1. See especially Thomas S. Szasz, Law, Liberty, and Psychiatry; Psychiatric Justice; The Ethics of Psychoanalysis; Ideology and Insanity; and The Manufacture of Madness.
2. See Thomas S. Szasz, Mental illness as a metaphor, Nature, 242: 305, 1973.
3. See Szasz, The Ethics of Psychoanalysis.
Karl R. Popper, Philosophy of Science: A Personal Report, in C. A. Mace, ed., British Philosophy in the Mid-Century, p. 177.
1. Albert Einstein, The World as I See It, p. 30.
2. See, for example, Percy W. Bridgman, The Nature of Physical Theory and The Way Things Are.
3. See Charles W. Morris, Signs, Language, and Behavior.
4. See, for example, R. L. Gregory, On physical model explanations in psychology, British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 4: 192, 1953.
5. Karl R. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism.
6. Ibid., p. 160.
7. Ibid., p. 161.
8. Sigmund Freud, The Future of an Illusion (1927), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XXI, pp. 1–58.
9. See Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies.
1. See, for example, August B. Hollingshead and Fredrick C. Redlich, Social Class and Mental Illness.
2. Sigmund Freud, Charcot (1893), in Collected Papers, Vol. I, pp. 10–11.
3. Ibid., p. 11.
4. Ibid., pp. 12–13.
5. Georges Guillain, J.-M. Charcot, 1825–1893.
6. Axel Munthe, The Story of San Michèle.
7. Freud, op. cit., pp. 18–19.
8. Ibid., p. 19.
9. Sigmund Freud, On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement (1914), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XIV, pp. 13–14.
10. Quoted in Guillain, op. cit., pp. 138–139.
11. Ibid., p. 174.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., p. 175.
14. Ibid., pp. 175–176.
15. Gregory Zilboorg, A History of Medical Psychology, pp. 362–363.
1. See Eilhard von Domarus, The Specific Laws of Logic in Schizophrenia, in Jacob S. Kasanin, ed., Language and Thought in Schizophrenia, pp. 104–114.
2. See Silvano Arieti, Schizophrenia, in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. I, pp. 455–484.
3. See Chapter 7.
4. See Thomas S. Szasz, Malingering, A.M.A. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 76: 432, 1956.
5. Mortimer Adler, What Man Has Made of Man, p. 122.
6. See Thomas S. Szasz, The classification of “mental illness,” Psychiatric Quarterly, 33: 77, 1959.
7. James S. Chapman, Peregrinating problem patients: Münchausen’s syndrome, Journal of the American Medical Association, 165: 927, 1957.
8. Ibid., p. 933.
9. See Thomas S. Szasz, Commitment of the mentally ill, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 125: 293, 1957.
10. Sigmund Freud, Dostoevsky and parricide (1928), in Collected Papers, Vol. V, p. 224.
11. Eugen Bleuler, A Textbook of Psychiatry (1924), p. 191.
12. Kurt R. Eissler, Malingering, in G. B. Wilbur and W. Muensterberger, eds., Psychoanalysis and Culture, pp. 252–253.
13. See also, Thomas S. Szasz, Moral conflict and psychiatry, Yale Review, 49: 555, 1960.
14. For further discussion, see Chapter 13.
1. August B. Hollingshead and Fredrick C. Redlich, Social Class and Mental Illness.
2. Mark G. Field, Doctor and Patient in Soviet Russia, pp. 146–148.
3. Ibid., p. 174.
4. See Thomas S. Szasz, On the theory of psycho-analytic treatment, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 38: 166, 1957.
5. In this connection, see Field, op. cit., pp. 176–177.
6. Quoted in ibid., p. 159.
7. See Chapter 1.
8. See Thomas S. Szasz, Scientific method and social role in medicine and psychiatry, A.M.A. Archives of Internal Medicine, 101: 228, 1958.
9. See, for example, Fyodor M. Dostoevsky, Memoirs from the House of the Dead (1861–62).
10. See Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society.
11. Field, op. cit., pp. 176–177.
12. See Walt W. Rostow, The Dynamics of Soviet Society, pp. 222–226.
13. See Field, op. cit., p. 174.
1. See Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 1.
2. See, for example, F. J. Ziegler, J. B. Imboden, and E. Meyer, Contemporary conversion reactions, American Journal of Psychiatry, 116: 901, 1960.
3. Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (1893–1895), p. 5.
4. See Chapter 7.
5. In this connection, see Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, especially pp. 34–48.
6. Breuer and Freud, op. cit., pp. 143–144.
7. Sigmund Freud, Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria (1905), in The Standard Edition, Vol. VII, pp. 16–17.
8. Breuer and Freud, op. cit., pp. 135–136.
10. Ibid., p. 166.
11. Kenneth M. Colby, Energy and Structure in Psychoanalysis.
12. Breuer and Freud, op. cit., p. 166.
13. See, for example, Felix Deutsch, ed., On the Mysterious Leap from the Mind to the Body.
14. See Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledge, pp. 44–53.
15. See, for example, Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis.
1. See John H. Woodger, Physics, Psychology, and Medicine, especially pp. 16–17.
2. See Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, pp. 51–81.
3. Moritz Schlick, On the Relation between Psychological and Physical Concepts (1935), in Herbert Feigl and Wilfrid Sellare, eds., Readings in Philosophical Analysis, p. 403.
4. Leon J. Saul, A Note on the Psychogenesis of Organic Symptoms, in Franz Alexander, Thomas M. French, et al., Studies in Psychosomatic Medicine, p. 85.
5. In this connection, see for example, Franz Alexander, Psychosomatic Medicine, and Felix Deutsch, ed., On the Mysterious Leap from the Mind to the Body.
6. Franz Alexander, Fundamental Concepts of Psychosomatic Research, in Franz Alexander, Thomas M. French, et al., op. cit., p. 3.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. See, in this connection, Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, especially pp. 3–33.
10. See Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind.
11. Alexander, op. cit., p. 9.
12. Szasz, op. cit., pp. 147–169.
13. Alexander, op. cit, p. 6.
14. Alexander, Psychosomatic Medicine, p. 42.
15. Ibid., p. 44.
16. See, for example, Sigmund Freud, An Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940), and Edward Glover, Psychoanalysis.
17. See, for example, Kenneth M. Colby, Energy and Structure in Psychoanalysis, and Eugene Pumpian-Mindlin, Propositions concerning energetic-economic aspects of libido theory, in Leopold Bellak, cons, ed., Conceptual and Methodological Problems of Psychoanalysis, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 76: 1038, 1959.
18. In this connection, see Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson, Communication, and Thomas S. Szasz, Language and Pain, in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. I, pp. 982–999.
19. See Paul Bohannan, Translation, The Listener, 51: 815, 1954.
1. Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, p. 194.
2. Ibid., p. 196.
3. Ibid., p. 216.
4. Ibid., p. 220.
5. John H. Woodger, Physics, Psychology, and Medicine, p. 57.
6. See Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind.
7. Edward Glover, Psychoanalysis, p. 140.
8. Ibid., pp. 140–141.
9. Georg Groddeck, The Book of the It and The World of Man.
10. Harry S. Sullivan, Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry, p. 54.
11. Sigmund Freud, Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1910), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XI, p. 16.
12. See Chapter 13.
13. W. Ronald D. Fairbairn, Observations on the nature of hysterical states, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 27: 105, 1954, p. 117.
14. See, for example, Linus Pauling, The molecular basis of genetics, American Journal of Psychiatry, 113: 492, 1956.
15. See John R. Weinberg, An Examination of Logical Positivism.
16. See Richard von Mises, Positivism.
17. John J. Purtell, E. Robins, and M. E. Cohen, Observations on clinical aspects of hysteria, Journal of the American Medical Association, 146: 902, 1951.
1. Hans Reichenbach, Elements of Symbolic Logic, p. 4.
2. See Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, especially pp. 82–104.
3. Alfred N. Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica.
4. Roman Jakobson, The Cardinal Dichotomy in Language, in Ruth Nanda Anshen, ed., Language, p. 163.
5. See, for example, Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, pp. 14–15 and 46–51.
6. Sigmund Freud, The Unconscious (1915), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XIV, pp. 159–204.
7. See Eilhard von Domarus, The Specific Laws of Logic in Schizophrenia, in Jacob S. Kasanin, ed., Language and Thought in Schizophrenia, pp. 104–114; and Silvano Arieti, Schizophrenia, in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. I, pp. 455–484.
8. See Thomas S. Szasz, A contribution to the psychology of schizophrenia, A.M.A. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 77: 420, 1957.
9. For further discussion, see Chapters 10 and 12.
10. Reichenbach, op. cit., p. 19.
11. Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (1893–1895), p. 178.
12. For further discussion, see Chapter 8.
1. Bertrand Russell, Introduction, in Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, p. 8.
2. Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key, p. 70.
3. Ibid., pp. 76–77.
4. Margaret Schlauch, The Gift of Language.
5. See, for example, Robert L. Birdwhistell, Contribution of Linguistic-Kinesic Studies to the Understanding of Schizophrenia, in Albert Auerback, ed., Schizophrenia, pp. 99–124.
6. Langer, op. cit., p. 77.
7. Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (1893–95), p. 136.
8. In this connection, see Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure.
9. Anatol Rapoport, Operational Philosophy, p. 199.
10. Szasz, op. cit.
11. See Macdonald Critchley, The Language of Gesture, p. 121.
12. Sigmund Freud, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1910), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XI, p. 30.
13. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), in The Standard Edition, Vol. IV, p. 141.
14. Ibid., pp. 141–142.
15. See Sigmund Freud, Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905), in The Standard Edition, Vol. VIII.
16. See Thomas S. Szasz, Recollections of a Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, in Arthur Burton, ed., Case Studies in Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 75–110.
17. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), op. cit., and On dreams (1901), in The Standard Edition, Vol. V, pp. 631–686.
18. Sandor Ferenczi, To whom does one relate one’s dreams? (1912), in Sandor Ferenczi, Further Contributions to the Theory and Technique of Psycho-analysis, p. 349.
19. See Thomas S. Szasz, The communication of distress between child and parent, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 32: 161, 1959
20. See Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies.
1. R. S. Peters, The Concept of Motivation, p. 7.
2. See Thomas S. Szasz, A critical analysis of some aspects of the libido theory, in Leopold Bellak, cons, ed., Conceptual and Methodological Problems in Psychoanalysis, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 76: 975, 1959.
3. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), in The Standard Edition, Vol. VII, pp. 123–245.
4. See Chapter 12.
5. Peters, op. cit., pp. 10–11.
6. Ibid., p. 14.
7. Ibid., p. 15.
8. James Strachey, The nature of the therapeutic action of psychoanalysis, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 15: 127, 1934.
9. Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 3, p. 247.
10. See Philip Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist.
11. See Alfred Adler, What Life Should Mean to You, and Heinz L. Ansbacher and Rowena R. Ansbacher, eds., The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler.
12. Sigmund Freud, The Antithetical Meaning of Primal Words (1910), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XI, pp. 153–162.
13. Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, pp. 162–163.
14. See Chapter 12.
15. See Chapter 15.
1. See, for example, Sigmund Freud, The Future of an Illusion (1927), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XXI, pp. 1–58, and Civilization and Its Discontents (1930), ibid., pp. 59–148
2. See especially, Alfred Adler, Selections from His Writings (1907–1937), in Heinz L. Ansbacher and Rowena R. Ansbacher, eds., The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler; and Carl G. Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul (1933) and Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1953).
3. Susanne Langer, Philosophy in a New Key.
4. Thomas S. Szasz, A contribution to the psychology of schizophrenia, A.M.A. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 77: 420, 1957.
5. Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller. Der Ring des Polykrates (1798), in Werke, Vol. I, pp. 176–179.
6. Luke 18: 22–25.
7. Matthew 5: 1–12.
8. Ibid., 6: 34.
9. Matthew 19: 23–30.
10. Luke 6: 20–26.
11. Matthew 19: 12.
12. See Heinrich Krämer and Jacob Sprenger, Malleus Maleficarum (1486).
13. See, for example, Sandor Ferenczi, The kite as a symbol of erection (1913), in Further Contributions to the Theory and Technique of Psycho-Analysis, pp. 359–360; Vermin as a symbol of pregnancy (1914), ibid., p. 361; Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), in The Standard Edition, Vol. VII, pp. 123–245; and Georg Groddeck, The Book of the It (1927).
14. Abraham Lincoln, From a letter (1858), in C. Morley and L. D. Everett, eds., Familiar Quotations, p. 455.
15. Matthew 19: 30, 20: 16; Mark 10: 31; Luke 13: 30.
16. See, for example, Bertrand Russell, A Psychoanalyst’s Nightmare, in Nightmares of Eminent Persons, pp. 21–30.
17. See Thomas S. Szasz, The communication of distress between child and parent, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 32: 161, 1959.
18. Sigmund Freud, Further recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis (1913), Collected Papers, Vol. II, p. 346.
19. See Thomas S. Szasz, On the theory of psycho-analytic treatment, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 38: 166, 1957.
20. Herbert Spencer, The Man Versus the State (1884), p. 78.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., p. 79.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid., pp. 79–80.
25. Ibid., p. 80.
26. Geza Roheim, The Origin and Function of Culture.
1. See Gregory Zilboorg, The Medical Man and the Witch During the Renaissance and A History of Medical Psychology.
2. Heinrich Krämer and Jacob Sprenger, Malleus Maleficarum (1486).
3. Zilboorg, The Medical Man and the Witch During the Renaissance, p. 58.
4. Ibid., p. 153.
5. Zilboorg, A History of Medical Psychology, p. 155.
7. See, for example, Geoffrey Parrinder, Witchcraft.
8. See Thomas S. Szasz, Commitment of the mentally ill, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 125: 293, 1957.
9. See Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages.
10. See, for example, Hans Vaihinger, The Philosophy of “As If.”
11. See, for example, Richard Lewinsohn, A History of Sexual Customs.
12. See Siegfried F. Nadel, ?upe Religion, pp. 205–206.
13. See, for example, Parrinder, op. cit.
14. In this connection, see Talcott Parsons, Definitions of Health and Illness in the Light of American Values and Social Structure, in E. G. Jaco, ed., Patients, Physicians, and Illness, pp. 165–187.
15. Parrinder, op. cit., p. 54.
16. Ibid., p. 58.
17. Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, p. 183.
18. See, for example, Karen Horney, New Ways in Psychoanalysis, and Erich Fromm, Sigmund Freud’s Mission.
19. Parrinder, op. cit., p. 79.
20. See Thomas S. Szasz, Moral conflict and psychiatry, Yale Review, 49: 555, 1960.
21. A. Gallinek, Psychogenic disorders and the civilization of the Middle Ages, American Journal of Psychiatry, 99: 42, 1942.
22. Ibid., p. 47.
23. Parrinder, op. cit., p. 68.
24. See Thomas S. Szasz, Psychiatry, ethics, and the criminal law, Columbia Law Review, 58: 183, 1958.
1. See George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society and The Philosophy of the Act.
2. See Jean Piaget, Judgment and Reasoning in the Child, The Moral Judgment of the Child, and Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood.
3. Piaget, The Moral Judgment of the Child, p. 1.
4. Ibid., pp. 86–95.
5. Ibid., p. 16.
6. Ibid., p. 17.
7. Ibid., p. 18.
8. Ibid.
9. Matthew 5: 5.
10. Ibid., 5: 10.
11. See Thomas S. Szasz, Politics and mental health, American Journal of Psychiatry, 115: 508, 1958, and Civil liberties and the mentally ill, Cleveland-Marshall Law Review, 9: 399, 1960.
12. Piaget, The Moral Judgment of the Child, p. 250.
13. Ibid., p. 188.
14. See Thomas S. Szasz, Commitment of the mentally ill, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 125: 293, 1957, and Psycho-analytic training, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 39: 598, 1958.
1. See Chapter 12.
2. Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (1893–1895), pp. 22–23.
3. See Thomas S. Szasz, The myth of mental illness, American Psychologist, 15: 113, 1960.
4. Harry Stack Sullivan, Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry, p. 203.
5. Ibid., pp. 204–206.
6. Ibid., pp. 207–208.
7. Ibid., pp. 209–210.
8. Ibid., p. 216.
9. Ibid., p. 228.
10. Sigmund Freud, On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement (1914), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XIV, pp. 14–15.
11. In this connection, see Joseph Fletcher, Morals and Medicine, especially p. 42.
12. See Thomas S. Szasz, Psycho-analytic training, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 39: 598, 1958.
13. Sigmund Freud, General remarks on hysterical attacks (1909), Collected Papers, Vol. II, p. 100.
1. See George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society, and Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.
2. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, p. 533.
3. In this connection, see Thomas S. Szasz, Psychiatry, psychotherapy, and psychology, A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1: 455, 1959.
4. Helene Deutsch, Some forms of emotional disturbance and their relationship to schizophrenia, Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 11: 301, 1942; The impostor, ibid., 24: 483, 1955.
5. Deutsch, The impostor, op. cit., p. 503.
6. Alfred Adler, Life-lie and responsibility in neurosis and psychosis (1914), in The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1925), pp. 235–245.
7. Hans Vaihinger, The Philosophy of “As If” (1911).
8. Deutsch, The impostor, p. 504.
9. See especially Chapter 2, and Thomas S. Szasz, Malingering, A.M.A. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 76: 432, 1956.
10. See, for example, Thomas Mann, Confessions of Felix Krull, and D. W. Maurer, The Big Con.
11. In this connection, see Silvano Arieti and Johannes M. Meth, Rare, Unclassifiable, Collective, and Exotic Psychotic Syndromes, in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. I, pp. 546–563, and H. Weiner and A. Braiman, The Ganser syndrome, American Journal of Psychiatry, Ill: 767, 1955.
12. S. Ganser, Über einen eigenartigen Hysterischen Dämmerzustand, Archiv für Psychiatrie, 30: 633, 1898.
13. Arthur P. Noyes, Modern Clinical Psychiatry, Fourth Edition, pp. 505–506.
14. Fredric Wertham, The Show of Violence, p. 191.
15. In this connection, see especially Erik H. Erikson, The problem of ego identity, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4: 56, 1956; Ralph Greenson, Problems of identification, ibid., 2: 197, 1954, and The struggle against identification, ibid., 2: 200, 1954.
16. See Allen Wheelis, The Quest for Identity.
17. See Chapter 2.
18. See Thomas S. Szasz, Scientific method and social role in medicine and psychiatry, A.M.A. Archives of Internal Medicine, 101: 228, 1958.
1. See, for example, W. Ronald D. Fairbairn, Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality.
2. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912).
3. See Sebastian de Grazia, The Political Community.
4. See Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, Revised Edition, especially pp. 161–194.
5. Phyllis Greenacre, Certain technical problems in the transference relationship, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 7: 484, 1959.
6. See Thomas S. Szasz, Pain and Pleasure, especially pp. 132–135.
7. Ernst Mach, The Analysis of Sensations and the Relation of the Physical to the Psychical (1885), p. 57; see also Thomas S. Szasz, Mach and psychoanalysis, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 130: 6, 1960.
8. In this connection, see David Bakan, Sigmund Freud and the Jewish Mystical Tradition; Richard La Pierre, The Freudian Ethic; and Philipp Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist.
9. See Bertrand Russell, A Psychoanalyst’s Nightmare, in Nightmares of Eminent Persons, pp. 21–30; and Thomas S. Szasz, Psychoanalytic training, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 39: 598, 1958.
10. See Chapter 11.
11. Sigmund Freud, On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement (1914), in The Standard Edition, Vol. XIV, p. 49.
12. See generally Alfred Adler, The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1925).
13. Thomas S. Szasz, On the theory of psycho-analytic treatment, International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 38: 166, 1957.
14. See Thomas S. Szasz, Recollections of a Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, in Arthur Burton, ed., Case Studies in Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 75–110.
1. Luigi Pirandello, Three Plays, p. 25.