Seasonings and condiments

Various products are used to enhance the taste, natural flavour or colour of food. These are usually classified as seasonings when they are added to the food while it is being prepared or especially sprinkled on afterwards to add more flavour, whereas condiments are served as accompaniments with the meal. They are often placed on the dinner table and applied by the diner, according to individual taste preference. Examples of well-known condiments include salt, black pepper, chilli pepper, horseradish sauce, hot sauce, brown sauce (e.g. HP sauce), chow-chow, achar, chutney, gherkins, ketchup, mint sauce, mustard sauce, olive oil, pickle, relish, sambal, soy sauce, Tabasco, teriyaki sauce, vinegar, wasabi and Worcestershire sauce. Ingredients such as truffles, dried fruits, alcohol, herbs and spices may also serve as condiments.

Seasonings are mixtures of natural substances (including herbs and spices) that are added to food to enhance the flavour and sometimes also to act as preservatives. There are five basic types of seasonings: saline (salt, seasoned salt and saltpetre), acid (vinegar, lemon juices), hot (black pepper, chilli pepper and other types of pepper), sweet (sugar, honey) and savoury or umami (fish sauce, soy sauce, hydrolyzed vegetable proteins, glutamate). Infused oils, flavoured with herbs and spices, are also used for seasoning. Commercial seasonings are blends of the five basic seasonings with various herbs and spices. They include “barbecue seasoning” (with celery seed, coriander, black pepper, red pepper, white pepper, paprika, salt, onion, garlic, brown sugar, cumin, and a natural smoky flavour), “Cajun seasoning” (salt and spices, including red pepper, paprika, garlic, and onion), “lemon and pepper seasoning” (with salt, black pepper, sugar, onion, citric acid, garlic, celery, lemon flavouring, and a sharp peppery taste and tart lemony flavour), “jerk seasoning” (sugar, salt and spices, including chilli pepper, allspice, thyme, onion and a strong allspice flavour), “Italian seasoning” (with basil, oregano, rosemary, sage, thyme and a pungent spicy flavour), “Chesapeake Bay-style seafood seasoning” (with celery salt, paprika and other spices, including mustard, chilli pepper, black pepper, bay leaves, cloves, allspice, ginger, mace, cardamom, cinnamon and a hot, spicy, pungent flavour), “Creole seasoning” (with salt, paprika, granulated garlic, cayenne pepper, ground black pepper, mustard, fresh lemon peel, ground bay leaf, filé powder and a salty, hot and spicy, peppery and garlic flavour), “Southwest seasoning” (with salt, paprika, chilli powder, cumin, coriander, cayenne pepper, ground black pepper, crushed red pepper, granulated garlic and a salty, spicy, chilli pepper flavour), “pizza seasoning” (with Parmesan cheese, garlic, onion, red pepper, thyme, basil, oregano and a cheesy, medium pungent, “Italian herb” flavour), “fajita seasoning” (with salt, garlic, onion, red pepper, natural lime flavour and spices, including black pepper, cumin and oregano, and a spice flavour and citrus aroma).

Seasoned salt is a mixture of salt and a diversity of powdered spices, which may include black pepper, paprika, garlic powder, onion powder, mustard, celery seeds, parsley, thyme, turmeric, marjoram and others, sometimes with cayenne pepper, asafoetida and even soup powders or meat (chicken extracts). It often contains monosodium glutamate (MSG) or soy sauce powder to give a savoury (umami) taste. Seasoned salt, often yellowish in colour, is sold in supermarkets under various brand names as seasoning salt, season salt or general purpose seasoning (e.g. the Swiss-made “Aromat”, a well-known brand name in Europe and South Africa). These products are commonly used in fish-and-chips shops and other fast food or take-away food outlets. “Chip spice” is an English seasoned salt that contains spices and tomato powder. In Australia and New Zealand, seasoned salt is known as “chicken salt” because it usually (but not always) contains chicken extracts as the second main ingredient. Celery salt is a mixture of table salt or sea salt and ground fruits (“seeds”) of celery or sometimes lovage. It is used in cocktails, hot dogs, salads, stews and as an ingredient of seasonings. Garlic salt is simply salt flavoured with one part dried garlic powder for every three parts of salt. It usually also contains an anti-caking agent such as calcium silicate. Garlic salt or ground garlic powder can be used as substitutes for fresh garlic. Sharena sol (literally “colourful salt”) is a Bulgarian table condiment comprising salt, paprika and savory (chubritsa) instead of salt and pepper. Svanuri marili (“Svanetian salt”) is a Georgian table condiment made from salt mixed with dried and powdered spices, including hot chilli peppers, garlic, coriander, dill and blue fenugreek.

Sauces are liquid or semi-liquid preparations that are added to food to improve flavour and appearance and to add moisture. Sauce-making has been developed to a fine art in France, where the sauce chef (saucier) is considered to be the solo artist in the orchestra of the kitchen. In the French tradition there are five primary types of sauces that give rise to endless variations (secondary sauces) when other ingredients are added. These are béchamel (milk-based, thickened with a white roux), espagnole (fortified brown veal stock), velouté (white stock, thickened with a roux or a liaison), hollandaise (emulsion of egg yolk, butter and lemon or vinegar) and tomate (tomato-based). Sauces may be served cold (mayonnaise, apple sauce, pistou), lukewarm (pesto) or warm (most of them). Pan sauces are obtained by deglazing a pan. Many commercial, ready-made sauces are available, including ketchup (tomato sauce) and soy sauce, or branded inventions ranging from classics such as HP sauce and Worcestershire sauce to modern derivatives, such as Japanese okonomiyaki, tonkatsu and yakisoba. Sauces made from stewed fruit (apple sauce, cranberry sauce) are often eaten with meat dishes (pork, poultry) or served as desserts. Traditional British sauces include “gravy” (eaten with roasts), spiced “bread sauce”, apple sauce, mint sauce, horseradish sauce, English mustard and custard (on desserts). Ketchup, brown sauce (e.g. HP sauce) and Worcestershire sauce are commercial inventions that have found their way to the USA, Australia, South Africa and many other parts of the world.

Italian sauces are many and varied – some are used with meat and vegetable dishes (e.g. bagna càuda, gremolata and salsa verde) or with pizza (e.g. carbonara, pesto and ragù alla Bolognese). Famous dessert sauces are crema pasticcera, crema al mascarpone and zabajobe. Japanese sauces are mostly based on shōyu or soy sauce (e.g. ponzu, yakitori) or miso (e.g. amamiso, gomamiso). Wasabi or wasabi-joyo is used with sushi and sashimi. Examples of Chinese sauces include chilli sauces, douban jiang, hoisin sauce, oyster sauce, sweet bean sauce and sweet-and-sour sauce. Thai and Vietnamese fish sauces are made from fermented fish. Indian, Pakistani and other South Asian sauces are based on chilli peppers, tomatoes, tamarind, coconut milk and chutneys. Spanish salsa, such as pico de gallo, salsa verde and salsa roja are made from tomatoes, onions and spices. Mexican moles usually include chilli peppers and sometimes chocolate.

Green sauce is a term used for various sauces made from green herbs as the main ingredients. Grüne Soße (Green Sauce) is a German speciality mainly associated with the cities of Frankfurt am Main and Kassel and is made with a fixed combination of seven different fresh herbs (borage, chervil, chives, cress, parsley, salad burnet and sorrel) mixed with oil, hard-boiled egg yolks, vinegar, sour cream and white pepper. It is served cold with young potatoes, meat (typically Frankfurter Schnitzel), fish or vegetables. Salsa verde in Italy refers to a cold green sauce made from chopped (nowadays blended) parsley leaves with garlic, onion, capers, anchovies, vinegar and olive oil. It is served as a condiment or dipping sauce. Mexican salsa verde is a hot or cold green sauce made with tomatillos and chilli peppers. Mint sauce is a British and Irish sauce made from chopped spearmint leaves and traditionally eaten with roast lamb. Gremolata is an Italian (Milanese) green sauce made with parsley and traditionally served with braised veal shank. Chimichurri is an Argentinian and Uruguayan sauce made from parsley or cilantro and used with roast meat. Pesto originated in Genoa (northern Italian) and is made from pounded basil, garlic, pine nuts and olive oil. The French (Provençal) pistou resembles pesto but is made without pine nuts. Pesto seems to be based on moretum, an ancient Roman herb and cheese sauce eaten with bread. The herbs were typically pounded (as is still done today when making pesto), hence the names pesto and moretum (the origin of the words “pestle” and “mortar”). Sauce verte is a French mayonnaise made with a purée of mixed herbs.

Dips or dipping sauces are liquid condiments used in all parts of the world to add flavour to various finger foods such as bread, crackers, pita bread, injera, dumplings, falafel, crudités, seafood, pieces of meat and cheese, potato chips and tortilla chips. Examples of popular dips include southern Mediterranean aioli, Tex-Mex chili con queso (a dip for tortilla chips), Indian chutney, European fondue, American “French onion dip” or “California dip”, Mexican guacamole, Levantine hummus, European and American ketchup or tomato sauce, Italian marinara sauce, European mayonnaise and mustard, Thai nam chim, Greek spiced olive oil (a dip for bread), Spanish/Mexican salsa (for tortilla chips), sour cream dip (for potato chips), East Asian soy sauce, North American spinach dip (for tortilla chips and vegetables), Thai and Vietnamese sriracha sauce (a type of hot sauce), East Asian sweet and sour sauce, European tartar(e) sauce, Japanese tentsuyu, Greek tzatziki or Turkish and Serbian tarator and Japanese wasabi sauce (for sushi and sashimi).

Pickles and preservatives were vital in the days before refrigeration became available and were important methods of preserving food, especially in hot climates. The use of salt, vinegar and other preservatives date back to ancient times. Pickles are often referred to as achar, the Hindi word for pickle. Chutney or chatney is a general term for a wide range of Indian condiments containing fruits, vegetables and spices in almost limitless combinations. Mango chutney, made from green mango fruits, is particularly popular. The word “chutney” is also used for Anglo-Indian commercial condiments containing chopped and cooked fruits and spices in vinegar. An example of a popular sweet and spicy chutney is “Major Grey’s Chutney”, made from mango, raisins, vinegar, lime juice, onion, tamarind, sugar and spices. The famous South African brand, Mrs HS Ball’s chutney (locally called blatjang, dating from 1870) is made from apricots (or peaches), sugar, water, vinegar, starch, salt and caramel colourant. Relish refers to pickled or cooked fruits or vegetables used as a condiment. These include jams, chutneys and pickles (e.g. North American “relish”, which is pickled cucumber jam). Famous British examples are “Gentleman’s relish”, a spiced anchovy paste dating from 1828 and “Branston pickle”, a British commercial pickled chutney, first made in 1922 in the Branston suburb of Burton upon Trent. “Chow-chow” or “chowchow” is an American commercial pickled relish made from a combination of vegetables. “Piccalilli” is a Western-style Indian pickle or relish made from vegetables and spices. “Sambal” is the term used for a typical Indonesian condiment, a sauce that combines chilli peppers with various other ingredients, including shrimp paste, fish sauce, garlic, ginger, onions or shallots, palm sugar, lime juice and rice vinegar.

Sauerkraut (literally “sour cabbage”) is a fermented condiment made from finely sliced cabbage. The unique flavour and texture are caused by lactic acid bacteria. Similar products include Korean kimchi or kimchee, Japanese tsukemono and Chinese suan cai. Many Chinese flavouring materials are made from pressed, fermented plants.

Essences are usually solutions of nature-identical flavour compounds in alcohol (e.g. vanilla essence is a solution of pure synthetic vanillin). Extracts, on the other hand, are complex mixtures of chemical compounds extracted from herbs or spices (through distillation, solvent extraction or critical fluid extraction). Vanilla extract, for example, is a complex mixture of many flavour ingredients. Well-known essences are made to create the flavours of almond, citrus, coffee, lemon, orange blossoms, peppermint, pineapple, raspberry, strawberry and vanilla. Less well known are kewra (pandanus essence) and maraschino essence (a sweet liquid made from marasca cherries). The fragrant water left over after oil distillation is also popular as flavourants, such as buchu water, orange-flower water and rose water.

Vinegar is the most important and widely used condiment and flavourant. It is a mixture of water and acetic acid, produced by the fermentation of the alcohol (ethanol) in wine and other alcoholic beverages by acetic acid bacteria. Vinegars often retain some of the flavours of the grapes or other fruits from which the wine was made. The most widely used vinegars are wine vinegars (made from white or red wine), balsamic vinegar (made from the must of white trebbiano grapes and aged in wooden caskets for many years) and white vinegar or “distilled vinegar” (made by the fermentation of distilled alcohol, obtained from malted corn/maize). Vinegar is also made from beer in Austria, Germany and the Netherlands, from ale in the United Kingdom (where salt and malt vinegar are the traditional seasoning for fish and chips), sugarcane juice or palm sugar in Brazil and the Philippines, coconut water in Southeast Asia, dates or raisins in the Middle East, rice in Japan and rice, wheat, millet or sorghum in China. Chinese (Cantonese) sweetened vinegar is made from rice wine, sugar, cloves, ginger, and other spices. Herb vinegars are popular in the Mediterranean region, flavoured with thyme, oregano or tarragon and easily made at home by adding a few springs of herbs to pale-coloured and mild-tasting white wine vinegar. Vinegar may also be flavoured with chilli peppers, garlic and other spices. Vinegar is not only a popular condiment but an important ingredient of marinades, pickling mixtures, vinaigrettes and other salad dressings, mustard, ketchup and mayonnaise. Vinagrete, for example, is the name given in Brazil to barbecue sauces made from vinegar and olive oil with tomatoes, onions and parsley.

Alcoholic beverages are widely used in cookery. Wine is not only an indispensable component of a good meal, but also an essential flavour ingredient in many dishes. Red wine is used in coq au vin, game ragouts, stews, marinades and cooked pears. It accompanies garlic, onions and mushrooms in thickened sauces. White wine (preferably dry and acidic) is used for cooking fish, seafood dishes and white meats. Mirin is a sweetened, viscous, sherry-like rice wine used in Japanese cooking. High-alcohol beverages such as clear spirits (aquavit, arrack, brandy, Calvados, cane spirit, gin, grappa, ouzo, rum, sake, sambuca, schnapps, slivovitz, tequila, vodka, whisky and others) are not only useful to flambé desserts but also to give extra flavour or character to a wide range of savoury and sweet dishes. Malted and fermented drinks such as stout, beer, cider, mead and palm wine all have their special functions in the kitchen. Absinth, cola, geisho, hops and quinine are examples of plant-derived flavourants associated with these beverages. Herbal extracts (e.g. Angostura bitters) and liqueurs are useful sources of flavours in sweet desserts and confectionery because they are produced from many different herbs and spices (often in complicated and closely guarded secret combinations). Examples include advocaat, coffee liqueurs (Kahlúa, Tia Maria), crème liqueurs (crème de bananes, crème de cacao, crème de cassis, crème de menthe), fruit and nut liqueurs (amaretto, cherry brandy, Cointreau, Curaçao, Frangelico, Grand Marnier, kirsch, Malibu, maraschino, parfait amour, Van der Hum), herb and spice liqueurs (anise, anisette, Benedictine, chartreuse, Galliano, goldwasser, kümmel, pastis, Pernod, sambuca, Strega) and whisky-based liqueurs such as Drambuie, Irish Mist and Southern Comfort.

Non-alcoholic beverages contain water-soluble flavour compounds. Various types of tea (made from fresh or more often fermented leaves) are used in cooking, such as black tea or chai, yerba maté, rooibos tea, hibiscus tea and honeybush tea. The process of fermentation in this case is actually an enzymatic oxidation during which phenolic compounds are modified and various flavour components are produced. Coffee, guarana, cola and cacao are not only used for their stimulant action but they are also important sources of flavour. Fruit juices, vegetable juices, soft drinks and herbal infusions of bergamot, chamomile, dandelion, elderflower, lemon balm, lemon verbena, lovage, mint, rosehip, rosemary and yarrow can all be used in the kitchen to add flavour and/or colour to dishes.

Food colourings are used to make food more attractive or to replace colours lost during preparation. Negative perceptions about the health and safety of artificial colourants are leading to an increasing range of natural food dyes. Well-known examples include alkanet (Alkanna tinctoria) for red colour, annatto for red or yellow (in butter and cheese), saffron in paella, pandan in green sauces, beetroot in Russian and Polish soups, butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) for a blue colour in Thai desserts and drinks, elderberry (Sambucus nigra) formerly in red wine, as well as marigold (Calendula officinalis) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) in Georgian cuisine. In China, there are three important colourants: red fermented rice (as powder or water extract), fragrant herb (xiang cao, which is the dried and powdered leafy shoots of fenugreek – it gives a green colour to steamed pastries) and gardenia fruits (soaked in water, they give a yellow dye). Gardenia fruits are used to colour bean curd and pea meal (used to bake the well-known bright yellow mooncake of Beijing).

Garnish is the term used for a decoration or embellishment of a dish or drink, mainly to improve the visual impact by adding colour but often also to add extra or contrasting flavours, textures, fragrances (and sometimes even taste). Garnishes are not always edible but they often are. Borage flowers, nasturtium flowers, parsley and chives are examples of traditional garnishes for dishes, while slices of lemon, citrus peels, olives and cherries go with drinks and cocktails. The use of microgreens (seedlings of edible herbs) to embellish dishes and salads has become fashionable in recent years.