Flora & Fauna

China has a diverse range of wildlife befitting a country of its size, but if you come with great expectations you may be disappointed – there's less to see on a day-to-day basis than you'll find in some of the neighboring Southeast Asian countries. However, for those who have the time and energy to delve a little deeper, there are still treasures to be found and even a two-week city-based trip should show you some of country's offerings.

Causes for Concern

Several factors have contributed to the loss of Chinese flora and fauna. The sheer scale of humanity has meant that many species' habitats have been destroyed. The Chinese have consumed much of the original fauna, sometimes eating literally whatever they could find due to famine. Traditional medicinal beliefs relating to the efficacy of certain rare animal parts have further contributed to the demise of many species. The Communist regime has also played its part in the destruction of China's environment, often showing flagrant disregard for the laws of nature. Crazed periods such as the Great Leap Forward saw attention focused on increasing short-term output to ridiculous extremes – fields were overplanted and the crops and wildlife suffered. More recently environmentally damaging activities suchas logging, pollution and some questionable projects, including the Three Gorges Dam, have compounded the problem.

Habitats

As you'd expect from a country as vast as China, it has a diverse range of habitats, from wetland to desert, tundra to tropical forest and mountains to plains. Agriculture has replaced most of China's native forest, although there are still large expanses in the northeast that remain relatively untouched. The east is so highly developed that little of its original native habitat survives, but away from the coast there are still wild pockets, some of which have been designated national parks and forest reserves, such as Shennongjia in Hebei, which is reputedly home to a yeti-like creature! Out in the mountainous western regions there are extensive grasslands, which provide a festival of wild flowers in summer (July and August) and also support some fauna. The deserts of the northwest don't offer the same biodiversity as other parts of the country, but hold more wildlife than you might expect, including wild Bactrian camels.

National Parks & Conservation Projects

China was a late starter in the conservation race and, while the situation has certainly improved, it is already too late for some species and there is a long way to go to save those that remain. But all is not lost and hope remains. The first national park was established in Guangdong in 1956 and there are now over a thousand reserves, covering around 5% of China's land area, with dozens more planned. Reforestation projects are also starting in the hope of reducing desertification in the northwest. The work of a small number of dedicated individuals has highlighted the plight of some animal species, most notably the giant panda and this, in turn, has led to more widespread interest in wildlife and the environment, particularly among the younger generation.

The government is also realizing the severity of China's environmental situation and, after decades of abuse, seems to be coming round to a more sustainable approach to development. This is aided by the increasing importance of tourism in China, and as more and more upwardly mobile Chinese want to witness their country's native wildlife, there seems to be an economic as well as a conservation incentive. However, unless environmental tourism is responsibly managed, it could further degrade the environment (see Eco-Travel for more) and in a predominantly (and ever more polarized) poor country, people's own survival and prosperity is still the ultimate concern. Conservation areas are often poorly protected, meaning that poaching and logging still occur in these supposedly safe zones.

Conservation Organizations

If you're interested in contributing (whether financially or physically) or just learning more about some of the conservation projects around the country then try some of the organizations below. All are registered charities and staffed by volunteers so any help is welcome and if you're keen to donate to their cause you can do so online.

Friends of the Earth (www.foe.org.hk)

This successful global conservation organization runs a number of projects throughout Hong Kong and China. Some of their successes to date include preventing the building of a power station and a golf course in two of Hong Kong's country parks. They are also promoting pollution awareness and the use of unleaded fuel in the cities.

Greenpeace(www.greenpeace.org/china/en)

Greenpeace International has been publicizing issues such as environmental awareness, climate change, reusable energy and non-violent action here since 1997. Operations to date include the uncovering of illegal logging operations in Yunnan province, assistance in the development of ozone-friendly industrial technology and the promotion of sustainable energy sources, particularly wind-power.

Wildlife

While China is home to countless species you are only likely to encounter a small number of these, and to see most of them in the wild you'll have to invest some serious time and energy. This said, China has an enormous number of avian species and wherever you are you are likely to see a host of birds – even Hong Kong has its share and it's worth visiting the new Wetlands Park and Mai Po Marshes. If birding is your primary interest, it's worth heading to the remote northeast of the country, which is notable for herons and cranes that abound between April and September. The northeast also offers some of China's last remaining great wilderness and is home to bears, musk deer and reindeer, moose and tigers. In terms of flora, although there are plants and flowers throughout the country, for botanists the far west is the place to go. Ever since Joseph Rock, the 20th-century explorer, made it out here and catalogued what he saw, Yunnan's incredible floral biodiversity has attracted specialists. The grasslands here and in Szechuan and Tibet also support a host of animals, including wild yaks and argali sheep. The drier climes to the north of here in Inner Mongolia and Gansu give rise to little in the way of wildlife, but are traversed by that old desert favorite, the Bactrian or two-humped camel. It's impossible to list all the creatures that there are to see in China, let alone describe them, but below I've selected some of the plants and animals you're most likely to see, along with a list of endangered animals.

Animals & Plants in Chinese
Mythology & Medicine

The importance of plants and animals in Chinese culture can be seen in many aspects of the country's arts, mythology and medicine. Chinese mythology owes a great deal to its flora and fauna, both real and imagined. The Chinese Zodiac pays tribute to this allegiance, with people born under each sign supposedly exhibiting characteristics of that animal. Both animals and plants are deemed to hold certain attributes and these are recorded in history through statuary such as Bixi, the enduring and strong tortoise, and cranes, which represent happiness and longevity. Traditional Chinese medicine makes great use of both flora and fauna, from mountain herbs to animal parts. Ironically many of the supposed benefits are based on the perceived strengths of certain creatures – the tiger is seen as wily, virile and powerful, thus these qualities can be attained by its consumption. The talents of various creatures are also put to use in different forms of martial arts, from crane to tiger.

Flora

Bamboo – This unique fast-growing woody grass is found all over southern China and is inextricably entwined in Chinese history, symbolizing regeneration. Bamboo is part of everyday life and is used to this day in everything from cooking to scaffolding. There are countless varieties; the graceful "phoenix tail,” which you'll find around Guilin and Yangshuo, is one of the most beautiful. Walking through a misty bamboo thicket as it creaks and groans is an enchantingly Chinese experience.

 

 

 

Bamboo

 

Banyan – This powerful parasitic tree begins life as a seed dropped high in the branches of another tree. It then trails roots down to the ground and in time surrounds and envelopes other trees, sometimes melding several into one and creating the shade for which they are celebrated. Banyans are associated with Buddhist history and often form the focal point of villages or temples – locals frequently take some respite from the sun and enjoy a game of Chinese chess beneath them.

Chrysanthemum – Chrysanthemum flowers are familiar in many parts of the world but here can be found almost everywhere. They bloom in late autumn and many cities have flower exhibitions during this time. To the Chinese, they are considered medicinal, used in tea and often served as a delicacy.

 

 

Lotus

 

Lotus- The delicate lotus flower (or water lily) is striking and found in most parts of lowland

China. Lotus ponds can be seen in most parks and public gardens throughout the country and the roots make for a tasty vegetarian snack commonly used in cooking. You'll also see the distinctive salt-shaker-style pod in local food markets.

Orchid - The orchid is prevalent in Southeast Asia and has long evoked exotic images of the East. Its manifold varieties are appreciated by botanists and gardeners the world over and fetch high prices. Orchids have grown for thousands of years in China and can been seen throughout the seasons, particularly in the south.

Osmanthus – The tree which gives Guilin its name has a sweet-smelling blossom and adds a splash of color to the city in autumn. Its intoxicating fragrance has been written about through the ages, and the flowers are used to produce both tea and wine.

Peony – The city flower of Luoyang, the peony is also one of China's national flowers, and there are over 500 varieties in the country.

Wintersweet – As one of China's most popular floral species, the wintersweet is a common sight in Yunnan and Szechuan, where its hardiness allows flowering even in the snow.

Fauna

 

 

Yaks

 

While China has a fascinating array of different species, many of which are very rare or endangered (see below), it's far more likely that you'll come across the country's more common birds, insects and domestic animals. Some of the more spectacular bird species include cormorants (see Yangshuo, Adventures On Water), cranes, herons and kingfishers, as well as larger birds of prey such as eagles. Of the insects you may encounter, the praying mantis is probably the most fascinating and comes in a range of colors, from dusty brown to lurid green. The insect's name derives from it's seeming to be prostrated in prayer and it is renowned for its predatory nature, especially the female, which often kills the male post-copulation. Dragonflies and butterflies are also abundant throughout China, and the south claims some of the largest in the world, including the giant atlas moth butterfly whose wingspan can measure over eight inches. In parkland areas you're likely to see squirrels and, if you're lucky, deer. For those traveling into western mountain regions, you'll likely encounter yaks, both wild and domesticated and, if you're southward-bound, you may see monkeys. China's rivers also offer an array of wildlife, including river dolphins (see list below), sturgeons and even alligators.

Endangered Species

Brown Eared Pheasant – China has a quarter of the world's 196 species of pheasant, including the rare brown eared variety. It is unique to China and lives in high mountain coniferous forests in Shaanxi and Hebei provinces.

Chinese Alligator – The presence of alligators in China's Yangzi River may come as a bit of a surprise to many, but these reptiles once filled the waterways. Changing environments and dam construction have all played their part in the large population decline to less than 100 in the wild. They still inhabit parts of the Yangzi in Anhui and a research and breeding center has been established to help increase awareness and numbers.

Cranes – Cranes are large and spectacular birds and have cultural significance throughout the world (symbolic of new life and of babies in the West and of longevity and happiness in China). They are noisy, colorful and like to "dance.” Worldwide, there are 15 species, of which 11 are threatened. Eight of these species breed or winter in China, and three of them are endangered – the Siberian crane, the sarus crane and the red-crowned crane.

Crested Ibis – The crested ibis is among the 50 most endangered birds, with fewer than 250 mature individuals worldwide. There are none left in their native habitat in Japan, and only a handful breeding in the Qingling Mountains of China. The government has invested heavily in their preservation and, with help from the WWF, these beautiful birds may just survive.

Golden Monkey – This small golden-coated monkey's distinctive up-turned nose has earned it a nickname of the ‘snub nose' monkey. By the mid-1980s it was estimated that only 200 were left in the wild, but, after successful breeding projects and aid from the government, their population has increased dramatically to over 800 in 2006.

Grey Baiji (Yangzi River Dolphin) – With only five left in captivity and probably fewer than 100 in the wild, China has all but lost one of the world's most unusual mammals. Pollution, increasing river traffic and dam construction have all contributed to the demise of the baiji and it seems it will soon be gone forever.

Red Panda (Lesser Panda) – A very distant relation of its giant namesake, the red panda is a cuddly raccoon-like creature that lives in the trees of southern China, the Himalayas, India and Nepal.

Siberian Tiger & South China Tiger– These are some of the world's most intriguing big cats, but are dangerously near extinction. The fur trade, demands of Chinese medicine and a rapidly vanishing habitat have all played a part in their demise. There are only an estimated 20 wild Siberian tigers in northern China, and 60 South China tigers along the Yangzi River valley. In spite of protection efforts, the future doesn't look bright for these beautiful creatures.

 

 

Siberian tiger

 

Snow Leopard – The snow leopard is amongst China's most endangered animals. while their pelts fetch as much as US$50,000 on the illegal fur market, their bones are also popular as a traditional Chinese medicinal remedy, factors which when combined with decreasing habitat have seen their numbers dwindle. Now protected, and bred in captivity, some increase in numbers is being seen, but it's highly unlikely you'll ever see them in the wilderness of their Gansu, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Tibetan Plateau ranges.

The Giant Panda

The giant panda is China's most famous and one of its most endangered species. Numbers have been dwindling since they were hunted by both Chinese and foreigners at the start of the 20th century, although deforestation has been the greatest recent threat – over 50% of their habitat was lost between 1974 and 1989. However, since the plight of our furry black and white friends was brought to the world's attention in the 1980s, some of their habitat has been protected. Their range used to extend from Beijing as far south as Yunnan, but today they are confined to parts of Shaanxi, Szechuan and Gansu. Estimates suggest that there are about 1,600 pandas left in the wild but, due to their remote habitats, the accuracy of these figures is uncertain. There are 188 pandas in captivity around the world and, with new breeding and research centers, international recognition and the WWF, things are beginning to look up for these cuddly looking creatures, but there is still a long way to go in order to rebuild their numbers. The centers aim to help breeding problems and assist research, with the ultimate goal of reintroducing the pandas in to the wild. In April 2006, the first ever captive panda was released in the Qingling Mountains in Shaanxi and more releases are planned, although the jury is out as to whether this may be premature given the limited amount of habitat.

 

 

Increasing panda numbers involves preventing poaching and protecting panda habitats, but also ensuring that newborns manage to survive. Female pandas only reproduce once every two years and high infant mortality rates both in the wild and in captivity have hindered population growth. Although roughly half of all panda pregnancies result in twins, it's rare for two to survive, since the mothers reject the weaker sibling to nurture and protect the stronger. In captivity, one twin is taken away from its mother and sibling and re-introduced to the family at a later date, although this had been unsuccessful until new techniques including "twin swapping” and an accurate simulation of panda milk were introduced. Recent breakthroughs like these have led to a record number of births and an increased survival rate. Sixteen cubs were born in 2005, including a wonderful five sets of twins; all of them are still alive and well today. Success has also been enjoyed in the US, where baby Tai Shan was born in 2005 after his mom, Mei Xiang, was artificially inseminated. If captive numbers can reach 300 individuals, then this population should be able to maintain itself and its genetic diversity, though this is no viable substitute for wild populations.

Visiting the Pandas

Unless you have a number of months to go trekking into the wild, your best option is to visit one of the WWF-sponsored breeding and research centers at Chengdu and Wolong in Szechuan or at the Zhouzhi centerin Shaanxi (see Sightseeing, Around Xi'an). Here, you can see pandas in their natural habitat and, although they are still confined, the enclosures are large and the animals are well cared for. If you're not visiting these areas there are pandas in the zoos, but this is an experience far removed from a wild sighting, and conditions leave a lot to be desired.

Animal Protection Organizations

Animals get a rough deal in many parts of Asia and China is no exception, particularly because of the predilection for exotic animal parts as remedies used in TCM. The websites listed below offer information and ways to help animals in China:

Animals Asia (www.animalsasia.org). This Hong Kong-based charity established in 1998 runs a variety of animal welfare programs in China. China Bear Rescue has helped over 200 bears in China escape a torturous life of captivity. There is still a huge medicinal market for bear bile and many undergo the horrific technique of bile extraction known as ‘free dripping.'

WWF (www.wwf.china.org). Although they are most readily associated with pandas in China, the WWF is involved in wide-ranging projects throughout the country that aim to protect various animals through a variety of means, including preserving their habitats, rehabilitation and education.

Population

In 2 AD China's population was estimated at nearly 58 million by the world's first large-scale census. In spite of famine, plague, epic natural disasters and mass exodus, the population has grown steadily since then and today stands at over 1.3 billion people, making it the world's most populous nation. In spite of a quarter-century of the one-child policy, it looks as if it will maintain pole position until at least the middle of the century, when India may take the lead.

The One-Child Policy

Overpopulation led to the radical step of the one-child policy in 1979. It stated that couples had to obtain permission before trying to have a child and if they failed to do this then the pregnancy would be terminated. Minority families living in the countryside were (and are) allowed two children, but in the cities if families had more than one child they had to pay punitive taxes. Although the policy has been effective in limiting population growth, it is China's tremendous number of people that has allowed its meteoric development. Along with the associated problems of gender imbalance and Little Emperors (see below), the aging population has led to fears that China will lose the competitive edge afforded by its vast numbers. As people enjoy more wealth and social freedom, they also want to choose how many children they can have, with two being the popularly cited number among the urban elite. In response to these factors, regulations have been relaxed a little and couples whose first child is a girl and who meet other requirements such as waiting for four years after their first-born, can now have a second child. There are suggestions that the policy may be scrapped altogether in the near future, but the official party line says nothing of the kind. 

Gender Imbalance

Boys were always favored over girls as in marriages the bride's family had to pay a dowry and the new couple would live with and help to support the groom's family.  Limiting the number of children to one per family made having a boy crucial to the family line and led to thousands of female abortions and infanticides. Although ascertaining a child's sex by ultrasound is theoretically illegal, in practice this procedure is available in China for less than US$100 and is commonplace. Thus many couples wait to see the child's sex and then only proceed with the pregnancy if it's a boy. The result of this isn't yet fully recognized, but even the government admits that there are 119 boys born for every 100 girls and already China has some 60 million more men of reproductive age than women.

Little Emperors

In the countryside the policy means that there are fewer people to work the fields, a problem exacerbated by rural to urban migration. In the cities some families are now enjoying prosperity unimaginable in their parents' time but have to focus all the love that used to be spread among many children onto their single (or, if they're lucky, two) offspring. This is evident in the legion of overfed, spoiled young "emperors” being carted around expensive shopping centers.

People

The Han

The Han was one of China's earliest and greatest dynasties and lends its name to the ethnic group which makes up 93%of the population today. One of the words for the Chinese language, hanyu literally means Han language. The Han are the people of the Middle Kingdom and for the longest time considered most of the other minority groups as insignificant but savage barbarians. Central China is the Han heartland, but in politically sensitive areas like Tibet, there are incentives to attract Han people to settle there and help maintain the region's "loyalty.” Through the course of history encroachments by outside influences were subsumed into the all powerful Han culture.

The Minorities

In addition to the Han, the Chinese population also includes some 55 ethnic groups, which are as diverse as you'd expect for a land as vast as China. The southwest is where you'll find the greatest number of minorities, many of whom are more akin to the hilltribes of Southeast Asia than Han China. Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan are home to a number of China's most colorful ethnic groups including the Bai, the indigo-clad Dong, the Miao, the Naxi, the Yao and the Zhuang, all of whom have their own distinct culture, customs and architecture. In the north and northwest there are wilder groups, such as the nomadic Mongol and Tibetan herders, as well as Central Asian horsemen like the Kazakh and the Tajik. While central and eastern China are predominantly Han, other groups such as the Hakka retain importance in the region and examples of their traditional architecture are still to be found in the southeast and Hong Kong's New Territories.

Variously feared, ignored, persecuted and condescended to through history, the minority groups' biggest threat today comes from the migration of its youth to the big cities. During the early years of communism in China, there seemed little hope for minority groups and their culture, but these days the Chinese are much more curious about their other countrymen. Guesthouses, hiking and witnessing traditional life have all become big sellers and are, to some extent, helping to preserve minority cultures. And if you head off the beaten track (even just a few days in the valleys behind Longji) you'll find communities seemingly untouched by time where cultural traditions have been maintained for centuries. You can help preserve these traditions by buying goods made in the villages, asking for regional specialty foods and using local guides.

Religion & Philosophy

 

 

China's history is steeped in overlapping religious belief and philosophy. Starting with animist worship, religion developed through Taoism and Confucianism, the latter of which, with its hierarchical code of moral values, was more a philosophy than a religion. Outside influence brought Buddhism to the country and together these three belief systems are the foundation of religion in China – known as The Three Teachings. With the onset of communism, socialism was the new doctrine; religion in all its forms was suppressed and only practiced secretly. In the last 20 years, however, religion has reemerged, albeit in party-approved form and far from free. Indeed, several religious groups are outlawed in China, such as Falun Gong (meaning Wheel of Life, a quasi-Buddhist order), but they flourish in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The Three Teachings remain the most prominent beliefs in modern China, although some would argue they come second to capitalism, albeit with socialist characteristics! Christian missionaries and Muslim merchants have also had their parts to play in China's religious history, with the result that today most cities of any size have both churches and mosques to serve their sizeable Christian and Muslim populations. It is difficult to gauge the actual size of these groups, as only "official” religions are included in statistics, meaning that the millions who worship in secret according to other doctrines aren't counted. Although there are still devout followers of each of the Three Teachings, belief among the populace can seem ambiguous and Taoist temples can show elements associated with Buddhism and vice versa. 

Buddhism

Though Indian in design and containing elements of Hinduism, like so many outside influences that reached China, Buddhism was adopted and adapted to fit Chinese beliefs and needs. Aspects of Buddhist dharma could be likened to Taoism and the fact that Buddhism didn't outlaw recognition of other gods allowed it to incorporate facets of traditional folk religions, and to prosper in China. 

History in China

 

 

White Horse Temple

 

Buddhism came to China in 67 AD, and the first Buddhist place of worship is believed to have been the White Horse Temple in Luoyang, Shandong province, founded in 68 AD, by two Indian monks who arrived on a white horse. However, the religion only really gained popularity after the arrival of Bodhidharma, an Indian monk who is said to have journeyed to Shaolin Temple in the fifth century and is also credited with the development of Chinese martial arts. The Tang dynasty was Buddhism's great era in Chinese history and monks numbered in the hundreds of thousands. It was also during this period that China's great Buddhist cave art flourished, most spectacularly at Longmen near Luoyang in Shandong province, at Dunhuang in Gansu province and at Dazu in Szechuan province.

Life of Sakyamuni

Buddhism is a religion borne of Sakyamuni, a Nepali prince, also known as Siddhartha Gautama. Having been sheltered from the harsh realities of life by living within a palace, Siddhartha was shocked by his first glimpses of the outside world and renounced his earthly possessions in the search for release from the earthly cycle of life, death and re-birth. After several years as an ascetic, Sakyamuni realized that physical vigilance in the form of fasting, contortion and the like were not the answer. Finally he achieved nirvana (enlightenment) under the bodhi tree in Bodhgaya in Bihar, India, and became Buddha (the Enlightened One), though he never claimed to be anything more than a man. He then gave sermons at Sarnath on the banks of the Ganges, where he spoke of realizing the existence of suffering and finding the dharma, or path to enlightenment, through meditation and giving up the desire for all worldly things. Sakyamuni spent the remainder of his life traveling around the Ganges floodplains in northeastern India, teaching and receiving visitors.

 

 

Sakyamuni

 

 

Basics of Buddhism

Buddhism is based on realization of the Four Noble Truths: Life means Suffering; The Origin of Suffering is Attachment; The Cessation of Suffering is Attainable; and The Path to the Cessation of Suffering. The way to achieve enlightenment is detailed in the Eightfold Path. Pinning down exactly what enlightenment constitutes is a tricky one, but could be described as an omniscience of all beings, in all their lives, the consequences of their actions and thus the symbiosis inherent in the cosmos!

Schools of Buddhism

 

 

Yellow Hat monks

 

Buddhism has many forms, the most significant of which are mahayana(Greater Vehicle), as practiced in China, and theravada (Lesser Vehicle), prominent in Southeast Asia. Theravada is the version which originally arrived in China, but its focus on gaining nirvana as an individual had little hold with the regimented group mentality prominent in the Middle Kingdom. Thus, mahayana, which indicated that release could only come as a whole, and that arhats (known in China as luohan) and bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who choose to stay on earth) would remain on this earth to guide others, was far more suited to China. Over time, bodhisattvas and arhats came to be worshipped themselves and local deities were brought into the fold.

Chan (Zen) Buddhism, a school of meditation, also found its feet in China and has gained standing around the world, facilitated by its belief that you don't have to be a monk or recluse to achieve enlightenment. Tibet also managed to absorb Buddhism into its pre-existing shamanistic religion, Bon, greatly aided by Guru Rinpoche, an Indian Buddhist, who was invited to the kingdom in the seventh century. The various Tibetan Buddhist schools are collectively known as Lamaism,  of which Gelugpa (or Yellow Hat) is the most prominent today and includes the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama among its following.

Confucianism

Confucianism is seen as the most Chinese of its belief systems and, though it was never intended as a religion, if you visit a Confucian temple and see people worshipping him, you'd struggle to see it purely as a philosophy. Confucianism has also had an effect outside of the Middle Kingdom, especially in Korea. Though there is doubt as to whether Confucius actually ever lived, what is certain is that his system of hierarchical values continues to affect modern Chinese thought and interaction.

The Life Of Confucius (551-479 BC)

Confucius (kong fu zi in Chinese) was supposedly born in 551 BC and experienced poverty in the early part of his life, only managing to become a junior official through hard study. Disheartened by the chaos and disorder as the Zhou dynasty declined into the Warring States Period (see Zhou Dynasty), Confucius sought to implement a system that would restore order. To this end he opened a number of private schools where he instructed thousands of students in his code of moral values. His style of teaching was more in tune with modern methods than those of the day, promoting elicitation and student participation over traditional learning by repetition. Confucius traveled to the various states and gave lectures on his beliefs about hierarchy within all structures, from families to governments. After the rejection of his advice by many of the state leaders, Confucius returned to his ancestral home town, Qufu, in Shandong province, as an old man. He continued his teachings and his following grew. It was also during this time that he contributed his thoughts to the writings of the day, now known as The Five Classics, which includes the Book of Songs and the I Ching, or Book of Changes. The Analects is a collection of Confucius' sayings published many years after his death which, along with the rest of the Confucian canon, became required reading for civil officials.

His Philosophy

Confucius' philosophy directed that if the correct hierarchy was in place and individuals treated and respected one another according to this structure, then life would be harmonious. At the top of the scale was the emperor, moving down through scholars and officials, peasants, merchants, craftsmen, soldiers, slaves and, at the bottom of the ladder, the underclasses, which included beggars and prostitutes. He placed major importance on an appropriate obedience and sense of duty within these relationships, particularly between subjects and their emperor, a wife and her husband, children and their parents and younger and older brothers. His belief was that only between friends should there be equality. Respect was based on the five Confucian virtues of benevolence, propriety, righteousness, trustworthiness and wisdom. Confucius didn't advocate ancestor worship, but the emphasis on respecting one's family elders has helped to maintain its importance in Chinese culture.

Confucianism as a Religion

Confucius didn't see his dictates as religious and it wasn't until after he died that he became something of a deity, with temples around the country dedicated to him. Religion aside, his impact on the Chinese bureaucracy is evident in the fact that his teachings formed the basis of civil service examinations until the early 20th century. Though shunned during the early years of communism and the Cultural Revolution, Confucian values remain in some senses and worship has re-emerged in recent times. For proof of this, look no further than Qufu, a town devoted to Confucius, where you'll find hordes of visitors exploring a mansion complex that almost rivals the Forbidden City and a vast forest containing the graves of the entire Confucian clan (which numbers in the thousands). While often rebuffed during his lifetime, and intermittently purged through history, Confucius' theories have influenced and affected the course of Chinese thinking for over two thousand years.

Taoism

Taoism is China's only native religion (since Confucianism isn't a religion as such), and was developed by the semi-mythical figure, Lao Zi, who is traditionally held to have lived in the sixth century BC. Lao Zi (Old Boy) is also credited with writing Taoism's elemental work, the Tao Te Jing (The Classic of the Way and Power), though this was probably compiled some time after his death and is thought to be more of a collaboration than a book by a sole author. Zhuang Zi was another great proponent of Taoism, who supposedly lived in the fourth century BC, rejecting rank and luxury for a humble life of reflection. His book of parables, The Zhuang Zi, is Taoism's second great text.

Though Taoism began as a religion without deities, over time it acquired a plethora of them, most notably the Eight Immortals. It also attracted imperial patronage and established a formalized priesthood. Taoism was soon an all-encompassing religion, its flowing energy nestled somehow next to the rigidity of Confucianism. But with increasing popularity came dilution and the quest for immortality became the primary goal for some Taoists, leading purists to separate themselves from the mainstream. 

Taoist Beliefs

Taoism's beliefs are difficult to express succinctly, but are based on trying to attain harmony within the natural world, balancing its hard, male yang aspects with the soft, fluid, female yin facets. The taiji, commonly known as the yinyang in the West, is a symbol of this harmony.  The smaller inner circles represent the presence of yin within yang and vice versa. Taoism centers on the belief that there is a unifying force or energy which flows through everything. The Taoist aims to ride the Tao (the Way) to a long, healthy life and even immortality, believing that worldly possessions and desires can cause a being to lose sight of this path. This belief means that Taoists often lived reclusive existences. While Taoist harmonious ideals and the concept of wu wei (achievement through inaction) are pacifist in essence, the religion has also fostered its own form of martial arts, born in the mountain temples of Wudang Shan.

Visiting Temples

 

 

The Happy Buddha, Maitreya

 

Visiting a working temple in China can seem like a daunting and confusing prospect. There are a pantheon of gods and all manner of associated rituals, but as a foreigner you'll be forgiven most of your faux pas, and in temples popular with tourists many Chinese visitors may appear to have little more idea than you! Dress conservatively, although you may well see those who don't.

The entrances of Buddhist temples are often presided over by a pair of metal or stone lions. The entrance hall usually has a statue of the "Happy Buddha,” as Maitreya has become known, along with menacing statues of the Four Heavenly Kings. Buddhist temples are built along a central axis with a series of courtyards and lesser shrines leading to the most important and grandest hall at the rear. These halls usually hold statuary, which believers bow to with the hands clasped. The courtyards are separated by screened gateways in order to prevent bad spirits (who can only travel in straight lines) from entering. In theory you should walk clockwise around Buddhist temples but this isn't always possible and you'll see plenty of locals going the other way.

You'll see a host of gods in most Buddhist temples, though Sakyamuni, with his tightly knit hair, is the most significant and is often shown in past, present and future form, while Guanyin (Kun Iam in Cantonese), the Goddess of Mercy, is often depicted with hundreds of arms and is found in many temples. In Taoist temples you might see statues of its founder, Lao Zi, along with the Eight Immortals, and in the south the Taoist Goddess of Fishermen and the Sea, known variously as A-Ma, Mazu and Tin Hau, is a prominent figure with numerous temples dedicated to her in Hong Kong, Macau and Fujian. Incense and ghost money are burnt in temples to all of the Three Teachings, either in large brick ovens or in ornate metal burners, usually found in the courtyards. You'll also people divining their future at temples in all kinds of ingenious ways, the most common of which is by shaking sticks in a wooden cup until one falls out!

 

Best Temples & Monasteries

• White Cloud Temple, Beijing

• Tibetan Lama Temple, Beijing

• Puning Temple, Chengde

• Eight Immortals Temple, Xi'an

• Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an

• Luohan Temple, Chongqing

• Fengdu Ghost Temple, Three Gorges

• Jade Buddha Temple, Shanghai

• West Garden Temple, Suzhou

• Lingyin Temple, Hangzhou

• Temple of Six Banyans, Guangzhou

• Po Lin Monastery, Lantau Island, Hong Kong

• Wong Tai Sin Temple, Hong Kong

• A-Ma Temple, Macau

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  Pond resident, Po Lin Monastery

   

  Beliefs & Superstitions

  The Chinese are inherently superstitious and this manifests itself in everything from religious interpretation to modern business practice. In Chinese certain numbers sound the same as other words and these are then taken to be lucky, or unlucky. Six, eight (which brings money) and nine (longevity) are good numbers, while four (which sounds like death) is a bad number. The importance placed on these numbers cannot be overstated and telephone numbers or addresses with favorable digits command high prices. Equally, few Chinese will want to live on the fourth floor of a building. Many Chinese believe that, although your destiny is ordained, a little luck can help you skip a few reincarnations. Gambling here can be obsessive, with people betting all they own and more (see Macau, Gambling). The lunar calendar also plays a significant role in modern life, and weddings, business meetings and holidays are planned accordingly.

  The Chinese Zodiac

  The Chinese Zodiac is based on the lunar calendar and gives each of its 12 years an animal name. If you are born within this year you are said to possess the qualities of that animal. Note that the Chinese New Year usually falls a month or two after the Western version, so if you were born in January 1973, as I was, you are actually a rat, not an ox!

  Below is a brief description of each of the animal years, but if you're interested in further exploration head to an astrologer. Astrologers can be found in markets and parks throughout China and, if you give them your time and date of birth, they should be able to give you a precise rundown of who you are, what days are lucky for you and what lies in your future – take a translator!

  
  

  What's Your Sign?

  Rat – Usually clever, giving and diligent, but can be prone to laziness.

  Ox – Independent, cool and stubborn, an ox will always finish a task.

  Tiger – Self-assured and adventurous, tigers live up to their name.

  Rabbit – Quiet, shy and family-loving, rabbits need reassurance and love.

  Dragon – Dragons are confident and able leaders and usually gracious.

  Snake – Often selfish, charismatic and hard-nosed; you wouldn't want to upset a snake.

  Horse – Horses are usually witty and well motivated, but emotional.

  Goat – Money-loving goats are charmers but don't often turn up on time.

  Monkey – Monkeys are daring and love a challenge but, despite their intelligence, they can be erratic.

  Rooster – Diligence and punctuality are important to roosters, although they can speak a little too freely and are prone to feeling emotional.

  Dog – Defensive, loyal and kind, they really do make best friends.

  Pig – Calm and helpful, pigs may not be very intelligent but they are sincere.

  
  

  Fengshui

  Fengshui (wind and water), or geomancy, is the art of alignment to create the best flow of energy and can operate on a room, building or city scale. Fengshui is based on certain precepts, such as having a mountain or hill behind the property and water flowing toward the front. Hong Kong's HSBC Tower is famous for its fengshui – the unobstructed view to the water allows money to flow freely in! In a room, certain objects, such as a correctly placed fishbowl, can improve the energy flow, while a bagua, mirror, will repel evil spirits. You'll see geomancy in practice throughout the country and can even arrange fengshui tours in Hong Kong and Yangshuo

  Culture

  Architecture

  Since the onset of dynastic times, architectural design has been of key significance as an indicator of status within the imperial structure. Buildings have been added to, altered or destroyed according to the mood of the dynasty. Outside influences have also had their part to play and there are prominent examples of Mongolian, Tibetan, British, French and German architecture found in China. In the last hundred years, wars, the Cultural Revolution and most recently the country's spectacular economic growth have eliminated much historic architecture. Despite this, a number of outstanding buildings, such as the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven, have survived and underwent face-lifts for the Olympics, while amazing modern structures were also built for the event.

  
  

  Palaces & Temples

  Palaces and temples were mapped out in accordance with the principles of fengshui and were usually walled complexes containing square or rectangular buildings, with a few notable exceptions such as the circular Temple of Heaven in Beijing. Inside the city walls, an inner central walled quarter was used for the emperor and was always built on a number of rising platforms. The highest point seated the great emperor, as this brought him closer to heaven and no other building was allowed to exceed this in the city.

  
  

  Traditional Architecture

  Cities and the traditional buildings within them were designed using a standard set of principles. Harmony was of key importance, as was creating a balance with the environment. Fengshuiwas essential (see above) and architectural designs were chosen so as not to disrupt the cosmos. Buildings were usually constructed horizontally rather than vertically, in contrast to today's skyscrapers. Together, low-rise buildings formed a network of narrow streets known as hutong, including everything from homes to shops. The grid-like rows provided shelter from the elements and were also believed to afford spiritual protection. Solid insulated brick was used in the north while open eaves with internal courtyards were prevalent in the south. To see some of China's best preserved hutong, head for Beijing.

  
  

  Rural Architecture

  Although the principal architectural aspects remain the same from north to south, a number of variations can been seen throughout China today. The Dong and Miao of the southwest use local cedar wood, building their houses vertically and it's not uncommon to see two- or three-story houses. They are also famous for their unique Wind and Rain Bridges (see Longji), built to prevent evil spirits from crossing the river and entering the town. In the southeast the Hakka constructed vast encampments containing huge circular stone mansions.These roundhouses sometimes contained up to 600 people and provided perfect defense from both invaders and the harsh climate; a few are still inhabited today. Some outstanding examples of traditional architecture remain in the Huizhou-style houses of Shexian and Yixian, near Huangshan (see Huizhou Architecture).

  
  

  Foreign Influences

  Over the ages many foreign communities have settled in China, bringing outside architectural styles and techniques with them. Islamic architecture retains some of its typical features, but also incorporates Chinese themes – look no further than Xi'an's Great Mosque where the minaret resembles a pagoda. The 19th century saw the arrival of the Europeans. Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau, Shanghai and Xiamen still have well-preserved examples of colonial architecture and the juxtaposition of Eastern and Western styles gives a very different feel to parts of these cities. For the best of the British, head to the Bund in Shanghai, which is more akin to Liverpool (UK) than the Orient. Today, it houses some of the most expensive properties in Shanghai and boasts a range of architectural styles from Neo-Classical to Art Deco.

  
  

  Communist Architecture

  Communism also had its part to play in China's architecture and saw the development of a bland, boxy Soviet style focused on functionality. Beijing's Great Hall of the People and Tian'anmen Square remain as monuments to those days, while the ancient glory of the dynastic period looks on from the Forbidden City.

  
  

  Modern Architecture

   

  

   

  Marriott Hotel, Shanghai

   

  From the late 1970s onwards, China opened its economy, urbanization erupted and simple, cheap accommodation was needed for the masses. As the population swelled, buildings began to creep upwards and, today, China's urban skylines have been transformed into a lofty wash of neon. Architecture has become a highly competitive field and the tallest, biggest and funkiest all battle it out in the skylines of Shanghai and Hong Kong (see The Sky's the Limit), albeit still paying homage to tradition in their use of the principles of fengshui.

  Bronzes

  Excavations to date indicate that bronze emerged in China during the Shang dynasty (1600-1122 BC). Before this time vessels for everyday use were made from pottery, but the increased stability and settlement of the Shang allowed for the melding of copper and tin to form bronze. Craftsmen soon developed sophisticated casting techniques and agricultural equipment, cookery utensils and weapons were all fashioned from bronze.

  
  

  

   

  Shang Dynasty bronze

   

   

  The Shang also used bronze to produce ceremonial vessels used solely by the king to make offerings to the spirits. These vessels were highly detailed and often depicted animals, although, as time progressed, the images became more abstract. By the time of the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 BC), styles had become more varied and items were cast in different shapes, featuring both simple and extravagant décor. Some of the best historic bronze exhibits in the country are found in Beijing's National Museum, the Shanghai Museum and the Shaanxi History Museum in Xi'an. Although the composition now varies greatly from Shang dynasty bronze, the alloy remains popular to this day and you'll see statuary around the country fashioned from it. 

   

   

  One of China's most impressive bronze collections was discovered in Henan province in 1976. The tomb of China's first female general (who was also wife to one of the Shang kings) was unearthed and over 200 bronze weapons and tools, 600 small sculptures, 7,000 cowry shells, 16 sacrificial victims and six dogs were found!

  Ceramics

  For centuries the Western world has been lured by the splendor of China's ceramics and it even adopted the country's name as a title for its most prized product: porcelain.

  Through the ages different forms and styles evolved that reflect both internal and outside influences, along with technological advances. Some of the best examples of Chinese porcelain are found in the Forbidden City's display, at the Shaanxi History Museum and Shanghai Museum.

  
  

  

   

  Yuan Dynasty vase

   

   

  History

  China's Neolithic period saw simple techniques that used black, white and red surface painting on simple everyday utensils. By the rise of the Western Zhou dynasty in 1100 BC, a kiln style of glazing had been developed, although this wasn't perfected until the Han dynasty. It was during the Tang dynasty that ceramic production started to increase and become more refined. With copper and bronze being used for coin production, potters found a rise in demand for practical everyday products. They started to use top quality porcelain and were keen to make their works more colorful and creative, developing a tri-color glaze (san cai) that remains one of the Tang's greatest legacies. In addition to day-to-day ware, ornaments and statuettes of horses and other animals were modeled in tri-color, and these techniques are still in use today. During the Song, the art of ceramics was further refined and many regional styles and specialties began to develop, using a simpler and more elegant style, favoring one color rather than three. However, it was the outside influences of the Yuan dynasty that saw one of the greatest developments in Chinese ceramics – the cobalt blue under-glaze. This simple blue and white glaze has become symbolic of Chinese pottery and is common the world over. But, with the collapse of the Yuan and the instability of the early Ming years, both quantity and quality declined.

  Once the Ming dynasty asserted its rule, ceramics production was reborn and the Yuan art of cobalt glaze and Tang tri-color technique were reinvented and perfected. The Forbidden City began placing large orders for top quality china and founded an imperial kiln at Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province. Only the finest quality porcelain was used and the production of each piece became highly skilled and specialized, depicting intricate scenes of imperial and everyday life, as well as phoenixes and dragons. The market grew when two Portuguese ships were captured by the Dutch in 1604 and their cargo of 20,000 pieces of Ming pottery went up for auction. Buyers included England's King James I and the French King Henri IV. Demand for this distant and exotic art form soared. Despite the collapse of the Ming in 1644, the imperial kilns continued to prosper, catering to an international market and, although they were forced to close during the Japanese occupation, they have since re-opened and still produce some of the world's most highly skilled ceramic pieces.

  Jade & Lacquer

  Jade and lacquer date back beyond the Shang dynasty (1600-1122 BC). Jade was used to make everything from tools to ornaments and its enduring nature led to it becoming associated with longevity. As a result of this, the Shang used jade to make pi, flat circular ornaments which were placed in graves. Lacquer is produced using the sap of the lac tree and was another popular decorative art, most commonly used to coat small boxes, which were then inlaid with precious metals. Both jade and lacquer were so popular that they continue to be fashioned and treasured to this day.

  Painting

  Classical Chinese painting has a long history and conjures up images of a mystical country with mist-shrouded peaks dropping down to waterfalls surrounded by bamboo and blossoming trees. Painting in China isn't just limited to the classical form and in the past century the art has moved through Communist Red Art to abstract modernism, although traditional styles remain popular. 

  
  

  Tools of the Trade

  There are said to be four great treasures in traditional Chinese painting; the brush, the ink, the inkstone and the paper or silk used. Only the finest horse hair was used for the brushes and it was then glued to pieces of bamboo, a traditional method that dates back to the fourth century BC. The ink was made by combining pine soot and glue, which was then left to harden, making a solid tablet of ink. The ink was then rubbed with water on an inkstone to create the correct consistency. Silk was the traditional medium, although this restricted creativity, since it was permanent as soon as applied. The invention of paper in 106 AD changed this and allowed for more artistic freedom.

  
  

  Tang Dynasty Art (618-907 AD)

  The Tang dynasty saw the first real development of Chinese art. Under the Tang, China was a powerful, stable empire providing a perfect foundation for the arts which were essentially produced by scholars, high officials and poets. Arts were encouraged by the court and portrait painting gained in popularity. Paintings depicted emperors and their families and also serve as excellent historical documents reflecting court life from this period.

  
  

  

   

  Painting by Ma Yuan

   

   

  Song Dynasty Art (960-1279 AD)

  With the collapse of the Tang came the rise of the Song dynasty, whose artistic legacy has been handed down to China's modern painters. Their focus was on the landscape and they wanted to capture the vast expanse of China's geography. Huge areas of the canvas were left blank in order to create space, depth and to capture light, aspects that are clearly reflected in works by Ma Yuan (1165-1225 AD).Academies were established under royal patronage and a number of emperors, most famously Huizong, adopted the hobby.

  
  

  Yuan, Ming & Qing Dynasties (1279-1911)

  With the invasion of the Mongols and the rise of the Yuan dynasty, many officials were forced to retire, allowing for a change in composition and subject matter. Although the traditional brush and ink techniques remained of key importance, images became more personal, with an emphasis on experimentation. Detailed images of plum blossoms, bamboo, flowers and birds fused with color washes became common and a passion for mixing calligraphy with their canvases added to the Yuan style. However, it was the rise of the Qing dynasty in the 17th century that first saw European influences merge with the earlier traditions and Western materials and subject matter became more common.

  
  

  The 1900s

  The biggest changes to Chinese art occurred during the 20th century through contact with the Western world and the Communist ideals promoted by Russia. Artists began to paint their great leader, Mao, in stronger, bolder colors and used Western materials such as oil on canvas. Painting, like everything else, became a medium for political propaganda and a movement developed known as ‘Red Art' – Shanghai's Propaganda Poster Art Center has an excellent collection.  Zhang Zhenshi's (1914-92) portrait of Mao has become an icon from this period and copies of it have stood at the entrance to the Forbidden City since 1950. Red Art is currently undergoing a revival in China and can be seen throughout the country's galleries and markets.

  
  

  Modern Art

  Modern art in China has been influenced by international styles and techniques, which have been fused with deeply embedded traditions to create powerful images of life today.  Modern Chinese paintings often reflect artists' frustration at the censored society in which they live and the turmoil of the last century. Good places to get a feel for China's modern art scene are at Beijing's hip Dashanzi district, Shanghai's Museum of Contemporary Art, Guangzhou's Guangdong Museum of Art and Shenzhen's Overseas Chinese Town.

  Calligraphy

  The artistic portrayal of Chinese characters has a long imperial tradition and still flourishes today. Calligraphy traditionally went hand-in-hand with poetry and was practiced by scholars, although emperors and court officials also spent years mastering the art.During the Tang dynasty, a united China allowed a standard script to emerge, and calligraphy was considered so important that the emperor added it to the list of criteria for assigning posts in the civil service. Today calligraphy is very much alive in modern China and you will see it everywhere, from the work of traditional masters in temples to artists on the street. For those hunting for exquisite ancient calligraphy, Shanghai Museum has some of the finest examples in the country.

  Literature

  Early Chinese literature is defined by philosophical works reputedly written by great masters such as Lao Zi, the founder of Taoism Confucius and their disciples. However there were exceptions to this quasi-religious theme such as Sun Zi's fifth-century-BC military treatise, the Art of War, and the extraordinary Historical Records, written by Sima Qian in the Han dynasty. The latter was an immense tome chronicling Chinese history from Huangdi, through the Shang and Zhou dynasties and up to his time. Historical Records enlivened its 130 chapters with biographies and constructed conversations (based on real events); its style was so engaging that it formed the basis for imperial historic works to follow. However, until the 15th century, books were written as scholarly works and remained inaccessible to the masses. In the Ming and subsequent Qing dynasties, a new, more vernacular language emerged and classics such as Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and The Dream of the Red Chamber were written. These tales are still popular today, but reading books remained an elitist activity and it was only with the arrival of the social commentaries of  Lu Xun (1881-1936) on the literary scene that baihua (white language) emerged. Once the Communists emerged victorious, authors like Sheng Congwen (1903-86) found their literary freedom suppressed and little material of interest was produced, although Mao's Little Red Book is a fascinating insight into socialist doctrine. Since the 1980s, restrictions have relaxed, but many of the grittiest modern writers such as Wang Shuo don't have a legally published book to their name in China. See the booklist at the end for details of some of the classics, along with various other titles.

  Poetry

  With its tones and rhyming nature, Chinese is well-suited to poetry and the pictographic characters themselves add further sentiment. For this reason since the earliest times, poetry has been the preferred mode of written expression. The Book of Songs, accredited to Confucius, is the original Chinese poetic work and was quoted by scholars, envoys and philosophers alike. Chinese poetry reached its pinnacle under the Tang with the works of two starkly contrasting wordsmiths. Li Bai (701-762 AD) was a Taoist eccentric with a passion for nature and wine who embodied the poetic values of freedom, spontaneity and defiance of convention. Dufu (712-770 AD) was Confucian through and through, but his failed political career led him to appreciate the hardships of the common man and his poems reflect this. Li Bai and Dufu's differing styles and stances highlight the dichotomy of China through the ages – split between the rigid conventions of Confucian conformity and the romanticism and intuitive thought associated with Taoism. Born during the Song dynasty, Su Dongpo (1037-1101 AD) is perhaps the most famous of all Chinese poets, and was also a skilled calligrapher, painter and politician. Su's outspoken views saw him exiled more than once, but his minute attention to detail and the graceful nature of his poems continue to earn him adulation to this day.

  Music

  Whether you stumble across an opera performance in the park, or are taken by a catchy Canto-pop tune while shopping in Hong Kong, you're sure to come across local music of some kind on your trip to China and if you're a keen music fan you'll find plenty of styles to search out, from classical to pop.

  
  

  Traditional Music

  Visitors to China most commonly experience traditional music via opera performances, but this is only the tip of the iceberg and there are countless regional styles. Music in China dates back 6,000 years, and although some traditional instruments and melodies were lost in Qin Shi Huang's purge and again two millennia later during the Cultural Revolution, today it is enjoying a renaissance. Traditional Chinese music focuses on tone rather than melody and the scale is pentatonic, which is believed to be symbolic of the five elements of earth, fire, metal, water and wood. Instruments are divided into eight categories according to the material they are made from: bamboo, clay, gourd, metal, silk, skin, stone and wood. Regional varieties are based on one or more of the instrument types. Thus the south is famous for its silk strings and bamboo flutes, while the north is characterized by "blowers and drummers.” Popular traditional instruments that remain in use today include drums, the dizi (flute), erhu (silk-stringed violin), gongs, guqin (silk-stringed zither) and the pipa (silk-stringed lute).

  One of the most relaxed ways to enjoy traditional music in China is at one of the daily performances which you'll find in parks and teahouses across the country. These range from organized performances for which you must pay, to impromptu shows by the locals – the Temple of Heaven grounds in Beijing and Hangzhou's lakeside parks are good places to try. Temples are often filled with the sound of gongs and chanting and are another place where you'll come across traditional music.

  
  

  Opera

  Although opera has a lengthy imperial history in China, it has long been enjoyed by the masses, unlike in the West,  and several different regional styles have developed, of which Beijing Opera is by far the best-known. Other famous styles include Cantonese and Szechuanese, the latter renowned for its deft mask changing. Stories generally focus on traditional tales such as the Outlaws of the Marsh and are designed to be easily understood as much through the over-emphasized actions of players as the words themselves – indicative of the fact that performances were played out in noisy teahouses and theaters. Traditionally, all roles were played by men and actors playing female characters had to wear special supports to make it appear as if they had bound feet – it took a year just to learn how to walk on these! The make-up is a work of art in itself and each actor spends hours perfecting it before the start of a performance. There are also some things you should watch out for in the characters' make-up – black represents loyalty, white is generally used for baddies, red for heroes, yellow for indecisive characters and a metallic sheen is given to those who have supernatural qualities.

  
  

  

   

  Characters in the Beijing Opera

   

   

  In the 20th century, film and then television brought opera to an even wider audience. Indeed, Beijing opera's history is closely intertwined with acrobatics and martial arts and some of China's biggest movie stars, like Jackie Chan, started their careers with traditional operatic training. Although the onset of modernity in China has detracted somewhat from interest in opera, it still features heavily on TV and radio and is hugely popular with the older generation.

  If you're in the capital, it's easy enough to catch a tourist opera show, shortened to a more convenient 90 minutes and sometimes hilariously subtitled (see Beijing). Some performances are also held at tourist sites, such as the Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou and these are worth attending for the surroundings as well as the show itself. But for more authenticity, visit a training school or seek out an original production, even if you don't stay for the whole thing. Many people find an hour and a half more than enough though. While the costumes are spectacular and the acrobatics astounding, the shrill pitch of the singing can be overwhelming. It is generally worth arriving at the theater a little before the performance as you may get the opportunity to see the performers preparing. Tickets for tourist performances cost in the region of $40-400/US$5-50 and can be bought at larger hotels, travel agencies and the venues themselves. Local performances are a different story and cost a fraction of those prices for a much longer show.

  
  

  Protest Music

  Not so long ago Chinese music was confined to Beijing Opera, revolutionary songs and party anthems (no, not that kind of party anthem, the Communist one …). In the late 70s when things started opening up, Taiwanese and Hong Kong tunes began to make their way to the mainland and they were accompanied by a trickle of foreign music tapes from returning exchange students and foreigners working in China. Little by little a new kind of music began to emerge, heavily influenced by the smuggled tapes and, all of a sudden, underground protest rock emerged. Cui Jian was a trumpeter who'd trained as a classical musician and joined the Beijing Symphony Orchestra, but was strongly influenced by Taiwanese Deng Lijun's (aka Teresa Teng) tunes and he diverted his attentions, formed a band and is now known as the Godfather of Chinese Rock. Cui's early songs were ostensibly about love but became anthems of democracy and his lyrics and tone have angered authorities more than once. Cui and a collection of other early pioneers opened the door for popular music in China and, while these days Canto-pop and Mando-pop tunes feed the masses, Beijing has continued its rock tradition and remains the best place in the country to see locally grown live music, in spite of its seemingly few venues. Beijing rock bands to look out for include the long-running, long-haired Cold Blooded Animal and neo-folk rock legends Second Hand Rose. Where? Bar and Yugong Yishan (see Beijing) are good venues to try, but check out that's Beijing or City Weekend for upcoming gigs.

  
  

  Canto-Pop & Mando-Pop

  Canto-pop is characterized by catchy tunes and romantic lyrics and, along with Taiwanese and Western pop, has heavily influenced modern mainstream Chinese music to produce mainland Mando-pop. Some of the biggest names in Chinese pop today are Aaron Kwok, Faye Wong and the multi-talented Andy Lau.

  Acrobatics

  Acrobatics have a long history in China, strongly tied to both Beijing Opera and martial arts, and even in today's cyber-struck age they never fail to confound. Students begin training as early as five to be supple, skillful and strong enough to perform the stunts you'll see and I always leave the show feeling distinctly inflexible! Shows usually involve a range of acts, including balancers, contortionists, jugglers, formation troupes and magicians, the latter of which tend to be the only weak link. Modern times have also led to modern stunts and you might also find motorcycle walls (and wheels) of death! There are regular tourist shows featuring famous troupes in Beijing and Shanghai).

   

  Martial Arts

  History & Heritage

  Kung fu (gong fu or wushu) and tai chi came to the world from China and can be traced back thousands of years. Methods of fighting were detailed during the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 BC) and Taoist monks are thought to have practiced an art similar to tai chi around 500 BC. However, to understand the roots of modern kung fu we must move a little forward. Legend has it that an Indian monk by the name of Bodhidharma (known in Chinese as Damo) arrived at Shaolin monastery in the fifth or sixth century with the intention of introducing dhyana Buddhism (chan in China, and zen in Japan and the West; see Religion & Philosophy). However, his efforts were hindered due to the poor physical condition of the monks and so he instituted a series of physical exercises to counter the long hours spent poring over texts and meditating. These exercises then developed into forms of defense in response to attacks on monasteries. Later martial arts came in dramatic form through a fusion with acrobatics and Beijing opera. However, the Cultural Revolution took its toll and instructors were driven from the country. Salvation came through movies, which were initially only popular within China, but subsequently brought kung fu to the world's attention in the shape of Bruce Lee, who paved the way for modern martial arts movie stars.

  Styles

  Although there are hundreds of styles, Chinese martial arts can generally be categorized into two broad forms, which tie in with the Taoist concept of yin and yang (see Taoism). There are hard, or external, forms that focus on yang, or male, aspects and involve speed, muscular strength and aggression; and soft, or internal, styles that correspond to the yin (female) and stress the movement of qi (energy) to overcome opponents. The line between hard and soft is not always clear, something which is evident in the dichotomy within two of the most influential styles: shaolinquan (Shaolin Fist) from the Buddhist monastery in Henan is a hard form, which nevertheless utilizes the soft art of qigong (breath control); while wudangquan (you guessed it, Wudang Fist), a soft style from the Taoist retreats of Hubei, contains elements of external forms and is famous for its sword play. What is certain is that to attain the true skills of either an internal or external form, incredible physical and mental conditioning is required, whether achieved through painful exercises such as repeatedly striking wood and brick, or by intense meditation and breathing techniques.

  
  

  Tai Chi

  Taijiquan (Great Eternal Fist) takes its name from the taiji, the Taoist yinyang symbol, and is the world's most popular martial art (although its gentle, graceful style runs contrary to many people's perception of the term "martial art”). It is an internal form that uses slow, cyclical movements to promote energy flow, circulation and a sense of well being. Traditionally practiced by older Chinese, tai chi is becoming increasingly popular in the West. It is probably the easiest martial art to engage in, even on a short trip, as you can see it every morning in almost any park in China. You can simply watch, but you'll frequently find yourself being invited to participate! Even if you don't manage to master the moves, you'll have had a truly Chinese experience and had a little exercise at the same time.

  
  

  Studying Martial Arts

  Many foreigners come to China to study martial arts and the most famous center is Shaolin, although the commercialization and plethora of copycat schools at the "home of kung fu” can come as something of a disappointment. Wudang Shan makes for a more low-key, but equally historic alternative, but if you're serious about study, knowing which style you wish to learn will help you decide where to go. You can arrange private or group instruction, whether for a few hours or a few months, in many of the places covered in this book. Yangshuo makes for a particularly accessible and attractive place to study. Obviously, having an English-speaking teacher makes learning easier, but, as instruction tends to be quite demonstrative, this isn't as much of a problem as you might think. For more information about long-term study in China check www.educasian.com and www.shaolins.com.

  Film

  Chow Yun Fat is said to be one of the most recognizable movie stars in the world simply because of his importance to the billion-strong Chinese cinema audience and this gives some insight into the scale and scope of movies in modern China. Movie-making in China has a checkered history and one that reflects and often portrays the events of the time. From early on, China's political situation dictated that production was split into three geographical areas and mainland China, Hong Kong (see Kung Fu Flicks) and Taiwan have all developed along their own lines.

  
  

  The Beginnings

  Film in China saw a promising start in Shanghai, though during the early years Beijing Opera was the focus of almost all movies. In the 1920s American expertise was called upon and overseas influences continued to play a part in Chinese film production until the Japanese invasion. In the 1930s Shanghai studios such as the Mingxing and Lianhua produced a string of silent, often anti-Imperialist movies like Spring Silk Worm (1933) and The Goddess (1934), which saw the rise to fame of  China's first movie stars, notably the glamorous Ruan Lingyu. In 1942 Japanese occupation put an end to the Shanghai studios, which pushed production into the nationalist and Communist regions inland, as well as to Hong Kong. Once the Japanese had left in 1945 production started up again and Spring River Flows East (1947), which highlighted the suffering of the masses while the elites luxuriated in their wealth, became one of the most popular movies of this period.

  
  

  Repression under Communism

  Unfortunately, as soon as production re-started in earnest, movies became heavily censored during the early years of communism. The party began to harness the potential of film as a propaganda medium. Students were sent to be trained in movie-making in Moscow, and the Beijing Film Academy was opened in 1956. While America was enjoying a golden era of the big screen, most Chinese movies of the time were jingoistic stories promoting the glory of communism. Despite the storylines, it was this time that really saw the Chinese start going to the movies. But as time went on, the Communist government further tightened its reins and the Cultural Revolution (see History) saw Chinese moviemaking at an all-time low

  
  

  The Fifth Generation

  In the 1980s things finally opened up with the Fifth Generation of film-makers, so-called for the number of generations since the 1949 Revolution. Chen Kaige is seen as having started the ball rolling with his 1984 film Yellow Earth, which painted a beautiful but bleak picture of the futility of Communist ideology, quickly provoking controversy with the government. Zhang Yimou, who worked the camera on Yellow Earth, soon followed with his own movie, Red Sorghum, in 1986. The "revolutionary” sentiments of this movie went some way to appeasing officialdom and he went on to score more successes, including Judou (1990) and Raise the Red Lantern (1991), both of which star the exquisite Gong Li. Most recently, Zhang has made a foray into the kung fu scene with Hero (see Kung Fu Flicks, below) and The House of Flying Daggers (2004), and he has been busy on other projects. Gong Li also features in another of Chen Kaige's movies, Farewell My Concubine (1993), considered to be his finest work. The story is again indicative of the troubles of the time, told through the lives of two Beijing Opera performers, and its tragic ending wasn't well received by the authorities.

  
  

  The Sixth Generation

  The Tian'anmen Square crackdown sent ripples in all directions and film was not excluded. Many Fifth Generation movies had been critically acclaimed overseas and in the mid-1990s this group seemed to shift their focus to foreign audiences. Today the cutting edge of film in China rests with a new breed of gritty, urban underground directors, loosely labeled the Sixth Generation. Movies like Zhang Yuan's Beijing Bastards (1993), which stars China's undisputed king of rock, Cui Jian, and Wang Xiaoshuai's Beijing Bicycle (2001), have a nervy realness to them, and depict the city as they see it, warts and all. Obviously, this generation of directors has fared even worse than their predecessors with the government and sadly many of these telling tales cannot be seen in mainland movie theaters.

  
  

  Hong Kong & Taiwan

  Hong Kong has principally focused on martial arts movies, but has also produced outstanding directors such as Wong Kar-wai, who was actually born in Shanghai, and is responsible for the urban love classic Chungking Express (1994). Taiwan's movie industry first developed under the Japanese and then passed through a number of phases, from early escapism through to the growing pains of the island's rapid industrial development. Although the Taiwanese film industry has suffered from the increasing popularity of Hollywood movies, the island has produced the Chinese world's most famous director, Ang Lee, whose epic Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) received worldwide acclaim. He has subsequently successfully shifted from Eastern to Western, with his Oscar-winning film, Brokeback Mountain (2005).

  
  

  Kung Fu Flicks

  While they are often disregarded by serious critics, martial arts movies have been important in the development of China's movie industry and are the only genre to have successfully bridged the gap between East and West. Although modern Hollywood action blockbusters differ greatly from Chinese movies of old, many of their fight scenes are fresh from a kung fu flick.

  
  

  Early Years

  The Chinese had been making martial arts movies for decades before they reached the West. Hong Kong can be called the home of kung fu flicks and is still the third-biggest movie-producing region in the world after Hollywood and Bollywood. Many early movies focused on the legendary 19th-century master, Wong Fei-Hung, renowned for his sense of fair play. At this time storylines tended to be fairly formulaic and the heroes often did what their audiences were afraid to do – standing up for themselves and what they believed, in the face of tyrannical authority or the criminal underworld.

  Although these early films were popular within China, the first kung fu movies to make it onto the world stage were led by Bruce Lee.

   

  

   

  Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong

   

  Bruce Lee

  As the man who popularized kung fu in the West, Bruce Lee, is rightly its most famous son. Known in China as Lee Xiaolong (Little Dragon), he was born in the US in1940 but soon moved to Hong Kong. Although he had already appeared on screen by the tender age of five, Bruce didn't start learning kung fu under the wing-chun master, Yip Man, until he was 13 years old. A year later he took up cha cha dancing and won a Hong Kong competition in 1958. Aged 19, he returned to the States and in 1961 enrolled to study philosophy at the University of Washington. During this time he began teaching kung fu to fellow students, opened the Jun Fan Kung Fu Institute and met his future wife, Linda Emery. He was talent-spotted to win the role of Kato in the 1966 TV series The Green Hornet, albeit playing second fiddle to Van Williams. However, in spite of a few other bit parts, Bruce was unable to make a mark on audiences who weren't ready for an Asian movie star. After returning to Hong Kong in 1971, Golden Harvest's Raymond Chow offered him the starring role in The Big Boss, shot in Thailand, which was an instant box-office hit. He went on to star in Fist of Fury (1972), Way of the Dragon (1972) and the one that really brought the world spotlight, Hollywood-produced, Enter the Dragon (1973), although this wasn't released until after his death. An incomplete film project, Game of Death, was pieced together posthumously and, while not as polished as other productions (and featuring a double for much of the movie), the yellow jumpsuit worn by Bruce became a trademark, paid tribute to by Uma Thurman's costume in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill (2003).

  Bruce Lee's sudden, unexpected death from a cerebral edema in July 1973 came as a shock to the movie and martial arts world. While 25,000 people attended his funeral in Hong Kong, many fans have, until recently, been disappointed at the paucity of Bruce Lee memorials or sights in the city. This has been remedied of late with a statue unveiled on the Avenue of Stars (see Hong Kong).There continues to be speculation as to how he died and the equally early and tragic death of his son, Brandon Lee, while filming the 1993 movie The Crow, has only intensified this. What is certain is that during his short, explosive life Bruce Lee helped the arts of the East come to the West and his movies still bring enjoyment and inspiration to enthusiasts and moviemakers around the globe.

  
  

  Comedy Kung Fu

  After his early death, a string of copycat Bruce Lee's were peddled by Golden Harvest, but they failed to fill the void. Rather than try and imitate him a new group of stars chose to differentiate themselves by moving the genre into comedy. Of this group, Jackie Chan (aka Chen Long, meaning Dragon Chen) is the only one to have seriously broken onto the world scene. Like Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan initially had difficulty making it in Hollywood and it wasn't until he starred in Rumble in the Bronx (1995) that he found fame worldwide. Drawing inspiration from the likes of Buster Keaton and Harold Lloyd, Chen Long has combined his incredible kung fu ability with slapstick comedy to produce a string of mainstream hits, including Rush Hour (1998) and Shanghai Noon (2000). The development of kung fu comedy has continued with recent movies like Stephen Chow's Shaolin Soccer (2001) and Kung Fu Hustle (2004).

  
  

  Hollywood Action, Hong Kong Kung Fu

  Comedy aside, Hollywood has been strongly influenced by kung fu and martial arts are an almost obligatory part of modern action movies, often served with some direct Chinese input. John Woo's oblique camera angles and intense action scenes in movies like Face Off (1997) and Mission Impossible II (2000) have helped push him to the forefront of this international genre, while Yuen Woo-Ping is famous for his fight scene choreography, and made his name in the West with the Wachowski Brothers' Matrix trilogy (1999-2003), and more recently in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill two-parter (2003-4). Yuen Woo-Ping also played his part in Taiwanese Ang Lee's martial arts epic Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), which won four Oscars, and is widely regarded as the film that put China on the world movie map. While the film was criticized within China for pandering to the needs of Western audiences, it has undoubtedly ignited mainstream interest in the beauty of China's scenery and culture.

  Traditional Chinese Medicine

  Long scorned in the West as a mystical load of Oriental mumbo jumbo, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and healing are now enjoying popularity around the globe – a fact recognized by the WHO's acceptance of TCM (for certain ailments). However, it is also recognized that Western medicine is more effective for certain severe conditions, especially those requiring surgery, and many Chinese today use a combination of the two.

  Intrinsically linked to the concept of qi, an energy force that moves along meridians around the body, TCM is based on attempting to balance the ever-shifting opposites of the human system. There are perceived to be five basic elements to the body (blood, energy, essence, moisture and spirit) and any misalignment of these or within the organs of the body is thought to engender poor health. Diagnosis often seems simplistic (checking the pulse by hand and examining the tongue are the usual first steps), but is aimed at identifying the imbalances that have lead to the illness. Thus, treatment is based on measures to counteract these differences, and offers a more holistic approach to health than Western medicine, which generally just treats the symptoms. TCM treatment comes in two principal forms, acupuncture (and acupressure/massage/reflexology) and herbal remedies. Massage is the most commonly utilized form of treatment and you will find establishments in every town across the country. Tuina (meaning push and grasp) is the official term for medicinal massage, while anmo is a more general term that also includes massage for pleasure rather than health benefits. Some methods of TCM treatment involve the use of both pressure and herbal remedies – moxibustion or hot-cupping uses heated bamboo or glass cups infused with herbs to draw qi to the required part of the body, but note that it will leave you covered in large reddish circular marks for a few days afterwards!

   

  

   

  A TCM stall

   

  TCM in Practice

  In most Chinese towns you'll find TCM doctors alongside Western practices and most hospitals have TCM wings, indeed some are completely devoted to traditional medicine. But if you don't want to traipse all the way to a hospital just for a massage you'll find TCM and reflexology establishments dotted around the cities (see the Health & Relaxation sections in the individual chapters for listings). Reflexology or massage usually costs between $30 and $60 an hour (or as much as $300 an hour in upmarket hotels or spas) and will make you lighter on your feet for days! If you have a serious aliment that you'd like to try and treat with TCM, it's best to go to an English speaking doctor, or take a translator along with you.

  
  

  The Downside

  In spite of its natural remedies and holistic approach, Chinese traditional medicine has one serious downside for animal-loving Westerners: its beliefs about the medicinal values and use of (sometimes endangered) species body parts – from rhino horn and tiger penis for boosting male virility, to bear bile for improving cardiac condition. Animals are often kept in harsh conditions to render these body parts or fluids, or huge sums are paid for them to be poached from other countries. While animal rights groups are doing their best to substitute equally efficacious alternatives for body parts and there are TCM clinics that don't use such products, demand is still high. Although there are occasional crackdowns, as long as these health benefits are seen to be true and people have the money to pay, the trade will continue. This said, it's easy to avoid such products and, if you have a niggling medical problem that won't go away, give TCM a chance. It might just work; if not, you'll have had a genuine Chinese experience and maybe a massage as well!