in their vicinity, while others insist that it flattens the grass in a single direction to form a rudimentary nest. Maybe it even smooths the hairs of the dog’s coat and thus makes for more comfortable repose. Whatever the truth, the rotations generally end so that the dog’s head is pointing vaguely uphill or in the direction of incoming traffic, such as at a doorway. Both of these outcomes would help the dog to rise rapidly to an emergency.

Other forms of comfort for dogs are easily overlooked. Try taking the collar off your dog when he is secure in the house and there is no need for him to be restrained or identified by any discs that may hang from his collar. You’ll probably notice that he is quick to relax, and you will also spot how pleased he is to have the freshly exposed parts of his neck rubbed. The weight of a collar is negligible when first encountered by any animal but it’s worth considering its accumulative effect over the days, weeks and months for which it is usually worn. In the same way, you might find removing a chain or necklace from your own neck disproportionately relieving.

Dogs love to work for a living

Once we have a clear idea of what dogs value, we can turn the topic on its head and ask: What will dogs work for? All of the valued items in this chapter can be used to pay (reward) dogs. If you hold the check book, you write the checks, and this makes you the leader. Which begs the question: What do dogs regard as work? The trite answer is: Anything that gets them paid. If nothing in life is free, everything is worth something.

Humans given dull, repetitive jobs resent work. But instead of being heavy labor or boring drudgery, the tasks we set dogs can be tremendous fun. Imagine a cushy, rewarding job that involves a wide variety of duties, such as sitting quietly at home, going for a jog with your boss, arriving at the water cooler, picking up toys, waiting briefly before playing with your buddies and, best of all, just relaxing. That is the sort of work well-trained dogs are asked to do. They have been trained to perform these tasks and just love the deal that has been struck by their owners. As opportunists, dogs relish discovering new ways to exploit their environment, social groups and leaders. Enlightened owners know what their dogs want and create opportunities for their dogs to acquire the most valued commodities through trained responses. This means that dogs are effectively working for a living. If rewards match their needs, most dogs will become workaholics.

CHOICE CUTS

The harder a dog works for certain resources, the more he values them.

Food and drink, fun, company and comfort seem to be key resources for dogs of all ages.

Like many social species, dogs value being groomed.

A bowlful of food is a bowlful of training opportunities.

For some resources, dogs may be prepared to pay any price.

More than anything else, dogs enjoy having fun.

Dogs have evolved to compete with their group for all the good things in life: Excellent coaches tap into these needs.

The best toy for a dog is another dog.

Happiness is a tired puppy.

Dogs love to work for a living.

Play-fighting among dogs depends on bite inhibition. Tinker and her son, Neville, have developed highly sophisticated play styles that feature relentless mouthing.

Tug-of-war games with adult dogs help to build a pup’s confidence. In this case, Ben plays with his daughter, Nessie. It is interesting to speculate whether related dogs have similar odors that help them recognize kin.