Religions of India in Practice

The primary ritual act of Śaivism is the worship of the Śiva-liṅga. This reading, drawn from the Kūrmapurāṇa, is an exemplary tale describing how that practice was first instituted among humans.

During the early medieval period (roughly 700-1200 C.E.), devotional cults and temple worship directed toward the divinities Viṣṇu, Śiva, and the Goddess increasingly supplanted Vedic sacrifice and the Veda-based religious practices of orthodox brahmans, as well as the Buddhist and Jain monastic communities, as the dominant religious and political order of South Asia. Yet even as it introduced major innovations in Indian religious practice, temple Hinduism sought to maintain continuity with the earlier Vedic tradition, unlike Buddhism and Jainism, which had rejected Vedic authority more decisively.

The genre of texts known as Purāṇas (literally, “Old Traditions”) served as the main cosmological texts of this new form of Hinduism, setting forth the structure of the cosmos, the roles and activities of the deities within that cosmos, and the proper courses of conduct for human beings to follow in such a world. The Kūrmapurāṇa was originally composed by the Pāñcarātra (“Five Nights”) school, worshipers of Viṣṇu, some time between the sixth and eighth centuries. At the beginning of the text, the bard Sūta Romaharṣaṇa (who “Makes the Hair Stand on Edge” with his tales) relates to a group of sages gathered in Naimiṣa (“Transient”) Forest how Viṣṇu in the form of a tortoise (kūrma) had once held up Mount Mandara while the gods and demons used it to churn the Milk Ocean. A group of sages present at the churning asked the great turtle a question, and in response Viṣṇu narrated the teachings constituting the Kūrmapurāṇa, while still supporting the cosmic mountain on his mighty shell.

However, sometime around the early eighth century, the text was appropriated and recast by a group of Śiva worshipers, the Pāśupatas. The most prominent early Śaiva school, the Pāśupatas were particularly devoted to Śiva in his aspect as Paśupati, the “Lord of Animals,” here understanding animals in a metaphoric sense to denote all human souls in their condition of bondage, fettered like sacrificial beasts. The Pāśupatas reworked the Kūrmapurāṇa to reflect their own premises and concerns, adding numerous accounts of Śiva’s deeds and directions for worshiping Śiva. The lengthiest and most important of the insertions was the Īśvara Gītā (“Song of the Lord Śiva”), evidently a Pāśupata reply to that preeminent Vaiṣṇava catechism, the Bhagavad Gītā (“Song of the Lord Kṛṣṇa”). Though they still allowed a substantial role in the text to Viṣṇu, his position in the Pāśupata recension has clearly been subordinated to Śiva’s. In one interpolated episode, for example, the god Kṛṣṇa, an incarnation of Viṣṇu, must go to the hermitage of the sage Upamanyu (the “Zealous One”) and receive initiation into the ascetic regimen called the “Pāśupata vow” to enable him to procure a son.

The well-known narrative excerpted here, “The Origin of Liṅga Worship” (which is told, with variations, in many other Purāṇas), exemplifies several of these points. The story focuses on a group of sages who have retired to the Pine Forest (devadāruvana) in the Himalayas to perform Vedic-style sacrifices and renunciatory austerities, the kinds of practices described in Vedic and Smārta texts as appropriate to the “forest-dweller” stage of life. Observing them from his own mountain residence, Śiva judges that these practices may be useful for worldly purposes (pravṛtti), but they do not lead to the highest liberations (nivṛtti, “cessation”). (This reflects a charge commonly leveled at Vedism by schools of temple Hinduism.) He decides to intervene, and sets out to impart to the sages a new and superior form of religious practice, worship of his own liṅga. By the end of the story the sages are diligently engaged in the religious exercises into which Śiva has initiated them.

Although the Kūrmapurāṇa presents liṅga worship as a new practice, instituted for the first time among humans (though, as Brahmā reveals, gods have long known of it), the text grants an important role in the Pāśupata liturgy to Vedic texts. The god Brahmā, often portrayed as the creator of the Vedas, advises the sages to employ mantras from the Vedas and to chant the “Hundred Names of Rudra” from the Yajur Veda in worshiping the liṅga, explaining that Śiva had initially imparted the Vedas to him in olden times. (Rudra, the “Howler,” is the form in which Śiva appears in the Vedas, a capricious and frightening god associated with storms and disease.) Śiva himself cautions the sages against following any systems of knowledge outside the Veda, and claims that he himself embodies the Vedas. The Pāśupata vow that he recommends to the sages, he says, is the “essence” of the Veda.

Śiva certainly plays the leading role in this story, but the other primary deities of temple Hinduism appear as well. In a Śaiva Purāṇa, these divinities may be presented as powerful, glorious, and immensely knowledgeable in their own rights, but they are also made to recognize the ultimate preeminence of Śiva. Here we see Viṣṇu as Śiva’s partner in tricking the Pine-Forest sages, and Brahmā as the wise adviser who explains to the sages the great error they have committed and what they need to do to make recompense. The goddess Pārvatī, “Mountain-Born” daughter of Himalaya, puts in an appearance at the end, and the narrator tells us that she should be considered as identical with Śiva. Elsewhere in the Kūrmapurāṇa, both Viṣṇu and Brahmā are also revealed to be aspects of Śiva. So it is that the Pāśupata school resolves the apparent multiplicity of Hindu deities into a single godhead, identified as Śiva.

Such realizations are precisely what is at stake here, for the episode revolves around the initial inability of the Pine-Forest sages to see beyond particular form to true reality. Deities such as Śiva and Viṣṇu have the superhuman ability to control or alter the appearances of things, termed māyā. (Māyā is used in the text also as an epithet for the goddess Lakṣmī, consort of Viṣṇu, and as a name for Pārvatī, Śiva’s wife.) So when they show up at the forest hermitage in the form of naked beggar and lascivious companion, the hermits are fooled or deluded (moha) by their appearances. Later, Brahmā chastises the sages for their failure to recognize (vijñāna) Śiva in his true nature, and he prescribes practices that will enable them to gain the ability to see Śiva properly in the future. Sure enough, Śiva does visit the Pine Forest once again, and when the sages recognize him this time and praise him profusely, he presents his highest form to them and reveals the secret mystery of things.

If recognition of Śiva is presented in this text as the fundamental aim of religious practice, worship of the liṅga is advanced as the key to recognition. The word liṅga has three primary meanings, and all three are important here. Liṅga denotes the penis, the male generative organ. It also denotes a mark, emblem, badge—a sign that allows one to identify or recognize something, as one may identify someone as a member of the male sex by his penis. Finally, it also denotes the primary cult object of Śaivism, an upraised cylindrical shaft with rounded top, rising from a rounded base. The icon resembles, in a generally abstract manner, an erect male member, and serves at the same time as a sign of Śiva. In the Pine-Forest episode, the link between penis and icon is clear: the sages order Śiva to rip out his penis, and Brahmā orders the sages to make a copy of Śiva’s sundered penis as an object of worship. This, he tells them, will enable them to perceive Śiva, for it is his mark, the easily formed emblem on earth that allows all of us to recognize the god who is at the same time transcendent Lord of the cosmos.

“The Origin of Liṅga Worship” is framed by an account of holy bathing spots or fords (tīrtha, literally “crossing places”). The assembled sages of Naimiṣa Forest hermitage, the primary auditors of the Kūrmapurāṇa, request the narrator Sūta Romaharṣaṛa to describe to them the greatest and most celebrated holy places in the world. Sūta responds with a detailed list, comprising eight chapters of text. Like a good tour guide, he not only lists the sites and praises each one as worth a visit, but also retells the past events that distinguish each spot. The Pine Forest (near Badarināth in present-day Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh) is the sacred spot where Śiva once tricked the sages, he tells them, and where Śiva’s liṅga was first worshiped by humans. Yet in Sūta’s generous view, one need not make a pilgrimage there to gain its benefits. Just reading or listening to the story of the sages of the Pine Forest, he says, is enough to release one from all sins.

The text of the inscription may be found in Anand Swarup Gupta, ed., The Kūrma Purāṇa (Varanasi: All India Kashiraj Trust, 1971), 2.36.49-2.37.164.

“Adepts and celestials live in the auspicious Pine Forest, where the great god Śiva once granted a great favor. He tricked all the sages there, and when they worshiped him again, the glorious Lord Śiva was pleased and said to those devout sages:

“ ‘Dwell here always, in this lovely hermitage, meditating on me. In this way you will reach the highest state of attainment. To those righteous persons who offer worship to me in this world I grant the high status of “leader of my followers” permanently.

“ ‘I will stay here always, along with Viṣṇu. A man who gives up his life here will never again be reborn. And I destroy all the sins even of people who have gone to other regions and recollect this holy place, excellent brahmans. Funeral rites, gift-giving, austerities, fire sacrifices, ancestral offerings of rice balls, meditation, mantra repetitions, and vows—all ritual acts performed here will be free from decay.’

“For that reason, twice-born brahmans should make every effort to see the auspicious Pine Forest where the great god Śiva dwells. Wherever the Lord Śiva and the highest being Viṣṇu are, there also the Gaṅgā River, holy bathing spots, and temples are present.”

“How did the Lord Śiva, who carries the banner of the bull, fool those lordly sages when he went to the Pine Forest? Please tell us that now, Sūta.”

Once, thousands of sages along with their sons and wives were practicing austerities in that pleasant Pine Forest, where gods and adepts also dwell. Performing the kind of activities that engender continued existence (pravṛtta), the great seers performed various sacrifices and practiced self-restraints, as prescribed in the Vedas.

The trident-bearing god Śiva declared that those sages whose minds were intent on continued existence were committing a grave mistake, and set out for the Pine Forest. Taking Viṣṇu, the teacher of the world, at his side, the beneficent god Śiva went there to establish the doctrine of cessation (nivṛtti).

Śiva, Lord of the World, took on a fine form: nineteen years of age, frolicking playfully, with big arms, muscular limbs, beautiful eyes, and a golden body. His face glowed gloriously like the full moon, and he swayed like a rutting elephant, stark naked. Wearing a garland of water lilies and adorned with every jewel, he approached smiling. The eternal person Viṣṇu, imperishable womb of the worlds, assumed a female form and followed the trident-bearer. He had a full-moon face, breasts full and firm, and a gleaming smile; very gracious, with a pair of jingling anklets, nice yellow clothes, divine, dark-colored beautiful eyes. He moved like a fine swan, charming and enchanting. In this manner, the Lord Śiva went with Viṣṇu begging in the Pine Forest, fooling everyone with their power of appearance (māyā).

The women saw the trident-bearing Śiva, Lord of Everything, weaving this way and that, and followed him, beguiled by his appearance. These chaste wives abandoned modesty, their clothes and jewelry disheveled, excited by desire, and began sporting playfully with him. Though their minds were usually subdued, all the young sons of the sages were overcome with desire and followed Viṣṇu, Lord of the Senses.

When they saw the deceitful sole Lord Śiva, looking exceedingly attractive along with his wife, the groups of women began singing flirtatious songs and dancing, desiring and embracing him. When they saw the original god Viṣṇu, husband of Prosperity, the sons of the sages fell at his feet. They began to smile. Some sang songs, while others arched eyebrows at him. The demon-slayer Viṣṇu cunningly entered the minds of women and men. He created mental activity for their enjoyment, as if they were truly embraced by the goddess Māyā. Viṣṇu, support of all gods and living beings, shone in the midst of those women as the Lord of lords, Śiva, shines surrounded on his throne by many energies, seated with his single Śakti. Then Śiva rose up again and danced with utmost splendor. The original god Viṣṇu also rose and showed his true nature, nectar through Śiva’s action.

The excellent sages saw Śiva and Viṣṇu fooling the women and sons, and were infuriated. Tricked by his appearance, they unleashed harsh words at Śiva, god with shaggy locks, and cursed him with a swarm of oaths. Yet all the ascetic heat they directed at Śiva was rebuffed, as the stars in the sky are driven off by the sun’s splendor.

Confused, their ascetic powers defeated, the sages approached the bull-bannered god Śiva and asked him, “Who are you?”

The illustrious Lord Śiva replied, “I have come here today with my wife to practice austerities in this place with you, men of excellent vows.”

Those eminent sages, Bhṛgu and the others, listened to his words and commanded, “Put on your clothes, get rid of your wife, then you can do austerities!”

Laughing and looking at Viṣṇu, womb of the world, standing nearby, the Lord Śiva, who carries a staff, spoke: “How can you tell me to abandon my wife, while you who know proper conduct and have calm minds are yourselves devoted to supporting your own wives?”

“It is said that a husband should shun women who are fond of wrongdoing,” replied the sages. “So, we should avoid this charming lady, who is that type of woman.”

The great god said, “Sages, this woman never desires another, even mentally, and so I never abandon her.”

“You vile person!” the sages exclaimed. “We have seen her making mischief right here. You have told a lie. Leave here immediately!”

When they ordered him so, Śiva replied, “I have spoken the truth. She only appears like that to you.” And saying this, he left. . . .

The brahmans looked at the naked, mountain-dwelling, mutilated Śiva moving, and began to beat him with sticks, clods of dirt, and fists. They yelled at him, “You foul-minded one! Pull out your liṅga!”

“I will do it,” replied Śiva, the great yogi, “if you feel some aversion toward my liṅga.” And so saying, Śiva, who had once plucked out Bhaga’s eyes, ripped it out.

Immediately, Śiva, Viṣṇu, and the liṅga were no more to be seen. Then began strange portents, betokening danger to all the worlds. The sun with its thousand rays did not shine. The earth began to tremble. All the planets lost their splendor, and the ocean roiled.

Anusūya, chaste wife of the sage Atri, had a dream and announced to the other sages, her eyes full of fear, “The one whom we saw begging alms in our homes was certainly Śiva, whose emanating energy illuminates the whole world, accompanied by Viṣṇu.”

When they heard her words, all the sages were perplexed, and they went to the great yogi Brahmā, creator of everything. There they saw him seated on a spectacular throne full of many marvels, shining with a thousand rays, and endowed with knowledge, lordliness, and the other powers. He was accompanied by his wife Sāvitrī, and surrounded by throngs of pure yogis, all knowers of the Vedic texts, and by the four Vedas themselves in bodily form. Brahmā shone, smiling, radiant-eyed, with four faces, big arms, his body composed of Vedic hymns, unborn, supreme, the Vedic Person, gentle-faced, and auspicious.

Feeling well-disposed toward them, the four-formed, four-faced god asked, “Excellent sages, what is the reason you have come?”

They placed their folded hands atop their heads and all began to narrate the whole incident to the eminent Brahmā. The sages said: “A certain person of extreme beauty came to our auspicious Pine Forest, stark naked, accompanied by his wife, beautiful in every limb. This lord beguiled our wives and daughters with his handsome figure, and his wife seduced our sons. We made various curses, but he repelled them. We beat him soundly, and his liṅga was thrown down. The lord, his wife, and the liṅga all disappeared. Then terrible portents began, frightening every creature. Who was this man? Lord, highest of beings, we are scared! We take refuge with you, firm one. You know everything that stirs in this world. Protect us with your grace, Lord of Everything.”

When the band of sages had told him this, lotus-born Brahmā, the inner soul of the world, meditated on the trident-marked god Śiva, and spoke with his hands reverently folded.

Brahmā said: “What an error you have made! What has happened today ruins everything. Damn your strength! Damn your ascetic power! In this world, all your good conduct is worthless. Through your auspicious rites you have obtained the most precious treasure among treasures, and you have ignored it here, fooled by appearances. Your good conduct is in vain. Yogis and ascetics constantly exert themselves, seeking the treasure that you have obtained and foolishly neglected. Vedic experts perform myriad sacrifices to attain that great treasure that you have obtained and foolishly neglected. You have obtained and neglected the imperishable treasure through which the gods achieve their lordship over the entire world. My own universal sovereignty results from identifying myself with that treasure. But you, abandoned by fortune, have seen it and neglected it. Divine sovereignty is united in that imperishable treasure which you have obtained and foolishly rendered useless.

“This god is the great god Śiva, recognized as the greatest lord. One can attain no higher abode than this.

“This Lord Śiva becomes the god Time, and reabsorbs all embodied beings—gods, sages, ancestors, and all others—during the cosmic dissolution, at the end of a thousand aeons. And this one god emits all beings through his own emanating energy. He is Viṣṇu bearing the discus, Indra wielding the thunderbolt, and Kṛṣṇa marked with the curl of chest hair. In the first age, the god is “Yogi”; in the second age he is called “Sacrifice”; in the third he is Lord Time; and our present fourth age he is the Buddha, whose banner is righteousness. The entire world is suffused by the three embodiments of Rudra—the dark quality is Fire, the active one is Brahmā, and the virtuous one is the Lord Viṣṇu. And another form of his is also recognized: naked and eternal Śiva, where Brahmā remains, full of yoga.

“And that wife you saw following him—that was the eternal god Viṣṇu Nārāyana, the highest soul. The whole world is born from him, and into him it also disappears. He deceives everyone. He alone is the highest abode. Viṣṇu is the Person of the ancient traditions, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, a single horn, and eight syllables. The revealed texts say that the highest Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa has four embodiments, which are the four Vedas; three embodiments, which are the three qualities of matter; and one embodiment, which is the immeasurable Soul. This blessed Lord, existing as water, a body of changeable appearance, is the womb of cosmic order. Brahmans seeking liberation through proper conduct praise him with a variety of mantras.

“When the supreme being Viṣṇu reabsorbs all of creation at the end of the aeon, drinks the nectar of yoga, and sleeps—that is Viṣṇu’s highest state. Creating everything, he is not born, nor does he die, nor does he grow. Experts in the Vedas sing him as the unmanifested, unborn, originating source of all substance. Then, when the cosmic night is completed and Śiva desires to emit the whole world again, he places a seed in Viṣṇu’s navel. Know that I am that seed—the eminent Brahmā, with faces in every direction, a great being, the unsurpassed watery womb of everything.

“You were fooled by his power of appearance. You did not recognize the great god Śiva, the Creator, God of Gods and Lord of all creatures. This god is the greatest god. Śiva is without beginning. Accompanied by Viṣṇu, he makes and unmakes. He has no obligation to perform, and there is none superior to him. His body made of yoga, he gave me the Vedas in former times. Possessing the goddess Māyā, he makes the world and unmakes it with his power over appearances (māyā).

“You should recognize him as Śiva and take refuge with him to attain liberation.”

Feeling very dejected, Marīci and the other sages listened to the Lord’s speech, bowed to the mighty god, and asked Brahmā, “How can we see that bow-wielding god again? Tell us, Lord of all immortals. You protect those who seek your shelter.”

“You should make a copy of the god’s liṅga which you saw fall on the ground,” answered Brahmā, “and with your wives and sons attentively offer worship to that matchless liṅga, following Vedic rules only and observing celibacy. You should consecrate the liṅga using the mantras from the Ṛg, Yajur, and Sāma Vedas pertaining to Śiva. Then, following the highest ascetic regime and chanting the hundred names of Śiva, you, your sons, and your kinsmen should worship it intently. You should all approach Śiva with hands folded in reverence. Then you may see the Lord of gods, who is difficult to perceive for those who have not done this. When you see him, all your ignorance and unrighteousness will be destroyed.”

They bowed to the beneficent Brahmā, unlimited in his power, and returned to the Pine Forest, their hearts rejoicing. They began to worship just as Brahmā had advised them. Still not knowing the highest god, but without desire and without jealousy, some worshiped him on multicolored ritual platforms, some in mountain caves, and some on empty, auspicious riverbanks. Some ate duckweed for food, some lay in water, and some stood on the tips of their toes, abiding amid the clouds. Others ate unground grain, or ground it with a stone. Some ate vegetable leaves, and some purified themselves by subsisting on moonbeams. Some dwelled at the foot of trees, and others made their beds upon rocks. In these ways they passed their time performing austerities and worshiping Śiva.

Then the bull-bannered Lord Śiva, who takes away the pain of those who approach him, decided to enlighten them as a form of grace. In the first age the god dwells on the auspicious peak of Mount Kailāsa. Naked, his body smeared with white ash, holding a fire brand, his eyes red and yellow, disfigured with wounds, the gracious Lord Śiva went to the Pine Forest. At times he laughed wildly, and at times he sang arrogantly. Sometimes he danced lasciviously, and at other times he howled over and over. When he approached the hermitage, he begged for alms again and again. The god entered the forest, assuming his own form through his power of appearance. Taking Pārvatī, daughter of the Himalaya mountain, at his side, the god who carries the bow came, and she came to the Pine Forest accompanying Śiva.

When they saw the knotted-haired god approaching with the goddess, they bowed their heads to the ground and pleased the Lord with a variety of Vedic mantras and auspicious hymns pertaining to Śiva. Others pleased Śiva by reciting the Atharvaśiras Upaniṣad and Brāhmaṇas such as the Rudra.

Praise to the first God among gods.

Praise to you, O Great God.

Praise to you, three-eyed one, who carries the excellent trident.

Praise to you, sky-clad one, wounded one, bearer of the bow.

Before your body all are bowed down, while you yourself are never bowed.

Praise to you, who puts an end to death, and who yourself reabsorbs everything.

Praise to the dancer, to the one with a fearsome form.

Praise to the one who is half female, to the teacher of yogis.

Praise to the restrained, tranquil, ascetic Śiva.

Praise to you, most fearful Rudra, wearing clothes of skin.

Praise to you, flickering-tongued one.

Praise to you, blue-necked one.

Praise to the ambiguous one, whose form is both dreadful and not dreadful.

Praise to the one garlanded with jimson flowers, and who gladdens the goddess.

Praise to the highest god granting happiness,
who bears the waters of the Gaṅgā in his hair.

Praise to the lord of yoga, the lord over Brahmā.

Praise to you, the life-breath of all.

Praise to the one who loves smearing ashes on his body.

Praise to you, who rides the clouds, who has fangs, whose semen is fire.

Praise to you, in the form of Time, who once severed Brahma’s head.

We do not know your comings or your goings. O great God, you are what you are. Let there be praise of you.

Praise to the lord of the fiends, and to the giver of good fortune.

Praise to you, a skull-cup in your hand.

Praise to you, most bountiful one.

Praise to you, gold liṅga, water liṅga.

Praise to the fire liṅga.

Praise to you, liṅga of knowledge.

Praise to the one who wears snakes as garlands, and loves the pea blossom.

Praise to you, crowned one, ear-ringed one, the Destroyer of Time the destroyer.

“O ambiguous One, great Lord, God of gods, three-eyed One, forgive what we have done in our confusion, for you alone are our refuge. Śiva, your deeds are marvelous, profound, and inexplicable. You are difficult to recognize for all, from Brahma on down. Whatever a man does, whether through ignorance or knowledge, it is the Lord who does it all through his yogic power of appearance.”

They praised Śiva in this way, and thrilling within they bowed and asked the Lord of the Mountains, “Let us see you as before.”

Moon-bejewelled Śiva listened to their praises, and he showed them his own highest form.

When they saw this mountain-dwelling god, bearer of the bow, along with the goddess, as previously, the sages stood and bowed, minds rejoicing. Then all the sages praised the great Śiva—Bhṛgu, Aṅgiras, Vasiṣṭha and Viśvāmitra, Gautama, Atri and Sukeśa, Pulastya, Pulaha and Kratu, Marīci and Kaśyapa, and the great ascetic Saṃvartta. Bowing to the God of gods, they asked him a question: “How may we worship you, the Lord of all gods, at all times—through the yoga of worldly action, or through knowledge, or through yoga? Or by what divine route should Your Lordship be worshiped? What should we do, and what should we not do? Tell us all this.”

“I will tell you the secret, highest mystery, sages, which I once explained to Brahmā,” replied Śiva. “Knowledge and yogic practice should be understood as a twofold method for man’s attainment. Knowledge together with practice grants liberation to men, but the highest being is not seen through yoga alone, since only knowledge can give the fruit of final liberation. You abandoned pure knowledge and exerted yourselves practicing yoga alone to gain release. For that reason, sages, I have come to this place, showing you the confused state of men who follow proper conduct only. So now, through your own efforts, you should hear, see, and understand the pure knowledge that leads to the attainment of liberation.

“The soul is one, all-pervading, amounting to consciousness alone. It is joy, without stain, and eternal. This is the correct view, which is the highest knowledge. This is praised as liberation. It is described as pure autonomy, the status of Brahman. When eminent ascetics who are devoted to him and take him as their highest resort seek that highest Brahman, they see me, Lord over all. This is the highest knowledge, pure and unique. For I should be known as the Lord. My embodiment is auspicious (śiva).

“Many methods of attaining success in this world have been promulgated. This knowledge of mine surpasses all of them, excellent brahmans. I immediately put an end to the frightening ocean of fluctuating existence for all ascetics who, tranquil and intent on both knowledge and yogic practice, take refuge with me, continuously meditating on me in their hearts, their bodies smeared with ashes, their impurities removed—always the highest among my devotees.

“Calm, his mind controlled and body powdered with ash, celibate and naked, one should perform the Pāśupata vow. For liberation, I once established the supreme Pāśupata vow, secret among secrets, subtle, the very essence of the Vedas. A learned sage devoted to Vedic study should wear either a loincloth or a single cloth, and should meditate on Śiva in his form as Paśupati, lord of the animals. It is said that those seeking liberation who are without desire and are covered with ashes should observe the Pāśupata vow continuously. Many who are devoted to me and have taken refuge with me have been purified by this yogic practice, their passion, fear, and anger removed, and have reached my abode.

“But I have also declared other systems of knowledge in this world, which contradict what is said in the Vedas and lead to confusion. You should not observe the systems I have set forth outside the Veda, such as the left-handed Pāśupata, the Skull-bearer, Lākula, Bhairava systems, and others like that. I embody the Vedas, sages. Those who know the meanings of other systems cannot recognize my true form if they abandon the original Veda.

“Establish this path. Worship the great God. The true knowledge of Śiva will arise quickly. There is no doubt about it. Excellent and venerable ones, have devotion toward me, for as soon as you meditate I will grant my presence to you, most eminent sages.”

When he had said this, the Lord Śiva vanished from that place. And the sages—celibate, calm, and intent on both knowledge and yogic practice— began to worship Śiva in the Pine Forest. The excellent sages, explicators of the Vedic interpretive texts, assembled and held many theological discussions.

While the sages took to the path of meditation and discussed these matters, the goddess Pārvatī, daughter of the mountain, appeared among them, shining like ten million suns, enveloped in a garland of flames, filling the sky with her immaculate radiance. They saw the boundless Pārvatī seated among a thousand flames and bowed to her, sole wife of Śiva. They recognized her as the seed of the highest. For us, Śiva’s wife is the abode known as heaven and likewise the soul. These brahmans and sages then saw themselves and the whole world within her.

When Śiva’s wife saw them, they saw amidst them the wise god Śiva himself, cause of everything, the great Being of the ancient traditions, highest of the gods. They saw the goddess and the Lord Śiva, bowed, and became exceedingly joyful. At that moment the knowledge of Śiva, which puts an end to the cycle of rebirth, became apparent to them through the Lord’s grace. . . .

Then the Lord Śiva, first among the gods, became invisible together with the goddess, and the forest-dwelling sages once again set about worshiping the god Śiva.

“So I have told you the entire episode of what Śiva did in the Pine Forest, just as I heard it long ago. One who reads it or listens to it constantly is released from all sins, and one who recites it to peaceful twice-borns will attain the highest state.”