Friday, March 23: Sparks, ed., A Many Colored Toga, 60; biographical details from obituaries published June 1, 1962, in the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and Chicago Tribune.
First had come: Justus D. Doenecke, Nothing Less Than War: A New History of America’s Entry into World War I (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011), 257–58.
Harbors on the Atlantic seaboard: Baltimore Sun, Feb. 17, 1917; Washington Post, Feb. 15, 1917.
Shipowners turned to Washington: RL, War Memoirs of Robert Lansing, Secretary of State, 223–24.
In a speech at the Capitol: PWW, 41:283–87.
The Zimmermann telegram: Except where otherwise noted, this account is based on RL, “Memorandum on the Message of Zimmermann to the German Minister to Mexico,” March 4, 1917, Private Memoranda, RL Papers, Library of Congress. For the text of the Zimmermann telegram, see FRUS, 1917, Supplement 1, 147.
Wilson was so outraged: Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram, 163–64.
use of the State Department’s wires: Ibid., 126–32, 161, 238–39; Katz, The Secret War in Mexico, 373.
A German embassy courier: Hendrick, The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 3:339–42.
“Good Lord!”: WWLL: Facing War, 479.
Senator Lodge: Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram; 161; New York Times, March 2, 1917.
The White House and the State Department: Baltimore Sun, March 2, 1917.
The House reacted: PWW, 41:318n1.
the Senate: New York Times, Feb. 28, 1917.
the discussion began: My account of the filibuster is based on the coverage of the New York Times, March 5, 1917, except where otherwise noted.
Wilson’s first term also expired: PWW, 41:331; Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 84–85; New York Times, March 5, 1917.
The Wilsons were back at the White House: PWW, 41:332.
“A little group of willful men”: PWW, 41:318–20.
J. Fred Essary: Baltimore Sun, March 6, 1917.
The Wilsons traveled to the Capitol: New-York Tribune, March 6, 1917.
It seemed to the reporters: New York Times and Washington Post, March 6, 1917.
The inaugural subcommittee: Official Report of the Second Inauguration of Woodrow Wilson, 5 March 1917, 65th Cong., 1st Sess., Senate Document 116, 117ff.
Chief Justice Edward Douglass White: Inauguration details from The Washington Post, March 6, 1917.
but his inaugural address was a disappointment: PWW, 41:332–35.
“This is not a time”: PWW, 41:357.
In the evening: PWW, 41:341, 358.
By the next morning: New York Times, March 7, 1917, and New-York Tribune, March 8, 1917.
La Follette was hanged in effigy: Washington Post, March 9, 1917.
Wilson regretted: WWLL: Facing War, 483.
he took to his bed: PWW, 41:359, 364, 381; EBW, My Memoir, 130–32; WWLL: Facing War, 5:487–88.
Woodrow clung to Edith: PWW, 41:466, 473–74.
In her diary: EBW, My Memoir, 131; WWLL: Facing War, 5:487–88.
and in 1917 he became the first to recognize: FRUS, 1917, 1207–11.
The final blow: RL, War Memoirs, 233; PWW, 41:429–30.
A few hours after seeing Lansing: John L. Heaton, Cobb of the World (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1924), 269–70. Cobb took no notes during the interview but years later shared his recollections of it with two associates. The words presented as verbatim quotes from Wilson come from the associates’ notes. Cobb remembered that the interview took place in the wee hours of April 2, the day Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, but it actually occurred at three-thirty on the afternoon of March 19, a few hours after Lansing made his impassioned plea for war. (Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 399n33.)
Lansing brooded all day: RL, War Memoirs of Robert Lansing, Secretary of State, 234–36.
The president shook hands: Unless otherwise noted, the details come from PWW, 41:436–45.
Next morning, on his way out: PWW, 41:446, 448–49.
“the United States and the German empire”: Washington Post, March 22, 1917.
“Apparently”: PWW, 41:448–49.
The cabinet saw a self-righteous version: PWW, 41:484.
“President said it offended him”: PWW, 41:541.
House happened to be on hand: PWW, 41:482–83.
Wilson had often complained: PWW, 41:506.
Wilson lit into him: PWW, 41:515.
Wilson’s anxiety: Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 85.
On Sunday morning: EBW, My Memoir, 132.
“it contains all”: PWW, 41:528-29.
The Wilsons, accompanied by Grayson: PWW, 41:531–32.
The Capitol: EBW, My Memoir, 132.
He began with a review: PWW, 41:519–27.
“the finest tribute”: RL, War Memoirs, 242.
“Mr. Wilson, you have expressed”: New York Times, April 3, 1917.
“Think what it was”: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 256. Arthur Link had doubts about Tumulty’s account of the conversation (Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 427), but the next day Wilson spoke to Daniels in a similar vein. As Daniels summarized Wilson’s remarks in his diary, “Told me applause in Capitol grated on him because he felt the gravity & seriousness of the situation & the necessity make applause far from his feeling.” (PWW, 41:541.)
at one o’clock in the afternoon: PWW, 41:557–58; WWLL: Facing War, 516–17; EBW, My Memoir, 133.
“When the excitement of these days is forgotten”: Sparks, ed., A Many Colored Toga, 57.
As soon as the United States declared war: RL, War Memoirs, 272.
Wilson gave his consent: PWW, 42:14; Seymour, American Diplomacy During the World War (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1964), 217.
Spring Rice alerted London: Gwynn, ed., The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring Rice, 2:391–93.
Arthur Balfour: PWW, 42:123, 140.
Balfour was invited: PWW, 42:155–57. The terms of the secret treaties are outlined in Samuel Flagg Bemis, The United States as a World Power: A Diplomatic History, 1900–1950 (New York: Henry Holt, 1950), 151–53.
Balfour and House had supper with the Wilsons: EBW, My Memoir, 137.
(He never thought about them in bed): Devlin, Too Proud to Fight, 274–76.
Wilson seemed unable to relax: PWW, 42:171–72.
Wilson and Lansing knew next to nothing: Bemis, The United States as a World Power, 150–51.
The discussions of territorial adjustments: Kathleen Burk, “The Diplomacy of Finance: British Financial Missions to the United States 1914–1918,” Historical Journal 22, no. 2 (June 1979): 234.
“war-weary, jangled, nervous”: WGM, Crowded Years, 373, 378–79, 392–95.
In meetings with Secretary Daniels: Sims, The Victory at Sea, 5–11.
“Ships and ships and then more ships”: Cronon, ed., The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 140–44.
When the British recommended: Burk, “The Diplomacy of Finance: British Financial Missions to the United States 1914–1918,” 234–35.
The ships had been seized: New York Times, April 7 and May 6, 1917; Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 1917; Baltimore Sun, May 9, 1917.
The French delegates: Robert D. Bruce, “America Embraces France: Marshal Joffre and the French Mission to the United States,” Journal of Military History 66, no. 2 (April 2002): 407–41.
Marshal Joseph Joffre: Historians would question Joffre’s heroism, intelligence, and devotion to his troops. See Barnett Singer, “Mon Général: The Case of Joseph Joffre,” American Scholar 65, no. 4 (Autumn 1996): 593–99.
By 1917, France had lost: Bruce, “America Embraces France: Marshal Joffre and the French Mission to the United States,” 416, 429.
He decided to approach: Ibid., 417; Elizabeth Greenhalgh, “The Viviani-Joffre Mission to the United States, April–May 1917: A Reassessment,” French Historical Studies 35, no. 4 (Fall 2012): 644–45, 653.
Joffre was acting: Pierre Lesoeuf, “La mission du maréchal Joffre aux États-Unis au moment de leur entrée en guerre,” http://www.institut-strategie.fr/ihcc_eu1gm_Lesouef.html#, accessed October 22, 2017.
After meetings with the War Department: PWW, 42:186–91.
The question of sending volunteers: Morison and Blum, eds., Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:947–48; O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 300, 305–7, 309, 310–13.
A newspaper poll: In the House, 218 members favored the bill, 186 opposed it, and 28 were undecided. In the Senate, 40 senators were in favor, 38 opposed, 18 undecided. Greenhalgh, “The Viviani-Joffre Mission to the United States, April–May 1917: A Reassessment,” 650n97.
Joffre agreed: Bruce, “America Embraces France: Marshal Joffre and the French Mission to the United States,” 423.
The British did not object: John Whiteclay Chambers II, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York: Free Press, 1987), 146–47; Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:152–53; PWW, 42:192, 202.
Wilson privately promised: IPCH, 3:58–59; PWW, 42:191.
On May 2: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:149–50; 168–69; Smythe, Pershing, 8.
“you will be in command”: Ibid., 5.
Pershing had been angling: Ibid., 4; PWW, 42:225–26, 242.
Pershing’s chief rival: PWW, 40:464; O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 307.
An expeditionary force: PWW, 42:249–51.
As Pershing told the story: Smythe, Pershing, 6.
In fact: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:170–72.
Conferring with the Allies: PWW, 42:30; FRUS, 1918, Russia, 1:52.
The idea of sending a mission to Russia: RL, War Memoirs, 331–34, PWW, 42:43–44, 67.
McAdoo had the excellent idea: PWW, 42:80, 152.
Root received his presidential summons: New York Times, April 10, 1917.
“You have no idea”: Jessup, Elihu Root, 2:355–56.
Vladimir Lenin: Neiberg, Fighting the Great War, 215.
German soldiers on the Eastern Front began fraternizing: FRUS, 1918, Russia, 1:139–40; Jessup, Elihu Root, 369; Neiberg, Fighting the Great War, 215.
A few weeks after filing their report: Jessup, Elihu Root, 2:368.
when he was taken to the White House: Eisenhower, Yanks, 33.
A day after: “Woodrow Wilson: Executive Order 2587A—Federal Employees Removal on Security Grounds,” April 7, 1917. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=75048, accessed Oct. 18, 2017.
No explanation was required: Stephen Graubard, Command of Office (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 150.
but 868 applicants: Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917–1921, 17.
“If Wilson and his cabinet”: Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Apprenticeship (Boston: Little, Brown, 1952), 319.
As commander in chief: Arthur S. Link and John Whiteclay Chambers II, “Woodrow Wilson as Commander in Chief,” in Richard H. Kohn, ed., The United States Military Under the Constitution of the United States, 1789–1989 (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 324.
“a new thing and a landmark”: Wilson, Proclamation 1370: Conscription, May 18, 1917, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=65403, accessed Aug. 16, 2017.
In the weeks leading up: Chambers, To Raise an Army, 134–36; Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:184.
The Senate needed: Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned, 19.
In a tirade: New York Times, April 26, 1917.
Some congressmen insisted: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:193.
The most vehement opposition: Daniel R. Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), 30–31.
The bill’s passage: There is a comprehensive account of the congressional fight over Roosevelt’s division in Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned, 19–30. Dealings between Roosevelt and Baker, complete with extensive quotations from their correspondence, appear in Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 1:195–206. For Wilson’s reaction, see PWW, 42:324–26. Roosevelt’s efforts to win a place for his division and the French and British reactions to the idea are chronicled in O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 305–7, 310–14.
Baker, fearing a reprise: Kennedy, Over Here, 150–52.
Not that they had a choice: Wilson, Proclamation 1370: Conscription, May 18, 1917.
The Department of Justice deputized: Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, New-York Tribune, San Francisco Chronicle, June 6, 1917.
White planters in the South had opposed conscription: Chad L. Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy, 53.
On the day the Selective Service Act was signed: PWW, 42:321.
In all: Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 1917–1921, 18; Chambers, To Raise an Army, 198.
The job of carrying the troops: Creel, Rebel at Large, 149–50; Lee A. Craig, Josephus Daniels (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 367; Link, Wilson: The New Freedom, 122–25.
At the urging of the British: Daniels, The Wilson Era, 2:114–15, 121–22; Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, 1918, 17.
No wartime accomplishment: Sims, The Victory at Sea, 104–5, 144; Daniels, The Wilson Era, 2:115.
Hoover spent the first weeks: Hendrick, The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 3:215–16.
“the kind of man”: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, May 3, 1917; PWW, 42:220.
Hoover would not be a dictator: PWW, 42:344–46; New York Times, June 13, 1917.
Skeptics wondered: Tom G. Hall, “Wilson and the Food Crisis: Agricultural Price Control During World War I,” Agricultural History 47, no. 1 (Jan. 1973): 25–40.
Grain reserves in Europe: Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 1917–1921, 91.
Hoover had three ideas: PWW, 42:481–85.
Edith Wilson signed on: EBW, My Memoir, 136.
Wilson soon came to dread their meetings: PWW, 46:317.
Yet Hoover was also confident: Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 1917–1921, 94; Helen Zoë Veit, “We Were a Soft People,” Food, Culture and Society 10, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 178.
“the almoner of starving Belgium”: Daniels, The Wilson Era, 2:317; Veit, “We Were a Soft People,” 170, 175.
chewing his way through an entire cigar: Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century, 123.
The winter of 1917–1918: December 29, 1917, was an especially brutal day in the Northeast. These stories appeared in the Washington Post and New-York Tribune on December 30.
There was plenty of coal: WGM, Crowded Years, 452–58.
On December 26: Ibid., 458–61.
The blizzards: New-York Tribune, Jan. 15, 1917; PWW, 46:12.
But the success came: New York Times, Feb. 17, 1918.
“Broomstick preparedness”: Stout, ed., Roosevelt in the Kansas City Star, 10–12.
Housed in unheated barracks: Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned, 75.
On January 10: O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 345–46; Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned, 79–80, 84–86.
Wilson tried to dissuade Chamberlain: PWW, 45:566–67.
“The military establishment of America”: PWW, 46:49.
Chamberlain confirmed: PWW, 46:53–55.
“an astonishing”: PWW, 46:55–56.
The president also summoned: Livermore, Politics Is Adjourned, 89.
Senator William J. Stone: PWW, 46:64n2.
Lodge reminded Stone: Washington Post, Jan. 22, 1918.
Chamberlain defended himself: New York Times, Jan. 25, 1918.
The president, meanwhile: WWLL: War Leader, 498; Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 103. WHU (Jan. 24–26, 1918) indicates that Wilson spent most of the next three days in his room.
Chamberlain now had the upper hand: New York Times, Jan. 26, 1918.
A few days later: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 2:73–77; Washington Post, Jan. 29, 1918.
Wilson made his legislative move: New York Times, Feb. 7, 1918.
Overman’s fight: PWW, 47:109.
Once on the floor: New York Times, April 3, 1918; Baltimore Sun, April 12, 1918.
The impasse ended: New York Times, April 25, 1918; New-York Tribune, March 13 and May 1, 1918.
The Overman Act: New York Times, April 30 and May 15, 1918; Grosvenor B. Clarkson, Industrial America in the World War: The Strategy Behind the Line, 1917–1918 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1923), 493–94.
Chamberlain had convened: Baruch, Baruch: The Public Years, 35–40; James Grant, Bernard Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend (New York: Touchstone, 1983), 173.
The two copper men: New York Times, March 22, 1917.
Wilson unchained: PWW, 46:520–22.
Baruch took over the War Industries Board: Grant, Bernard Baruch 176–77.
“Only the armistice”: Paul A. C. Koistinen, “The ‘Industrial-Military Complex’ in Historical Perspective: World War I,” Business History Review 41, no. 4 (Winter 1967): 402.
In May 1918: O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 373–74.
With a team from the Department of Justice: Pusey, Charles Evans Hughes, 1:375–79.
William Howard Taft: Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, 2:907, 916–18.
Quickest and most energetic: WGM, Crowded Years, 372–77, 412.
McAdoo had a well-deserved reputation: Daniels, The Wilson Era, 2:38.
That hurdle crossed: WGM, Crowded Years, 378–83.
Launched on May 2: New York Times, May 3 and 4, 1917; Washington Post, May 5, 1917.
McAdoo was not ready to celebrate: New York Times, May 7, 1917; Washington Post, May 12, 1917.
He asked Wilson to issue a proclamation: PWW, 42:294–95.
and Wilson responded: Washington Post, June 1, 1917.
Overnight: WGM, Crowded Years, 385.
Post offices began canceling stamps: New York Times, May 13, 1917.
Women’s clubs: WGM, Crowded Years, 385.
The Boy Scouts of America: New York Times, May 22, 1917.
Department stores: Ibid., May 18, 1917.
The editors: Afro-American (Baltimore), May 26, 1917.
Not wanting a penny: New York Times, May 13, 1917; New-York Tribune, May 18, 1917.
it attracted four million investors: WGM, Crowded Years, 391.
By the time the second loan: Ibid., 373–74.
In all: Ibid., 412, 414.
A decade later: John Maurice Clark, The Costs of the World War to the American People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1931), 297.
McAdoo became the scapegoat: WGM, Crowded Years, 415–16.
The United States had been at war: PWW, 42:55.
George Creel: Creel, Rebel at Large, 156.
“I know I could”: Stewart Halsey Ross, Propaganda for War (Joshua Tree, Calif.: Progressive Press), 2009, 218–19.
“expression, not suppression”: Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 1.
In a preliminary statement: Committee on Public Information, “Preliminary Statement to the Press of the United States,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1917, 6, 13–15; Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 10–12.
Like Wilson, he was certain: Creel, How We Advertised America, 35.
At Wilson’s insistence: Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 63–67.
Creel flooded the country: Ibid., 2, 15–19, 30; Creel, How We Advertised America, 137–39; Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 74–75; Schaffer, America in the Great War, 5.
From grumbling: Alan Axelrod, Selling the Great War: The Making of American Propaganda (New York: St. Martin’s, 2009), xi.
The CPI also produced movies: Creel, How We Advertised America, 117–20, 125, 127; Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 8–10.
But the president’s second Flag Day address: PWW, 42:498–504.
Neither acknowledged: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 46, 84, 127, 152–53, 196–97.
Several Mennonite churches: Gerlof D. Homan, “The Burning of the Mennonite Church, Fairview, Michigan, in 1918,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 64 (April 1990): 99–112.
The day after the speech: Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties,1917–1921, 40–41.
Postmaster General Albert S. Burleson: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 163–64.
When the Post Office informed: Ibid., 47–48; Zechariah Chafee, Jr., “The Milwaukee Leader Case,” Nation 112, no. 2907 (March 23, 1921): 428–29.
Protests streamed into the White House: PWW, 44:339–40, 344.
“I am afraid”: PWW, 44:396–97.
Wilson retreated: Donald Johnson, “Wilson, Burleson, and Censorship in the First World War,” Journal of Southern History 28, no. 1 (Feb. 1962): 54–56.
“Let them blow off some steam”: WWLL: War Leader, 165n1.
Burleson, a master of doubletalk: PWW, 44:389–90.
After a long legal battle, The Masses folded: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 96–97.
In all, Burleson censored: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 92–98.
“helpless small fry”: O’Toole, When Trumpets Call, 362.
Thomas Watt Gregory: Evan Anders, “Thomas Watt Gregory and the Survival of His Progressive Faith,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 93, no. 1 (July 1989): 4.
Moving as quickly as Burleson: Geoffrey R. Stone, “Mr. Wilson’s First Amendment,” in Cooper, ed., Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson, 189–224.
At the end of 1917: Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1917, 50–53.
“May God have mercy on them”: New York Times, Nov. 21, 1917.
The country had been scared: Emerson Hough, The Web: A Revelation of Patriotism (Chicago: Reilly & Lee, 1919), 88–89; Joan M. Jensen, The Price of Vigilance (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968), 293.
Every day brought: Jensen, The Price of Vigilance, 15–16, 21.
Gregory established a War Emergency Division: Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1918, 14.
Alert to the risks: Hough, The Web, 12, 26, 30.
The first serious complaint: PWW, 42:441–43.
“It seems to me”: PWW, 42:446.
Gregory assured the president: PWW, 42:509–10.
The badges . . . were nothing alike: PWW, 42:516.
“I know of no authority”: PWW, 42:518.
Investigation Bureau: Hough, The Web, 495.
“if I were a German spy”: PWW, 42:518n5.
But there was no order: Jensen, The Price of Vigilance, 148–50; Hough, The Web, 163–64.
three million investigations: Hough, The Web, 34, 48, 50.
it had failed to turn up even one spy: Ross, Propaganda for War, 270.
In a report written at the end of the war: Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1918, 15.
On July 12, 1917: PWW, 43:156–57; New York Times, July 14, 1917.
When the news reached the White House: PWW, 43:156-57.
Wilson deplored: Cronon, ed., The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 1913–1921, 185.
Gregory declined: Kennedy, Over Here, 264.
With Wilson’s approval: PWW, 44:17–18, 81.
the Justice Department had piled up evidence: The APL’s role is gleefully recounted in Hough, The Web, 133–40.
At three o’clock: Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1918, 53–54.
it took the jury less than an hour: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 240.
In Tulsa: Ibid., 172–75.
Elsewhere: Ibid., 204.
Gregory could think of only one remedy: Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1918, 18.
Robert Paul Prager: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 202–4.
Wilson shook his head: PWW, 42:7–9; 48:192.
“The press, from which we had the right”: Creel, Rebel at Large, 199.
Capitalizing on the outrage: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 212.
“a condition of lawlessness”: Stone, “Mr. Wilson’s First Amendment,” 205.
In the Senate: Ibid., 206.
The new strictures: Peterson and Fite, Opponents of War, 1917–1918, 182; John Lord O’Brian, “Civil Liberty in War Time,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919, 17–18.
Eugene V. Debs: Ernest Freeberg, Democracy’s Prisoner: Eugene V. Debs, the Great War, and the Right to Dissent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 77–79, 105–7; Eugene V. Debs, “The Canton, Ohio Speech, Anti-War Speech,” Marxists.org., accessed July 27, 2016, www.marxists.org/archives/debs/works/1918/canton.htm.
Summing up his war against subversives: PWW, 51:377–80; Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917–1921, 52–53, 56; Jensen, The Price of Vigilance, 269; O’Brian, “Civil Liberty in War Time,” 20.
Wilson gave his consent: PWW, 55:348n2.
There had been a time: PWW, 12:475.
“If there should be disloyalty”: PWW, 41:526.
and Gregory’s Sedition Act made it worse: O’Brian, “Civil Liberty in War Time,” 18.
Determined: IPCH, 3:206, 226.
Fifteen hundred miles: Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, 74–75.
The Allies responded: Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918, 30–31.
In Berlin, as in London and Paris: Holger H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1914–1918 (London: Arnold, 1997), 393–94.
The danger was acute: Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918, 36.
Bliss agreed with Pershing: Ibid., 37.
When House and his delegation: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, Dec. 3, 1917.
Wilson had authorized Pershing: PWW, 46:231–32.
but Pershing refused: PWW, 46:197.
John Dos Passos: Dos Passos, Mr. Wilson’s War, 356–57.
House understood: IPCH, 3:281–82.
“My home policy”: Clemenceau made the remark on March 18, 1918, in a speech to the Chamber of Deputies. http://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/decouvrir-l-assemblee/histoire/grands-moments-d-eloquence/georges-clemenceau-8-mars-1918, accessed Oct. 22, 2017.
The colonel decided to urge: IPCH, 3:233, 273.
But even as the colonel: IPCH, 3:218–19.
The colonel sailed home: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, Dec. 1, 8, and 11, 1917.
“I never knew a man”: PWW, 45:317–18, 323.
He could not singlehandedly: IPCH, 3:317–18.
The president asked the colonel: PWW, 45:324. There is an overview of the Inquiry’s work in IPCH, 3:168–73. For a comprehensive treatment, see Gelfand, The Inquiry.
House summoned the Inquiry’s secretary: Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century, 133–34, 609n8. The Inquiry’s memorandum appears in PWW, 45:459–74.
“[W]asn’t it horrible?”: Sigmund Freud and William C. Bullitt, Thomas Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological Study (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 200–201.
Surrounded by his family: His holiday activities are chronicled in The Washington Post, Dec. 23–26, 1917.
The negotiations for a permanent peace between Russia and Germany: Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, 219–28.
The colonel reached the White House: PWW, 45:458–59.
“We actually got down to work”: PWW, 45:550–51.
On Monday: PWW, 45:555.
On Tuesday: Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 101.
and at ten-thirty he asked his office: PWW, 45:555.
his Fourteen Points speech: PWW, 45:534–39.
The most perceptive praise: New-York Tribune, Jan. 9, 1918.
The day after the speech: PWW, 45:549–50, 566, 577–78.
As for the 177,000 American soldiers in France: American Battle Monuments Commission, A Guide to the American Battle Fields in Europe, 16.
In a February 3 meeting: PWW, 46:231–32; 247–48.
In a single stroke: Neiberg, Fighting the Great War, 224–25.
“the last card”: Herwig, The First World War, 392–93.
“ten thousand breakers”: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 2:103–4.
Within forty-eight hours: PWW, 47:131–32.
At the White House: PWW, 47:183–85.
The Supreme War Council: S. L. A. Marshall, World War I, 357–58.
Bliss, who believed: Smythe, Pershing, 101; Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919, 131–33.
“I have come to say to you”: American Battle Monuments Commission, A Guide to the American Battle Fields in Europe, 17-18.
Wilson agreed to send: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 2:146–48; PWW, 47:221, 229–30.
The dispute: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 2:150.
After consulting the Allies: Ibid., 2:143; Smythe, Pershing, 96.
The Allies had managed: S. L. A. Marshall, World War I, 360; Smythe, Pershing, 102.
Believing that the Germans: Palmer, Newton D. Baker, 2:153; Martin Gilbert, The First World War, 414.
Through their ambassadors: PWW, 47:386–87, 393, 497–98.
Wiseman appealed to House: PWW, 47:433–35.
A State Department official: PWW, 47:585, 595.
The AEF began to make itself felt: Bullard, Personalities and Reminiscences of the War, 198–99; Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 65–67; S. L. A. Marshall, World War I, 372–73.
The fight for Cantigny: Trask, The AEF and the Coalition Warmaking, 69; Eisenhower, Yanks, 135–36.
There were 722,000 American troops: Palmer, Bliss, Peacemaker, 274n3.
Foch threatened: Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 74–75.
“We all had the impression”: Smythe, Pershing, 138.
“Half trained, half organized”: Churchill, The World Crisis, 795–96.
Ludendorff believed: Ibid., 139; Trask, The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 72.
By the Fourth of July: Palmer, Bliss, Peacemaker, 285.
Captain André Tardieu: New York Times, July 5, 1918.
Wilson spent his Fourth of July: Chicago Tribune, July 5, 1918; Creel, How We Advertised America, 200; Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 84; EBW, My Memoir, 164.
Wilson spoke of the war: PWW, 48:514–17.
“work out their own salvation”: PWW, 51:350.
“sweating blood”: PWW, 49:550.
To Oswald Garrison Villard: Georg Schild, Between Ideology and Realpolitik: Woodrow Wilson and the Russian Revolution (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), 85.
General Ludendorff concluded: Martin Gilbert, The First World War, 417.
Ludendorff clung: Herwig, The First World War, 418–19; Görlitz, ed., The Kaiser and His Court, 371–74.
Ludendorff would remember August 8: Herwig, The First World War, 419; Strachan, The First World War, 310–11.
By relentless, tightly coordinated fire: Neiberg, Fighting the Great War, 343–44.
A psychologist advised him: Strachan, The First World War, 311.
On August 13: Seymour, American Diplomacy During the World War, 302–3; Strachan, The First World War, 311–12; Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times, 391–92.
House told him (not for the first time): PWW, 49:265–67.
At a meeting of party leaders: Seward W. Livermore, “The Sectional Issue in the 1918 Congressional Elections,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 25 (1948–1949): 33.
In a July 3 fundraising letter: Frank P. Woods to Dear Sir, July 3, 1918, Albert S. Burleson Papers, 21:3305.
“Republican principles”: Selig Adler, “The Congressional Election of 1918,” South Atlantic Quarterly 36 (Oct. 1937): 449–50.
“These are days”: PWW, 48:162–65.
Spokesmen: New York Times, May 28, 1918.
The House did not approve . . . until September: Roy G. and Gladys C. Blakey, “The Revenue Act of 1918,” American Economic Review 9, no. 2 (June 1919): 213–15.
Lodge stayed on the sidelines: “The Essential Terms of Peace: Speech of Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts in the Senate of the United States, August 23, 1918” (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1918).
A day after Lodge delivered: New York Times, Aug. 25, 1918.
“conversion”: PWW, 51:190.
“as an act of right and justice”: New York Times, Jan. 10, 1918.
The resolution needed 274 votes: Ibid., Jan. 11, 1918.
The slim victory: New-York Tribune, Jan. 12, 1918; Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 148.
When Jones introduced: New York Times and Washington Post, Sept. 27, 1918.
McAdoo telephoned the White House: WGM, Crowded Years, 496–97.
Wilson spoke at one o’clock: PWW, 51:158–61.
“No Vote Changed”: Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 1, 1918.
Republicans gloated, too: Washington Post, Oct. 2, 1918.
A delegation of suffragists: PWW, 51:189–90.
The illiberal wing: PWW, 46:436.
In 1915 he outraged liberal opinion: PWW, 47:388n2, n3.
“If this is OUR country”: Edward M. Coffman. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998), 69.
James Weldon Johnson: Chad L. Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy, 24–25.
The Army had long practiced segregation: Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919, 225, 228.
Pressed by the NAACP: Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 1917–1921, 212–15.
In the violent summer of 1917: Beaver, Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919, 229; Barbeau and Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: African-American Troops in World War I (New York: Da Capo, 1976), 29–30.
Of the sixteen additional death sentences: PWW, 49:399–402.
The ten joined fifty-three other black soldiers: Robert V. Haynes, “Houston Riot of 1917,” Texas State Historical Association, Handbook of Texas Online, accessed March 21, 2015.
A report prepared by two black clergymen: PWW, 48:155–61.
In July, Wilson issued: Adler, “The Congressional Election of 1918,” 462–63.
When Creel asked him: PWW, 48:342, 346.
On October 1: Afro-American (Baltimore), Oct. 4, 1918.
“We all have to be patient”: PWW, 51:168.
On September 14: New York Times, Sept. 7, 1918; FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 306–10; New York Times, Sept. 17 and 18, 1918.
“Force, Force to the utmost”: PWW, 47:270.
On the Fourth of July: PWW, 48:516–17.
At the end of September: PWW, 51:127–33.
It seemed to House: New York Tribune, Sept. 30, 1918; PWW, 51:144.
The Allies had accepted their first surrender: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 322.
and the AEF had just recaptured: Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 28, 1918.
The drive was only a few days old: Görlitz, ed., The Kaiser and His Court, 397.
The kaiser took the news quietly: Watson, Ring of Steel, 534–35.
On Monday: New-York Tribune, Oct. 1, 1918.
On Tuesday: Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times, 395; George P. Gooch, “Prince Max of Baden,” The Contemporary Review, no. 132 (July 1, 1927): 446–54.
On Wednesday: Sondhaus, World War One, 433.
On Thursday: PWW, 51:253.
Austria immediately followed: PWW, 51:258–59.
Lloyd George and Clemenceau: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 344–46.
House suggested that Wilson consult them: PWW, 51:254.
“If the Germans are beaten”: PWW, 51:348.
On October 8: PWW, 51:268–69.
Before Berlin made its next move: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 353.
Within hours: PWW, 51:307–8.
Geddes wrote London: PWW, 51:325–26.
Tumulty came in with a message: PWW, 51:316–17.
On Monday morning: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 358.
“I never saw him more disturbed”: PWW, 51:340–41.
He and House collaborated: PWW, 51:341–42.
The Germans, having nothing else to propose, protested: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 380–81.
On October 23: Ibid., 381–83.
Roosevelt, speaking at a Liberty Loan rally: New York Times, Oct. 13, 1918.
Roosevelt stayed on the attack: Morison and Blum, eds., Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:1380–81.
Edith was not keen: PWW, 51:390.
He shared it: PWW, 51:389–93.
“My Fellow Countrymen”: PWW, 51:381–82.
“I would not send it out”: WWLL: Armistice, 510. See 513n1 for Baker’s compilation of other White House reactions.
Wilson’s appeal for a Democratic Congress: Washington Post, Oct. 26, 1918.
Who was Woodrow Wilson to say . . . ?: Washington Post, Oct. 29, 1918.
“the feeling that beat him”: HCL to George Otto Trevelyan, Nov. 1918, HCL Papers.
“For the political disaster”: “Choose Ye This Day,” Nation, Nov. 16, 1918.
The election results gave Wilson: PWW, 51:639, 646–48; 53:309.
He was still president: PWW, 51:576.
On November 9: Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times, 405–11.
As the kaiser’s exit was being arranged: PWW, 53:36–41; Eisenhower, Yanks, 281–82; Martin Gilbert, The First World War, 497–98.
Among other things: Neiberg, Fighting the Great War, 360–61.
The White House learned: EBW, My Memoir, 170.
The president declared a holiday: New-York Tribune, Nov. 12, 1918.
and spent the morning: WWLL: War Leader, 580.
Millions of Americans: Baltimore Sun, Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and New-York Tribune, Nov. 12, 1918.
The president was cheered: WWLL: War Leader, 581.
“the personification of physical vigor”: New York Times, Nov. 12, 1918.
After a somber recitation: PWW, 53:35–43.
The Allies’ unanimous support: Trask, The United States in the Supreme War Council, 165–72; Neu, Colonel House, 368–72.
“If I do not hear from you to the contrary”: PWW, 51:568–70.
Wilson agreed and directed Lansing: FRUS, 1918, Supplement 1, 468–69.
In a note to Wilson: PWW, 51:594.
“Gentlemen, I am here to say”: PWW, 47:287.
Lansing begged him: PWW, 53:65–66.
From Paris, House reported: PWW, 53:71–72; Neu, Colonel House, 379.
Wilson took the advice: PWW, 53:96–97, 108–9.
Lloyd George, foreseeing: Willert, The Road to Safety, 161.
The debate on the wisdom of Wilson’s decision: PWW, 53:93–95; New York Times, Nov. 19, 1918.
when the White House announced: PWW, 53:243.
Republicans felt insulted: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 97–98, 101, 104.
“Republicans had said”: Cronon, ed., The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 352.
After a lengthy review: PWW, 53:274–76.
Roosevelt responded: Stout, ed., Roosevelt in the Kansas City Star, 272–77; New York Times, Dec. 4, 1918.
Taft, the only sympathetic Republican: PWW, 53:323–24n1.
Wilson sailed: PWW, 53:313–15; Gelfand, The Inquiry, 168; New York Times, Dec. 4, 1918.
The Wilsons were no more hospitable: PWW, 53:327, 343–44.
Four days out: IPCH, 4:247–49.
“I am absolutely opposed to this”: PWW, 53:336–38.
At one of the movie screenings: PWW, 53:350.
Wilson saw ten of the Inquiry scholars: PWW, 53:350–51.
“You are, in truth, my advisers”: Creel, Rebel at Large, 254.
What he wanted was simple: PWW, 53:352.
Sensing: RL to Robert A. Buck, Nov. 29, 1918, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
Just after the Armistice: FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, 1:286–87; Ephraim Koch Smith, Jr., “Robert Lansing and the Paris Peace Conference,” 167.
As Lansing submitted his questions: “Memorandum on the Principle Which Should Govern the Congress of Paris, Nov. 18, 1918,” Private Memoranda, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
“the tendency will be to fly apart”: RL to Elihu Root, Dec. 3, 1918, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
At sea he had time: Ephraim Koch Smith, Jr., “Robert Lansing and the Paris Peace Conference,” 179.
Wilson had only an hour’s talk with him and White: Nevins, Henry White, 359.
Lansing felt as frustrated as ever: Ephraim Koch Smith, Jr., “Robert Lansing and the Paris Peace Conference,” 187–88.
The spell that Wilson cast over the Inquiry men wore off: Ibid., 190; Gelfand, The Inquiry, 174.
on an evening walk: Creel, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information, 1917:1918:1919, 5–6; Creel, The War, the World and Wilson, 163. According to William Bullitt (PWW, 53:367), Wilson also confided these fears to Raymond Blaine Fosdick, who had been one of his students at Princeton. Fosdick worked for the government during the war and was invited to Paris because of his enthusiasm for the League of Nations.
The George Washington: PWW, 53:569.
Thousands heard his speeches: CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Jan. 5, 1919; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 110–13.
Watching the influx: Dillon, The Inside Story of the Peace Conference, 4–6.
Reporters filed innumerable: Washington Post, Nov. 29, 1918, and Jan. 13, 1919; PWW, 53:398, 423, 429.
“I can talk to him frankly”: Wythe Williams, The Tiger of France (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1949), 186.
In separate conversations: PWW, 53:400.
Clemenceau had strayed: PWW, 53:394, 401.
When Wilson decided to stay: Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:148–49.
“Zeus on Mount Olympus”: Williams, The Tiger of France, 182–83.
A few days after the chat at the Murat: PWW, 53:456, 498.
Although Wilson had not yet discovered: PWW, 53:488.
“I don’t want to see”: Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson, 259.
He would visit the front: PWW, 53:707–8; 54:175, 257.
Stunned: Paul Cambon, Correspondance, 1870–1924 (Paris: Editions Bernard Grasset, 1946), 3:293.
The Wilsons left Paris: Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson, 249–52; PWW, 53:505–6.
He used his speeches: PWW, 53:532–33, 541, 550–51.
Clemenceau returned fire: Times (London), Dec. 31, 1918; Duroselle, Clemenceau, 725–26.
Even before meeting Clemenceau: PWW, 53:367.
Lloyd George he regarded: Davis and Fleming, eds., The Ambassadorial Diary of John W. Davis, 18n36.
But the Europeans were skeptical: Tardieu, The Truth About the Treaty, 105; Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations, 105–6; PWW, 53:652–53; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 180.
Well before the peacemaking began: New-York Tribune and Baltimore Sun, Dec. 22, 1919; Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations, 85; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 184.
Nor did Robert Lansing: “Certain Phrases of the President Contain the Seeds of Trouble,” Dec. 20, 1918, Confidential Memoranda, RL Papers, Princeton.
There were more than two hundred such meetings: Tardieu, The Truth About the Treaty, 97.
The day after Lodge’s speech appeared: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 48–54, 62; PWW, 53:474–76.
Lansing continued to fret: “Self-Determination and the Dangers,” Dec. 30, 1918, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
General Bliss had put himself to work: PWW, 53:402, 720–21.
Colonel House, embarrassed: PWW, 53:695.
The colonel took the president: “The President’s Draft of a Covenant for a League of Nations,” Jan. 11, 1919, Confidential Memoranda, RL Papers, Princeton; FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 1:319–24.
Humiliated: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 86–87.
Worse, he admitted: PWW, 53:695.
The Paris Peace Conference flickered: Details from Charles T. Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 94–96; New York Times and Baltimore Sun, Jan. 13, 1919; MacMillan, Paris 1919, 54; PWW, 54:4–5; Clive Day, “The Atmosphere and Organization of the Peace Conference” in House and Seymour, eds., What Really Happened at Paris, 17–18, 26.
The Ten accredited: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:576.
The Ten met: Shotwell, At the Paris Peace Conference, 175.
The Ten would later admit: PWW, 54:4–6.
“key to the whole settlement”: WWWS, 1:235.
The European leaders had become acquainted: Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:139.
One American journalist: Heaton, Cobb of “The World,” 68.
Lloyd George would come to like Wilson: Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:140–42.
“I think one would go crazy”: PWW, 53:530.
He saw Clemenceau’s constant advocacy: PWW, 54:64.
As for Lloyd George: PWW, 60:570.
Wilson’s opposites: PWW, 53:456, 470; Cambon, Correspondance, 1870–1924, 3:307.
In the first discussion of renewing the Armistice: PWW, 54:12.
But when the Ten met the next day: PWW, 54:12, 35–37; FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:509–10, 525–26.
On January 17: CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Jan. 18, 1919.
the plenary: Chicago Tribune, New-York Tribune, and New York Times, Jan. 20, 1919.
Poincaré said: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:163–64.
“It is in yourselves”: Ibid., 3:165, 168–70.
Lansing would later rank Clemenceau as the strongest: RL, The Big Four and Others of the Paris Peace Conference, 10–36; RL Desk Diary, Jan. 18, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
At the second plenary: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:177–78.
“the bear-garden broke loose”: RL Desk Diary, Jan. 25, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
The Belgian foreign minister asked: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:182.
“It is with some surprise”: Ibid., 3:186–90.
Clemenceau waited out the abuse: Ibid., 3:196–201.
The presidential party set out: EBW, My Memoir, 234, CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Jan. 26, 1919.
Traveling back to Paris: EBW, My Memoir, 235.
Certainly he was exhausted: CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Feb. 2, 1919; Creel, Rebel at Large, 214; Davis and Fleming, eds., The Ambassadorial Diary of John W. Davis, 37.
“No one can put into words”: CTG Papers, Jan. 26, 1919.
criticized for: Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:140.
Lloyd George and Clemenceau had decided: Davis and Fleming, eds., The Ambassadorial Diary of John W. Davis, 39.
The commission worked late: CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Feb. 4 and 5, 1919.
Despite the high speed: David Hunter Miller, “The Making of the League of Nations,” in House and Seymour, eds., What Really Happened at Paris, 410; CTG Papers, Feb. 11, 1919.
Wilson’s notion: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 117.
Thirteen of the fourteen nations: Miller, “The Making of the League of Nations,” 411.
Many of the twenty-six articles: PWW, 55:164–73.
Watching from the sidelines: RL to John W. Davis, Jan. 14, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton.
“Europe is being liquidated”: J. C. Smuts, The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1918), 11.
mandatory powers: Susan Pederson, The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 28–29; Bonsal, Unfinished Business, 38–39. See also MacMillan, Paris 1919, 98–100; Knock, To End All Wars, 201–3. Article XXII was Article 19 in the draft that Wilson presented to the peace conference on February 14.
To Lansing, Article XXII: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 149–61.
Article X: PWW, 55:167.
“Do any of us really mean it?”: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 116.
As for the omission of freedom of the seas: CTG Papers, Feb. 14, 1919.
He asked to present it: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:1023–24.
Next morning: PWW, 55:193.
“Not having studied it”: RL Desk Diary, Feb. 14, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
Despite the short notice: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:208–9; Charles T. Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 197–98; PWW, 55:175–77.
To Wickham Steed: ICPH, 4:318–19.
Even Lansing was impressed: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 134.
Lord Cecil spoke next: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:215.
Prime Minister Orlando: Ibid., 3:219.
Léon Bourgeois: Ibid., 3:219.
Baron Makino Nobuaki: Ibid., 3:225.
Rustem Haidar: Ibid., 3:229.
When Clemenceau had had enough: Ibid., 3:230.
“It will be sweet to go home”: EBW, My Memoir, 239–40.
At nine o’clock: PWW, 55:196.
In a cable: PWW, 55:184, 198.
Picturing a Boston arrival: PWW, 53:625–26.
“The failure of the United States”: PWW, 55:224–26.
Eleanor Roosevelt: Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 430–31.
She did not inquire: PWW, 54:62–63.
On February 24: New-York Tribune, Feb. 25, 1919.
At the city’s largest auditorium: PWW, 55:243–45.
Headlines: New York Times, Feb. 25, 1919.
Lodge complained about it: HCL to W. R. Thayer, Feb. 21, 1919, and HCL to Henry White, June 12, 1919, HCL Papers.
Waiting for him was a note: PWW, 55:262–63.
Wilson declined: PWW, 55:280.
The following evening: Chicago Tribune, Feb. 27, 1919.
Lodge’s notes: HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations, 100; EBW, My Memoir, 241–42.
“black with dirt”: Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 257.
Lodge gave him high marks in goodwill: Lodge, The Senate and the League of Nations, 100.
Brandegee: Stone, The Irreconcilables, 61–63.
Years later, Edith Wilson would reveal: EBW, My Memoir, 241–42.
Although there is no transcript: Knock, To End All Wars, 232–33.
From interviews with several of the guests: New-York Tribune, Feb. 27, 1919.
A day after giving the president his say: Ibid., Feb. 28, 1919.
On February 27: Chicago Tribune and New York Times, Feb. 27, 1919; PWW, 55:254, 408–9; Washington Post, March 3, 1919. The fight for an extra session is chronicled in Stone, The Irreconcilables, 64–70.
With time running out: New York Times, March 1, 1919; HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations, 227, 229.
“Everybody hates war”: Stone, The Irreconcilables, 71–73.
Meeting with the Democratic National Committee: PWW, 55:312–13.
Faced with a tragedy: PWW, 55:323–24.
Lodge’s second move: Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 353–56.
William Howard Taft: Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, 2:942–43.
“It is a real League”: WHT to Helen Herron Taft, Feb. 15, 1919, WHT Papers.
Convinced that the League was essential: PWW, 55:328.
“It is hard for me to be patient”: WHT to Robert A. Taft, Feb. 10, 1919, WHT Papers.
The sight: Baltimore Sun, March 5, 1919.
Wilson, looking pale and drawn: PWW, 55:463.
(this to be true): Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 58.
He professed to be amazed: PWW, 55:413–21.
“He never answers any argument at all”: WHT to Gus Karger, March 5, 1919, WHT Papers.
He hoped that Wilson would revise: WHT to Horace Taft, March 5, 1919, WHT Papers.
The George Washington landed: Edith Benham Helm, The Captains and the Kings (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1954), 307.
Pretty as it was: WWWS, 2:23.
Colonel House: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, March 12, 1919; PWW, 55:499.
Edith Wilson: EBW, My Memoir, 245–46.
Ray Stannard Baker: WWWS, 1:306–7.
Nor had the colonel: PWW, 55:477n1.
House’s cables: PWW, 55:212–13, 233–34, 245–46, 284, 305n1, 458–59; EMH Diary, EMH Papers, March 7, 1919.
Wilson immediately stopped confiding in him: PWW, 55:488n2.
For the rest of their stay in Paris: PWW, 55:223.
Lloyd George and Balfour: Washington Post, March 3, 1919. In 1949 rue Nitot was renamed rue de l’Amiral d’Estaing.
Edith’s bathroom: EBW, My Memoir, 247.
The president’s bathroom: Helm, The Captains and the Kings, 307.
The Wilsons’ private quarters: WWWS, 2:44; PWW, 60:251.
“without an hour’s delay”: EBW, My Memoir, 247.
The next day Wilson issued: WWWS, 1:311.
The French immediately denied: Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations, 151; Washington Post, March 16, 1919.
Wilson had it out: Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations, 151–52; PWW, 56:59.
Worried about the treaty’s fate: A. J. P. Taylor, ed., Lloyd George: A Diary by Frances Stevenson (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 172.
Wilson seized the moment: Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, 2:944–45; PWW, 55:437; Christian Science Monitor, May 1, 1919.
On several points: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 195.
France was peeved: Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations, 163.
Britain decided to support Wilson: Ibid., 153–55; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 86–87.
France, forced to give in: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 195–96.
Cecil acknowledged: Ibid., 119–20.
The issue came to a head: PWW, 57:259–66.
Rarely consulted by Wilson: RL, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference, 126–29.
Henry White: “Opinions of the Terms of Peace with Germany,” May 19, 1919, Private Memoranda, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
It was House who had proposed: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, March 7, 1919.
“race between peace and anarchy”: PWW, 56:208–9.
As one historian has written: A. Lentin, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and the Guilt of Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), 34.
Clemenceau had an additional motive: Ibid., 109.
Wilson’s financial advisors: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 239.
He understood: PWW, 56:285.
At the first few meetings: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:3.
Lloyd George ended the impasse: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 247; PWW, 56:419, 480–82; A. Lentin, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and the Guilt of Germany, 128–30.
“I don’t give a damn for logic”: PWW, 56:502.
What did it matter: PWW, 56:500n3. See also Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:146–64.
At issue: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 219–26; Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 268–69, 324–25.
Lloyd George took Wilson’s side: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:205–8.
Lloyd George had supported it: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 416.
For that France wanted the Rhineland: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 228–29.
Certain that France would not let go: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:39n1, 40–41.
Clemenceau was open to the idea: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 197.
When Clemenceau took the proposition: Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 807; P. Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:318–19; 2:252.
All he wanted: Bonsal, Suitors and Suppliants, 216–17.
As long as he could claim: Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 806–7.
“Hang the Kaiser!”: Although the phrase appeared in uncountable newspaper stories, Lloyd George did not use it. Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference, 1:109.
The commission concluded: Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties, “Report Presented to the Preliminary Peace Conference,” American Journal of International Law 14, no. 1/2 (Jan.–April 1920): 112, 115, 117, 121–22.
When the Four considered the question on April 2: PWW, 56:611–17.
Making a spirited fight: P. Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:119–23.
“I have never seen him so irritated”: PWW, 56:540–42.
Wilson also shared the thought with House: PWW, 56:559–60.
At the next morning’s session: PWW, 56:556–57, 578, 584; PWW, 58:615–21. Grayson diagnosed influenza. Decades later, physicians who examined the available historical evidence concluded that Wilson’s symptoms were more consistent with a respiratory infection.
Told that the president had a cold: RL to Frederick M. Boyer, April 4, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton.
“showing the strain of the overwork”: CTG to Alice Gertrude Gordon, March 29, 1919, CTG Papers.
“Not a word”: RL to William Phillips, April 5, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton.
Unable to see Wilson: PWW, 56:577–78.
The colonel ran afoul of Edith Wilson: EBW, My Memoir, 250–52; Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 292–94. The encounter took place on April 8, a day after the offending article appeared in the Times of London.
By Sunday, April 6: PWW, 57:50–52.
The president spent two hours: PWW, 57:89.
When the reporters called Lansing: PWW, 57:62–65, 63n1, 65n2.
“I shall never forget the utter sadness”: WWWS, 2:53–54, 59–60.
The patient was well enough: PWW, 57:98–99.
When the group resumed its discussion: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:187–95.
For reasons that are not clear: PWW, 57:146.
Germany’s former chancellor: PWW, 61:340.
and the five Great Powers asked the Dutch government: PWW, 61:199–201.
Wilhelm, his future now settled: Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times, 414.
As Hitler flattened: Röhl, The Kaiser and His Court, 211.
At last able to see an end: PWW, 57:336.
In a secret 1915 pact: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:125n4.
According to Colonel House: IPCH, 4:434–35.
The Italians’ champion: RL, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference, 104–5.
Clemenceau and Lloyd George refused: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:283–85, 369; René Albrecht-Carrié, Italy at the Paris Peace Conference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1938), 129–30.
Orlando threatened to leave Paris: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:288–89.
The Big Four went round and round: Ibid., 1:290–96.
Wilson, who regarded the Italians as overemotional: PWW, 57:575.
Sonnino was in the middle of a rebuttal: PWW, 57:526. Pershing had relayed the message to Bliss at 3:10 p.m.
On hearing the official titles: P. Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1: 296–97; PWW, 57:520–21.
Next Clemenceau and Lloyd George went to see Wilson: PWW, 58:5–8.
Lloyd George pronounced it fine: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:308–14.
he gave out his statement: New York Times, April 25, 1919.
Clemenceau wanted to know: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:358–63.
He left Paris: New York Times, April 27, 1919.
“Long live Fiume!”: Boston Globe, April 26, 1919.
He was called out as a hypocrite: New York Times, April 26, 1919.
The British had led: EBW, My Memoir, 254-55. Balfour’s memorandum is reprinted in WWWS, 3:281–86.
He was also about to crack from the strain: PWW, 58:607–40.
With sleet pelting the windows: New York Times, April 29, 1919.
Makino rose: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:289–91.
Léon Bourgeois: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:294–302.
As soon as the dissents ended: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:316–18. The Treaty of Versailles opens with the covenant of the League of Nations.
American newspapers: New York Times, April 30, 1919; Christian Science Monitor, May 1, 1919.
Taft offered his compliments: Detroit Free Press, May 1, 1919.
Wilson barely noticed: PWW, 58:229
“The plot constantly thickens”: WW to JWS, April 28, 1919, Jessie Wilson Sayre Papers.
The day that followed: New York Times, April 30 and May 1, 1919.
That night, two olive-drab trains: Manchester Guardian, May 2, 1919; New-York Tribune, April 30 and May 1, 1919; Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 34.
The transaction: Boston Globe and New-York Tribune, May 2, 1919.
On the same day: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four, 425–27.
The government of the young Chinese Republic: Jonathan Clements, Wellington Koo (New York: Haus Publishing, 2008), 2.
Wilson resisted: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:324–25.
Delivered by V. K. Wellington Koo: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:754–57.
“simply overwhelmed the Japanese”: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 253.
“a young Chinese cat”: Clemenceau, Grandeur and Misery of Victory, 140.
The dispute disturbed Wilson more than any other controversy: PWW, 58:244, 248.
Wilson the idealist: PWW, 58:111; Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:335.
The Japanese compounded Wilson’s anxieties: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:322.
Lansing believed: RL, “The Japanese Claims to Kiau Chau and Shantung Admitted,” May 1, 1919, Confidential Memoranda, RL Papers, Princeton.
Lloyd George believed: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:378.
“They are not bluffers”: RSB, American Chronicle, 411.
If the Japanese followed: PWW, 58:270–71.
Ultimately Wilson joined Clemenceau and Lloyd George: RSB, What Wilson Did at Paris, 104–5.
Refusing to be party to a secret agreement: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 1:407–8.
“I suppose it could be called an even break”: PWW, 58:244–45.
He poured his feelings: RL to Frank Polk, May 1, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton.
He also joined Bliss and White: PWW, 58:232–34.
“Frankly”: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 262–63.
“Japan is strong and China is weak”: Newspaper clipping from L’Europe Nouvelle (May 17, 1919), in RL Papers, Library of Congress, 42:935–36.
Wellington Koo: Clements, Wellington Koo, 3.
“But I’ll be a dead hero”: Bonsal, Suitors and Suppliants, 243–44.
On May 4: Clements, Wellington Koo, 88–99.
Wilson’s minister to China resigned: PWW, 61:631–34.
Wilson remained confident: PWW, 58:270–71.
Writing an old friend: RL to W. C. Stebbins, May 5, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton.
May 7: WWLL: New York Times and Manchester Guardian, May 8, 1919.
Clemenceau rose again: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 3:415–16.
The count remained in his chair: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 290–91.
He fiddled: Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 361; Manchester Guardian, May 8, 1919; PWW, 58:534.
The delegation’s secretary: New York Times, May 11, 1919.
another of their colleagues said: Clifford R. Lovin, A School for Diplomats: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1997), 62.
The count began straightforwardly: Washington Post, May 11, 1919; PWW, 58:514–17.
The prime minister stayed put: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 290–91; Stevenson, Lloyd George, 183.
“stupid”: PWW, 58:529.
Orlando: PWW, 58:499.
The second was the public disclosure: New York Times, May 9 and 10, 1919; New–York Tribune, May 11, 1919.
The last was the news: New–York Tribune, May 9, 1919.
The German envoys stayed up all night: Lovin, A School for Diplomats, 63.
The treaty demanded: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 294–95.
It forced the Germans: New York Times, May 8, 1919.
Grayson noticed: PWW, 58:535.
but Benham noticed: PWW, 58:534.
While Wilson was sunning himself: RL, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference, 133.
Nor did Lansing share: RL, The Peace Negotiations, 274; “The Terms of Peace to Germany,” May 8, 1919, Private Memoranda, RL Papers, Library of Congress. The version in Lansing’s book is milder than the one in the memorandum.
Other reactions soon followed: Both the New York Times (May 9, 1919) and the New–York Tribune (May 10 and 11, 1919) published numerous excerpts of editorial opinion in the United States and Europe.
In a single editorial: “The Madness at Versailles,” Nation 108, no. 2811 (May 17, 1919): 778–80.
The most outspoken: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 11:569–75; Will Brownell and Richard N. Billings, So Close to Greatness: A Biography of William C. Bullitt (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 80–96.
As the German delegation labored: PWW, 59:13n5, 28n2, 129, 274–76.
On the eve of their deadline: PWW, 59:321–22.
The German reply: New York Times and New-York Tribune, May 30, 1919.
“We hoped for the peace of justice”: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 6:795.
Taking away territory and peoples: Ibid., 6:822.
The expropriation of Germany’s colonies: Ibid., 6:841.
To attain peace: Ibid., 6:796–99.
Wilson passed the next afternoon in the town of Suresnes: PWW, 59:606–10, 621.
Ray Baker had wondered: RSB, American Chronicle, 431.
As for the enemies: New York Times and New-York Tribune, June 1, 1919.
He understood the necessity: PWW, 60:373.
Strained to the limit: PWW, 59:317, 625.
a “hell-peace” or a “heaven-peace”: IPCH, 4:473.
General Jan Smuts: PWW, 59:413–17, 617–18.
In the end: Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 417. The minutes of the four British meetings offer a look at the wide range of opinions and ideas on the treaty’s probable effects on British interests. See Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, c. 1991-1997). The minutes are in Part II, “From the First to the Second World War,” Series I, M. Dockrill, ed., The Paris Peace Conference of 1919, 4:91–115. Churchill’s comment is on p. 101.
Wilson maintained the appearance: PWW, 59:637.
But by June 2: PWW, 60:4.
Lloyd George took them to the brink: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 2:272–73.
The crisis drove Wilson: PWW, 60:76; WWWS, 3:469–70.
The financial advisors: PWW, 60:45–50.
House said little: PWW, 59:554–55, 623–24; EMH Diary, EMH Papers, June 1, 1919.
To Wilson, the essential question was: PWW, 60:67.
Lloyd George’s sparring: MacMillan, Paris 1919, 220.
Clemenceau, asked to shorten: IPCH, 4:473–74.
The victors’ reply: FRUS, 1919, The Paris Peace Conference, 6:929–34.
Brockdorff-Rantzau left for Germany: New York Times, June 18, 1919.
By June 17: Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, 807–8.
Against him in the cabinet: Ibid., 792.
Seven cabinet ministers: New York Times, June 17, 1919.
On June 18: Duroselle, Clemenceau, 766; Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 397–98.
On June 19: New-York Tribune, June 20, 1919.
At two o’clock in the morning: PWW, 61:32.
On June 21: The story of the scuttling is well told in Robert Massie, Castles of Steel (New York: Random House, 2003), 784–88.
That evening, the new chancellor: PWW, 61:72–77.
The morning of June 23: PWW, 61:81–82.
The next news: Paul Mantoux, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24–June 28, 1919), 2:528, 533.
Germany would sign: Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 403.
Clemenceau ordered Foch to stand down: MacMillan, Paris 1919, 474.
With the signing set: PWW, 61:240–45, 292–93. For a succinct accounting of the fate of each of Wilson’s points (the celebrated fourteen plus the eleven set forth in later addresses), see Herbert Hoover, America’s First Crusade (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1942), 66–71.
The unfinished business also included Russia: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace, 311.
“a closed conference”: Walter Lippmann, “The Peace Conference,” Yale Review 8 (July 1919): 721.
The treaty was signed: Except where otherwise noted, this account is based on the coverage of the event in the New York Times, June 29, 1919, and “The Signing of the Treaty of Peace with Germany at Versailles on June 28th, 1919,” June 28, 1919, Confidential Memoranda, RL Papers, Princeton.
and four hundred members of the press: RSB, American Chronicle, 454.
As House approached the table: EBW, My Memoir, 269.
“brief, dry, and ungenerous”: Duroselle, Clemenceau, 767.
General Smuts: PWW, 61: 304n3. See also Anthony Lentin, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and the Guilt of Germany: An Essay in the Pre-History of Appeasement (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 128–30.
Three days before the ceremony: RL Diary, June 26, 1919; RL Papers, Library of Congress; New York Times, June 29, 1919; Jonathan Clements, Wellington Koo (New York: Haus Publishing, 2008), 91.
President Poincaré’s reception: EBW, My Memoir, 269–71.
Lloyd George: EBH Diary, June 29, 1919.
“I feel as though I were losing”: Thompson, The Peace Conference Day by Day, 421–22.
House too had come: PWW, 61:354.
Also on the platform: RL Diary, June 28, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress; RL to Frederick M. Boyer, June 18, 1919, RL Papers, Princeton. Lansing also discussed his worry that the Senate was determined to sabotage Wilson in “The Ferocity of the Attacks on the President in Congress,” May 19, 1919, Confidential Memoranda, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
“Well, little girl”: EBW, My Memoir, 271.
Grayson: PWW, 61:354, 360, 370, 385, 397.
A day later: PWW, 61:385–88.
A fourth: Baruch, Baruch: The Public Years, 122.
On July 8: New York Times, July 9, 1919; PWW, 61:400–401, 404; Breckinridge Long Diary, July 8, 1919, Breckinridge Long Papers, Library of Congress.
Wilson began by giving up: PWW, 61:474–75; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 121.
He also invited: New York Times, July 19, 1919.
And on July 10: PWW, 61:417–24.
Amendments needed it: PWW, 62:35–40.
The president’s arrival: PWW, 61:424–25; New York Times, July 11, 1919.
Only in the final minutes: PWW, 61:426–36.
Most Republicans. . . . Most Democrats: New York World, Chicago Tribune, and Atlanta Constitution, July 11, 1919.
But one Democrat: PWW, 61:445–46.
(The editors): PWW, 61:446n.
On the night of June 2: The details of the bomb at Palmer’s house appeared in The Washington Post, June 3, 1919. The information on the Justice Department’s response to radical aliens is from Stanley Coben, A. Mitchell Palmer: Politician (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 214–15, and from the Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States for the Year 1920, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 172–79.
Palmer immediately added: Investigation Activities of the Department of Justice: Letter from the Attorney General (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919), 13.
Each of the race riots: William Cohen, “Riots, Racism, and Hysteria: The Response of Federal Investigative Officials to the Race Riots of 1919,” Massachusetts Review 13, no. 3 (Summer 1972): 375–76, 379.
“a dangerous spirit of defiance”: Investigation Activities of the Department of Justice: Letter from the Attorney General, 187.
“We are ignored”: Ibid., 171.
Just before leaving Paris: PWW, 61:351–52.
Eugene V. Debs: PWW, 61:577; 62:58–59.
By early August: United States Council of National Defense, An Analysis of the High Cost of Living Problem (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, August 1919), 5–23.
But government action: PWW, 62:209–19.
Members of both parties: St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Aug. 9, 1919.
(Wilson forwarded a few): PWW, 62:219.
On July 31: Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 366.
some Democrats: Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 2:5; Creel, The War, the World and Wilson, 340.
A poll: Literary Digest, April 5, 1919.
Lodge understood: Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 350.
When a like-minded senator: James E. Watson, As I Knew Them, 190–91, 200.
Observing Wilson’s hypersensitivity: HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations, 215–16, 218–19, 226.
Ratification required: PWW, 61:563–65.
Foes as well as friends: See, for example, PWW, 61:544–47, 594.
and Ambassador Jusserand assured him: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 14–15.
Wilson seemed to believe: PWW, 62:92.
Wilson’s refusal: Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 513.
some of his allies: PWW, 62:45, 71.
Tumulty and McAdoo: Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 512–14.
“[H]is face”: PWW, 62:258–59.
The next day Lodge attacked: HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations, 380–410.
A stupendous ovation: New York Times, Aug. 13, 1919.
“The greatest nationalist”: PWW, 63:33.
To beat back Wilson’s foes: New-York Tribune, Aug. 14, 1919.
Lodge, master of the game: PWW, 62:275–76.
Wilson granted: Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 515.
“We shall not inquire”: HCL to John T. Morse, Jr., Aug. 18, 1919, HCL Papers.
Sixteen of the seventeen: PWW, 62:340–44.
(Lodge and Senator Philander C. Knox): PWW, 62:353–57.
Wilson professed bafflement: PWW, 62:340–44.
For three and a half hours: PWW, 62:355–56, 361–62.
Senator William E. Borah: PWW, 62:27–29, 363.
Lodge had already stuffed the treaty: HCL, The Senate and the League of Nations, 156.
and on August 23: Ibid., 162.
Discussing the vote with Lansing: PWW, 62:507.
Following the fight from London: William Starr Myers, ed., Woodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946), 41–42.
Edith Wilson and Cary Grayson: EBW, My Memoir, 272, 274; JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 434–35.
Tumulty drew up a schedule: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 438.
“The president was endeavoring”: CTG, Western Trip Diary, Introduction, Sept. 1919, CTG Papers.
His allies: Washington Post, Sept. 7, 1919.
Constitutional Government in the United States: PWW, 62:632n14.
And strange as it sounds: New York Times, Sept. 27, 1919.
The first lady and Grayson: EBW, My Memoir, 274–75; PWW, 63:513.
The president had not had time: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 439.
In St. Louis: PWW, 63:36–37, 343.
He admitted the treaty’s imperfections: PWW, 63:24, 97.
He conceded that the League: PWW, 63: 101-2, 105, 359, 459, 472, 508.
More than once: PWW, 63:221–22, 243–44, 349–50, 373.
After reciting: PWW, 63:350.
Arguing the case in Oregon: PWW, 63:281.
The destructive work: PWW, 63:9.
From first to last: PWW, 63:134.
The slight: PWW, 63:235. The supporter was Vance McCormick, a progressive Democrat fighting hard for U.S. membership in the League.
What were the gentlemen afraid of?: PWW, 63:115.
Had the gentlemen not read: PWW, 63:85.
The time had come: PWW, 63:29. “Put up or shut up” became a refrain. See also 63:105, 228.
Wilson seldom asked anything: PWW, 63:294.
few of his listeners: Washington Post and Philadelphia Public Ledger, Sept. 7, 1919.
Senators hostile: Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 167–68.
A week after Wilson left Washington: New York Times, Sept. 11, 1919.
Sixteen of them: See Stone, The Irreconcilables.
Nor could they imagine: Link, Woodrow Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace, 110.
authored by Lodge: Senate Report, No. 176, 66th Cong., 1st Sess, Part 1.
Talking about his handiwork: Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 166.
At the same time: WHT to Mr. Whiting, Sept. 12, 1919, and WHT to Horace Taft, Sept. 16, 1919, WHT Papers.
William C. Bullitt: Bullitt, The Bullitt Mission to Russia, 102–3.
Exhausted: CTG, Woodrow Wilson, 97; EBW, My Memoir, 280.
After reading the telegram: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 442.
Although Grayson witnessed the outburst: PWW, 63:339n4. Grayson shared these details five years after the fact, in a conversation with Breckinridge Long, a State Department official who was a strong supporter of the League of Nations.
The Senate had homed in: PWW, 63:432–33.
In Reno: PWW, 63:428–41.
In Salt Lake City: PWW, 63:451, 453–54, 459.
The next day, at Cheyenne: EBW, My Memoir, 282–83; PWW, 63:467.
Picking up where he had left off: PWW, 63:469.
Vowing not to surrender: PWW, 63:480.
In Denver: Baltimore Sun, Sept. 26, 1919; PWW, 63:487.
Jimmie Starling of the Secret Service put a hand on his arm: Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 151–52.
Telling of his visit: PWW, 63:512–13.
Soon after the train left Pueblo: CTG, Woodrow Wilson, 97–98; PWW, 63:518–19.
Starling, who followed them: Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 152.
But in the middle of the night: EBW, My Memoir, 284–85.
He looked at Tumulty: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 446–48. While the three accounts vary, the only difference worth flagging is Tumulty’s description of Wilson’s appearance after the stroke he had that night. Tumulty’s memory was faulty; the stroke happened a week later.
Just after nine o’clock: Chicago Tribune, New York Times, and New-York Tribune, Sept. 27, 1919.
The tracks: EBW, My Memoir, 285–87; PWW, 63:532–33.
but at 8:50 a.m.: PWW, 63:633–35.
Wilson had had a major stroke: Ryan D. Jacobson, “President Wilson’s Brain Trust: Woodrow Wilson, Francis X. Dercum, and American Neurology,” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 18 (2009): 67; Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson, 357; PWW, 63:644.
Vice President Thomas Riley Marshall: Recollections of Thomas Riley Marshall: A Hoosier Salad (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925), 368; Charles M. Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall: Hoosier Statesman (Oxford, Ohio: Mississippi Valley Press, 1939), 221–22.
Apparently torn: RL Diary, Oct. 2–3, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress.
Tumulty summoned Grayson: PWW, 63:541.
Lansing raised the idea: RL Diary, Oct. 2–4, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress; JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 443–45.
Two days after the stroke: PWW, 64:510.
On Monday morning: PWW, 63:555; CTG Diary, CTG Papers, Oct. 6, 1919, CTG Papers.
There were many reasons not to act: PWW, 63:561–63.
Grayson told Breckinridge Long: PWW, 63:558–59.
Tumulty briefed J. Fred Essary: Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall, 206.
Tumulty did not reveal: Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 215.
Essary went to the Capitol: Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall, 207.
Though the cover-up: Ibid., 219–21.
Edith Wilson’s memoir: EBW, My Memoir, 288–89.
Writing in the 1980s: Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson, 360.
Many of the records: PWW, 64:ix.
About one point there is no doubt: EBW, My Memoir, 288–89.
On occasion Grayson also served: RL Diary, Oct. 8 and 9, 1919, RL Papers, Library of Congress; PWW, 63:559–60, 637; Davis and Trani, The First Cold War, 192–93; Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 226–29.
Minuscule as the president’s role was: PWW, 63:560–61.
Though Grayson has been thrashed: Link, “Dr. Grayson’s Predicament,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 138, no. 4 (Dec. 1994): 491, 493n21.
Baruch: CPA Diary, Oct. 17, 1919, CPA Papers.
The first attempt: PWW, 63:563–64.
Dercum: Washington Post, Oct. 14, 1919.
Grayson: PWW, 63:564.
Suspecting that there was more: PWW, 63:564–65.
Grayson parried: PWW, 63:569–71.
The critical downturn: PWW, 63:572, EBW, My Memoir, 291–92
Fortunately, several days of hot compresses: Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 534.
Ike Hoover would remember: PWW, 63:635–36.
In her memoir: EBW, My Memoir, 288.
Bert E. Park: PWW, 63:646.
Congress passed a raft of bills: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal,142.
William Howard Taft: Washington Post, Sept. 29, 1919.
Colonel House, who had stayed in Europe: Bonsal, Unfinished Business, 271–80.
As the vote of the treaty neared: Baruch, Baruch: The Public Years, 127.
So did Gilbert M. Hitchcock: James M. Cox, Journey Through My Year (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1946), 104–5; Washington Post, July 12, 1919.
Hitchcock sensed: Chicago Tribune, Oct. 7, 1919; PWW, 63:44; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal,148.
The senator was shocked: PWW, 64:45n1. The date of Hitchcock’s first visit with the stricken president is unknown, but a note in the diary of Senator Henry F. Ashurst (PWW, 63:586) indicates that it took place before October 21.
(Wilson had grown it): Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson, 357.
In mid-November: EBW, My Memoir, 296–97.
A few days later, Hitchcock tried again: PWW, 64:37–38.
Two days before the vote: PWW, 64:43–45; Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 377–78.
Perhaps inspired: PWW, 64:50, 57.
Hitchcock allowed himself: PWW, 64:50–51.
“nullification”: Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 543.
On November 18: Bonsal, Unfinished Business, 276–77.
Watching Wilson and Lodge: Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft, 2:949.
That evening, Hitchcock made one last effort: PWW, 63:58–60; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 388–89.
“Breakfasted early,” Sparks, ed., A Many Colored Toga, 114.
The full Senate: Except where otherwise noted, my account of this historic day relies on Cranston, The Killing of the Peace, 219–33.
Within minutes: Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 264–65.
After months of senatorial speechifying: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal,187.
Ashurst was applauded but outflanked: Stone, The Irreconcilables, 144.
The low point: Nashville Tennessean, Nov. 20, 1919.
William E. Borah: William Hard, “Big Bill Borah,” New Republic, Sept. 6, 1922, 36; Marian C. McKenna, Borah (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), 161–67; John Milton Cooper, Jr., “William E. Borah, Political Thespian,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 56, no. 4 (Oct. 1965): 145–53.
“If the Savior”: New York Times, Feb. 1, 1919.
With or without reservations: Congressional Record, 66th Cong., 1st Sess., 8781–84.
A small group of Republicans: Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Crowded Hours (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935), 292.
When the Chicago Tribune’s correspondent: Chicago Tribune, Nov. 20, 1919.
The press blamed: New-York Tribune, Nov. 20, 1919.
From her exchanges with Hitchcock: EBW, My Memoir, 297.
Despite his banishment: PWW, 64:88–90.
He was not counseling surrender: PWW, 64:96.
House’s suggestions: Neu, Colonel House, 433–34.
House would never again: George and George, Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House, 306.
Hitchcock continued to insist: PWW, 64:70–72, 93–94.
His voice was weak: Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson, 369.
Wilson’s mind was often sharp: Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 312n5.
The task of writing: PWW, 64:73–87 (Tumulty’s draft with Wilson’s revisions); PWW, 64:106–16 (the version submitted to Congress).
George Moses . . . Albert Fall: Berg, Wilson, 659.
The critics were immediately answered: Wall Street Journal, Dec. 4, 1919.
On December 4: PWW, 64:123–25.
William O. Jenkins: Gilbert M. Joseph and Timothy J. Henderson, eds., The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 357.
“a smelling expedition”: Except where otherwise noted, my account of the meeting is based on notes taken by Edith Wilson (PWW, 64:133–35) and Cary Grayson (PWW, 64:135–39).
Edith, cast in the role: EBW, My Memoir, 299.
“I hope you consider me sincere”: Ibid., 299. John Milton Cooper, Jr., a scholar with an encyclopedic knowledge of Wilson, suspects that the retort is apocryphal, because it does not appear in notes taken at the meeting by Edith Wilson and Cary Grayson. (Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 548, 661n30.) Cooper might be right. But as he occasionally says about other thinly documented remarks, “It sounds like Wilson.”
As if in a play: Jenkins had been released at midnight. (FRUS, 1919, 2:589.)
The newsmen on the portico: PWW, 64:129–32.
Believing that Wilson was more disabled: PWW, 64:139–40.
The facts that Lansing craved: PWW, 67:611-14.
“White House officials”: PWW, 64:187.
On December 15: PWW, 64:187.
and Democrats who had supported: PWW, 64:192; New-York Tribune, Dec. 21, 1919.
Hitchcock’s most recent exchanges: PWW, 64:203
The reply came from Edith Wilson: PWW, 64:206.
Defying Wilson’s wishes: New York Times, Dec. 21, 1919.
Angered by Lodge’s pettiness: Boston Globe, Dec. 24, 1919.
The Wilsons had a quiet Christmas: New York Times, Dec. 25, 1919; Washington Post, Dec. 26, 1919.
The president signed a bill: It was the Edge Act, enabling American national banks to engage in foreign banking through subsidiaries chartered by the Federal Reserve Board.
A few days later: New York Times, Dec. 29, 1919.
“It would probably have been better”: PWW, 64:321, 363n1.
Wilson’s fight: PWW, 64:238.
On this occasion: PWW, 64:329–30.
Publicly, Henry Cabot Lodge: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 229–33; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 309–11.
Wilson’s cause: Except where otherwise noted, this section is drawn from Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 38–55.
In the United States: Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 326–27.
Years later: Baruch, Baruch: The Public Years, 111–12.
Herbert Hoover: Herbert Hoover, The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, 234–35, 263–64; New York Times, Sept. 14, 1919
Senator Borah: Stone, The Irreconcilables, 164–65.
The other thunderbolt: Leon E. Boothe, “A Fettered Envoy: Lord Grey’s Mission to the United States, 1919–1920,” Review of Politics 33, no. 1 (Jan. 1971): 78–94.
but Lansing suspected: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, Nov. 20, 1919; RL to John W. Davis, Jan. 1, 1920, RL Papers, Princeton; Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 399–404.
(France was flashing): New York Times, Dec. 8, 1919.
Unable to do more: Times (London), Jan. 31, 1920.
In Washington: PWW, 64:363–64.
Unwilling: Boothe, “A Fettered Envoy: Lord Grey’s Mission to the United States, 1919–1920,” 91–92; PWW, 64:366–67, 380.
Next Wilson lit into Lansing: PWW, 64:383.
It was a peculiar query: Daniel M. Smith, “Robert Lansing and the Wilson Interregnum, 1919–1920,” The Historian 21, no. 2 (Feb. 1, 1959): 139–41.
Before answering: PWW, 64:385–86; 388–89.
Wilson replied: PWW, 64:404, 410, 414–15.
In a talk with Edith Wilson: RSB, American Chronicle, 471–72.
“The poor president!”: PWW, 64:360.
The new resolution of ratification: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 263–64; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 356–59.
Wilson had just made a nod: PWW, 64:329–30.
Homing in on Article X: PWW, 65:67–71.
The letter won: Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 267.
The last chance for ratification: Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 366–67; Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers: Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal, 267. The Chicago Tribune (March 20, 1920) published a list detailing the vote and broke it down by party. In favor: 28 Republicans and 21 Democrats. Against: 12 Republicans and 23 Democrats.
Mourning the outcome: New York Times, March 20, 1920.
and some historians have argued: Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy, 328–46.
Even Lodge’s intimates: Karl Schriftgiesser, The Gentleman from Massachusetts, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1944), 350–51.
Others blamed: See, e.g., Nevins, Henry White, 482–83.
Senator Irvine Lenroot: Chicago Tribune, March 20, 1920.
Lodge ascribed the defeat: HCL to J. M. Beck, March 22, 1920, HCL Papers.
In the opinion: House and Seymour, eds., What Really Happened at Paris, 1921, 424.
Edith waited: EBW, My Memoir, 303.
“very blue”: PWW, 65:108.
Wilson’s fighting spirit: PWW, 65:117–19.
Wilson ignored it: PWW, 65:123–25.
Wilson was now able to walk slowly: Starling and Sugrue, Starling of the White House, 156–57.
Summoned: PWW, 65:179–80.
A day later the cabinet assembled: Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, 2:70.
the postmaster general: Daniels, The Wilson Era, 2:461.
The Senate’s rejection: Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition, 254.
Taking matters into its own hands: PWW, 65:328–29.
The Republican short list: Wesley M. Bagby, The Road to Normalcy: The Presidential Campaign and Election of 1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962), 25–36.
“The simple fact is”: James E. Watson, As I Knew Them, 226.
“How can he lead”: RSB, American Chronicle, 485.
The Democrats’ early favorites: Bagby, The Road to Normalcy, 63–78; Kurt Wimer, “Woodrow Wilson and a Third Nomination,” Pennsylvania History 29, no. 2 (April 1962): 202–4.
Cox struck him: PWW, 65:435.
“Dear Mac”: PWW, 67:606.
As the spring wore on: PWW, 65:382.
In desperation he confided: Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 242–44, 320n32.
Seibold’s visit was staged: PWW, 65:401–15.
Seibold returned the next day: PWW, 65:415–21.
“There ain’t any first-raters”: The remark, made by Senator Frank Brandegee of Connecticut, is quoted in Clinton W. Gilbert, The Mirrors of Washington (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1921), 5.
When Seibold asked: The Republican platform can be found in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29635, accessed April 17, 2017.
By refusing to sideline himself: Los Angeles Times, June 21, 1920.
They could not openly disown the president: St. Louis Post-Dispatch and Baltimore Sun, June 20, 1920.
Reading Seibold: New-York Tribune, June 20, 1920.
The boss of Illinois: San Francisco Chronicle, June 20, 1920.
The first casualty: Baltimore Sun, June 19, 1920; PWW, 65:435.
Insiders understood: Bagby, The Road to Normalcy, 70–71.
Discussing the Democratic platform: PWW, 65:383, 400, 435; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, June 20, 1920.
Grayson was even more direct: Berg, Wilson, 689.
“the flower of his cabinet”: PWW, 65:212.
New to Washington: Wimer, “Woodrow Wilson and a Third Nomination,” 208n61; PWW, 65:432.
A dozen men: New-York Tribune, June 19, 1920.
When the convention opened: New York Times, June 29, 1920.
Colby told a reporter: Ibid., July 1, 1920.
On Friday: Bagby, The Road to Normalcy, 112, 118–19.
Colby’s contrition: PWW, 65:490.
On Sunday: PWW, 65:493–94.
Colby folded: PWW, 65:496.
the balloting dragged on: Bagby, The Road to Normalcy, 116.
James M. Cox: Washington Post, July 7, 1920, and July 16, 1957; Chicago Tribune, July 7, 1920; Newsday (New York), July 16, 1957; San Francisco Chronicle, July 7, 1920.
“He’s a fine boy”: Baltimore Sun, July 7, 1920.
The boy: Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 511.
Wilson wired his congratulations: PWW, 65:499–500.
Watching from a distance: Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 515.
Wilson, clearly in low spirits: PWW, 65:520–21.
The convention had been unsettling for Wilson: PWW, 65:481, 488.
He was so depressed: PWW, 65:512, 514.
Although slow to abandon: PWW, 65:54–55; Christine A. Lunardini and Thomas J. Knock, “Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look,” Political Science Quarterly 95, no. 4 (Winter 1980–1981): 671.
“normalcy”: Murray, The Harding Era, 70.
Early in the campaign: Frederick E. Schortmeier, Rededicating America: Life and Recent Speeches of Warren G. Harding (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill,1920), 223–24.
“The country was tired”: Gilbert, The Mirrors of Washington, 7.
He reminded voters on October 3: PWW, 66:181–83.
On October 27: PWW, 66:273–80; Boston Globe, Oct. 28 and 29, 1920; Washington Post, Oct. 28, 1920.
Those who noticed: Christian Science Monitor, Oct. 30, 1920; PWW, 66:289–91; New-York Tribune, Oct. 30, 1920.
“Tomorrow the dirty job”: H. L. Mencken, A Carnival of Buncombe: Writings on Politics, edited by Malcolm Moos (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1984), 17–18, 32, 35.
“The American people wanted a change”: Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People, 679–80.
The Nation observed: Nation 111, no. 2889 (Nov. 17, 1920): 548.
“Another Samson”: EMH Diary, EMH Papers, EMH Papers, Nov. 13, 1920.
Lodge privately boasted: Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, 399.
To the relief of his caretakers: PWW, 66:306; JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 501.
Stockton: PWW, 66:319–20.
When asked again to pardon Debs: PWW, 66:25, 343n1, 515–16, 533–35; JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 504–5.
Ray Stannard Baker: PWW, 66:435, 438–42.
A week later: PWW, 66:484.
A few shafts of sunlight: PWW, 66:380–83.
Wilson also managed: PWW, 66:484–90.
December also brought a Nobel Peace Prize: PWW, 66:517.
The prize carried: Fixed at about 150,000 Swedish kronor, the prize had amounted to about $40,000 before the war, but the exchange rate in 1920 reduced Wilson’s award to $29,100. New York Times, Dec. 7, 1920.
After weighing the merits: EBW, My Memoir, 308; PWW, 65:506.
Months of searching: EBW, My Memoir, 311–12; New-York Tribune, Dec. 18, 1920; Washington Post, Jan. 23 and Feb. 6, 1921.
With a nudge from Grayson: PWW, 67:vii; 137n3.
Five of his Princeton chums: PWW, 67:116–17, 148, 167–68.
Wilson also imagined: PWW, 67:107, 160–61, 190.
but Grayson had walked: New York Times, March 5, 1921.
“For a moment”: Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson, 307–8.
Pershing, who had watched Wilson: Smythe, Pershing, 273.
Wilson flushed: JPT, Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him, 509.
But Wilson looked Lodge in the eye: Lawrence, The True Story of Woodrow Wilson, 309.
In the three years: EBW, My Memoir, 321–22, 325, 332; PWW, 67:185n1; 68:398–99.
To minimize the disorientation: Ibid., 320–21.
Edith’s tenderness: PWW, 67:237–38, 245–46, 256, 268–69, 284, 288–89.
The press: New York World, PWW, 67:216–29; Baltimore Sun, March 3, 1921; Chicago Tribune, March 3, 1921; Afro-American (Baltimore), March 11, 1921.
Wilson had no intention: PWW, 67:60, 238.
The book’s success: A useful summary of The Peace Negotiations appears in The New York Times, March 25, 1921.
two more memoirs: The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference (1921) and War Memoirs of Robert Lansing, Secretary of State (published posthumously in 1935).
when Harding announced: Kurt Wimer and Sarah Wimer, “The Harding Administration, the League of Nations, and the Separate Peace Treaty,” Review of Politics 29, no. 1 (Jan. 1967): 15–16.
Sir Maurice Hankey: PWW, 67:462n2.
Wilson visited the Washington offices: PWW, 67:370–71; 68:202, 211–14, 231; EBW, My Memoir, 327–29.
Another try at writing a book: PWW, 68:39–42.
With enormous effort: PWW, 68:342–49n1, 393–95.
“I am tired”: Irwin Hood Hoover, Forty-Two Years at the White House, 108.
They left S Street: PWW, 67:289.
In the evening: EBW, My Memoir, 324–26.
Every Saturday night: PWW, 67:308–9, 380–88; 68:404.
By the end of June: PWW, 67:360, 395–98.
He relished: Kerney, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson, 485.
He was also pleased: PWW, 67:266, 334; Gene Smith, When the Cheering Stopped, 206.
Much of the work: Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 625n1.
After a June visit: PWW, 67:302, 333–34, 392.
Wilson occasionally sent notes: PWW, 67:392, 448–49, 68:36, 280.
Roosevelt, unsure of his political prospects: Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 563.
Wilson too: PWW, 67:311, 395.
Still convinced: New York Times and New-York Tribune, Sept. 27, 1921.
When the treaty passed: PWW, 67:422n4, 430.
Overlooking Wilson’s plot: PWW, 67:400–402, 438–40.
Everything was agreeable: PWW, 67:445–46.
who persuaded him: PWW, 67:454n1.
Armistice Day: Details of Wilson’s Armistice Day are from the Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 11 and 13, 1921; New York Evening Post, Nov. 11, 1921; Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and Washington Post, Nov. 12, 1921; Collier’s, Feb. 18, 1922, 14. The World’s coverage is reprinted in PWW, 67:449–53.
Although Wilson returned to the silence: PWW, 67:313–401.
Invited to attend: PWW, 67:444.
It was just as well: New York Times, Nov. 13, 1921.
As the presiding officer: Baltimore Sun, Nov. 13, 1921.
None would hold for the ages: Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 452–56.
“the Republican Versailles”: Adler, The Uncertain Giant, 62.
In a swipe: St. Louis-Post Dispatch, Feb. 5, 1922.
But The Kansas City Post: Quoted in the Chicago Tribune, Nov. 13, 1921.
Wilson rejected: PWW, 67:490, 511, 585.
On January 15, 1922: PWW, 67:521–23; Washington Post, Jan. 16, 1921.
A journalist who knew Wilson well: PWW, 68:594.
“The Document”: PWW, 67:320n1. Among his collaborators were Bernard Baruch, Louis D. Brandeis, Frank Cobb of the New York World, and Bainbridge Colby.
By the spring of 1922: Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 262–64.
a letter to The New York Times: PWW, 68:14.
no one else in her memoir: EBW, My Memoir, 332–39.
Decades later: Interview with Farrington R. Carpenter, Henry W. Bragdon Papers.
Whiskey was hard to get: PWW, 67:312; 68:167.
As Wilson’s secret pursuit: PWW, 67:585–86.
In a June talk with Homer Cummings: PWW, 68:88–92.
“Mr. Wilson was very happy”: New York Times, Nov. 12, 1911. Other details are from the Chicago Tribune, Hartford Courant, and Washington Post of the same date.
when Georges Clemenceau paid him a visit: EBW, My Memoir, 341; Bonsal, Unfinished Business, 283.
Mr. Wilson’s happiness evaporated: PWW, 68:235n.
Official Washington had interpreted: Chicago Tribune, Nov. 12, 1922.
Wilson complained to a friend: PWW, 68:234-35.
“political persecution”: PWW, 68:238.
He told Grayson: PWW, 68:250–52.
In June 1923: PWW, 68:375–83. My assumption that Grayson spoke to Oulahan for the article rests on the fact that a number of Oulahan’s comments on Wilson’s health also appear in Grayson’s diary.
To the evidence: Murray, The Harding Era, 438–51; Washington Post, June 20, 1923.
A few days later the Wilsons: PWW, 68:398, 400–402; CTG to Altrude Gordon Grayson, Aug. 6, 1923, CTG Papers.
She wrote her “Dearest One”: PWW, 68:408–17.
Pecking away one-handed: PWW, 68:412–13.
He was astounded: CTG to Altrude Gordon Grayson, Sept. 4, 1923, CTG Papers.
Edith came home refreshed: Phyllis Lee Levin, Edith and Woodrow, 488.
Apparently oblivious: PWW, 68:425–26; New-York Tribune, Sept. 19, 1923.
“Physically he was a wreck”: Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Confrerence, 1:154–55.
your speech: PWW, 68:471.
In a sense: PWW, 68:466–67; Berg, Wilson, 732.
Deeply moved: PWW, 68:467–71; Washington Post and New-York Tribune, Nov. 12, 1923.
Wilson was dying: PWW, 68:594.
“I must get well and help”: PWW, 68:502.
“The world is run by ideals”: Raymond B. Fosdick, “Before Wilson Died,” Survey 51 (Feb. 15, 1924): 495.
In January he agreed: PWW, 68:531–32; Chicago Tribune, Jan. 17, 1924; Baltimore Sun, Jan. 18, 1924.
But a few days later: PWW, 68:535–43.
At 11:20 a.m.: PWW, 68:567.
Joe Tumulty: Blum, Joe Tumulty and the Wilson Era, 264; EBW, My Memoir, 339.
Colonel House: Neu, Colonel House, 456–57.
When Edith learned: PWW, 68:574.
Wilson was laid out: Berg, Wilson, 740–41.
The cortege set off: PWW, 68:339–40.
After the brief Episcopal Ritual: Berg, Wilson, 742.
A few weeks: PWW, 51:339–41, 391.
Senator J. William Fulbright: Thomas J. Knock, “Playing for a Hundred Years Hence,” in G. John Ikenberry, ed., The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 35.
Even Harding: F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1952), 1:350; Ronald Allen Goldberg, America in the Twenties (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003), 68.
But President Franklin D. Roosevelt: Joseph Lelyveld, His Final Battle (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016), 57–71.
And when he concluded: Strobe Talbott, The Great Experiment (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 175, 181, 226–27.
The new president, Harry S. Truman: “Address in San Francisco at the Closing Session of the United Nations Conference,” June 26, 1945, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12188, accessed Dec. 22, 2017.
Six weeks later: Talbott, The Great Experiment, 194–96.
Nixon was a realist: Henry A. Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 704–6.
In a 1969 address: Richard Nixon, “Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam,” Nov. 3, 1969, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2303, accessed Dec. 22, 2017.
On another occasion: Richard Nixon, “Remarks at the Dedication of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars,” Feb. 18, 1971, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid-3313, accessed Dec. 22, 2017.
Wilson’s ghost: John Judis, The Folly of Empire (New York: Scribner, 2004), 152–54.
As Strobe Talbott: Talbott, The Great Experiment, 143–44.
Clinton practiced: William J. Clinton, “Remarks on United States Foreign Policy in San Francisco,” Feb. 26, 1999, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=57170, accessed Dec. 22, 2017.
“Either you are with us”: George W. Bush, “Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the United States Response to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11,” Sept. 20, 2001, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=64731, accessed Dec. 29, 2017.
“God’s gift to humanity”: George W. Bush, “Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” Jan. 28, 2003, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29645, accessed Dec. 28, 2017.
“finish the job”: Tony Smith, Why Wilson Matters (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 245.
Reflecting on the catastrophes: Ibid., 249.
Barack Obama: Jeffrey Goldberg, “The Obama Doctrine,” https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/, accessed Dec. 26, 2017.
In its 2017 survey: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2017, accessed Dec. 22, 2017.
I. There are three collections of Robert Lansing Papers: the two cited here and The Lansing Papers, 2 vol. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1939–40).