Regions of origin and culinary traditions

A global view of the culinary traditions of the world, an almost impossible task, is presented below. In general, the same or similar types of dishes and ingredients are found in unrelated cultures, despite the incredible diversity of recipes and ingredients. Pungent spices for example, each with its own unique chemistry, are found everywhere, from horseradish and mustard in Europe to Melegueta pepper in Africa, black pepper in India and chilli pepper in the New World. One can trace the ancient origins of many “modern” food items such as meatballs, pizza, shawarma, salad, stew and tapas, as well as condiments (fermented sauces and vegetables, pickles and relishes) and drinks (cider, mead, wine and spirits). The discussion focuses mainly on the relatively poorly known Asian cuisines, the original home of many well-known (and poorly known) spices, with only brief mention of the main features of the more familiar Western traditions.

Africa

Indigenous herbs and spices such as ajowan, buchu, coffee, geisho, Guinea pepper, Indian borage, karkade, korarima, koseret, Melegueta pepper and tamarind are widely used in the many cooking traditions in Africa but, as in many other parts of the world, chilli peppers and other exotic spices have become popular or even dominant. Moroccan, Ethiopian and South African (Cape) cuisines are becoming more widely known and it is likely that others will follow. In North Africa, Roman, Turkish, French and Italian conquerors all contributed to the local cooking traditions. Harissa is a famous chilli-based purée (tabal) used for spicing mutton and semolina dishes, as well as highly aromatic soups (harira in Morocco, brudu in Tunisia and chorba in Algeria). Specialities include couscous with tajine or kefta followed by pastries and sweetmeats made from puff pastry, almonds, dates and honey. The extreme diversity in West African cooking ranges from bland-tasting fufu to fiery meat dishes (ragout and canari), spiced with chilli peppers (pili-pili) or Melegueta pepper, atokiko (mango stones), Guinea pepper, tamarind, soumbala (dried fruit rind), tô (millet paste) and lalo (powdered baobab leaves). Palm oil, peanuts and coconut are typical ingredients. West African traditions contributed to the Creole cookery of the West Indies. Ethiopian cuisine is the best known in East Africa. It is characterized by injera (teff bread) and various spicy dishes (e.g. shiro) in which berbere, a hot spice mixture, plays an important role. Chilli pepper has replaced black pepper but indigenous spices such as ajowan and korarima (Ethiopian cardamom) are essential ingredients. Also typical is koseret, a herb used with kifto (beef tartare). The national dish of Eritrea is zegeni (mutton with chilli pepper paste and vegetables). In southern Africa, the cooking tradition of the original San people was largely replaced by ancient and more recent immigrants, mainly Khoi, Bantu, Indian and European. Cape cookery, based on Dutch and Malay (Indonesian) traditions, is especially well known. Coriander, black pepper, nutmeg and blatjang (atjar) are essential components, but dishes are rarely very hot (except for chilli-based Indian curries). Specialities include braaivleis (barbeque), bobotie (spicy mince meat), sosaties (skewered meat) and potjiekos (slow-cooked stew in a three-legged cast iron pot), served with samp and beans, yellow rice (coloured with turmeric) or pap (white maize porridge).

North and Central Europe

There are surprisingly few spices indigenous to this region and exotic products now dominate. Notable exceptions are horseradish, the traditional pungent ingredient accompanying meat dishes, the widely used caraway fruits and juniper berries and the less well-known blue fenugreek of Georgian cookery. Culinary herbs are more diverse, and include absinth, angelica, caraway leaves, chives, garden mint, peppermint and celery, as well as a large number of species from southern Europe and the western Mediterranean that were introduced by the Romans and distributed through monastery gardens. Scandinavians use horseradish and dill with their dishes, which are based mainly on fish, pork, mutton, smoked reindeer, potatoes, beetroot, cucumber, fruit and berries, cream, cheese and butter. Spices such as cumin and cardamom feature prominently. The Russian cuisine reflects a diversity of cultures, with Ukrainian cereals, Armenian wine, Caucasian fruits and Georgian tea, enriched with dill, galangal and other herbs and spices. The British Empire left its mark on many parts of the world, not only its language but also culinary traditions such as the famous English breakfast, curry powders inspired by India and commercial sauces such as English mustard, Worcestershire sauce, brown and mint sauces as well as piccalilli (vegetable pickle) and relishes.

The Netherlands is the country of cheese, herrings, mussels, pancakes, hutspot (vegetable stew) and snert (pea soup) but the impact of the spice trade can be seen in the popularity of spices and dishes of Indonesian origin. Confectionery, sweets (e.g. drop) and liqueurs flavoured with anise, juniper, mint and other spices are particularly popular. German culinary delights are many and varied, but the most delicious are basic items such as bread, pork sausages, potato dishes, cabbage dishes (e.g. sauerkraut) and white asparagus, enjoyed with generous amounts of excellent beer, cider, wine, herbal tea (e.g. German chamomile) or bitter liqueur. Beer-brewing calls for enormous quantities of hops. In Austria, pepper, sage and juniper berries are commonly used to prepare game. Switzerland is best known for delicious items such as cheese fondue, rösti and chocolate. In Polish cuisine, mushrooms and traditional sausages are prominent, often spiced with pepper, fresh garlic and caraway seeds. Hungary is best known for its sweet (mild) paprika, used in Hungarian stew (goulash).

South Europe

The Mediterranean region is arguably the most diverse and exciting hotspot of culinary diversity, with herbs and spices that date back to Greek and Roman times. These include indigenous spices (e.g. aniseed, capers, carob, coriander, cumin, fennel, liquorice, mustard, saffron, sumac) and herbs (e.g. celery, chervil, fennel, hyssop, lavender, marjoram, myrtle, oregano, parsley, rocket, rosemary, sage, savory and thyme). Portugal has a distinctive cuisine characterized by the liberal use of fresh herbs and spices together with cabbage, rice, potato, sardines and salt cod (bacalhau). Spanish cookery has become better known in recent years through the popularity of tapas – savoury or spicy dishes presented as small open sandwiches, often with dry ham (e.g. serrano), sweet red peppers, black olives, stuffed peppers and various seafood items. Famous Spanish dishes include paella, liberally spiced with saffron. The use of chocolate and chilli peppers in cooking dates back to colonial times. Typical Spanish drinks include sangria (red wine punch) and horchata de chufa, an almond-flavoured cold drink made from crushed tiger nuts (chufa). French cuisine is so overwhelmingly and fascinatingly complicated that it is impossible to summarize it in a few words. Sauces have been developed to a fine art. Larousse (who proclaims Paris as the Mecca of gastronomy) quotes Curnonsky: “Sauces comprise the honour and glory of French cookery.” Herbs and spices are skilfully blended and often used in fixed combinations (e.g. fines herbes and quatre épices). Pepper and cloves are typical ingredients in marinades, cinnamon and nutmeg in wine sauces, saffron in bouillabaisse, aniseed and cumin in confectionery, and coriander and juniper in meat dishes. Desserts often include chocolate, vanilla, cream and processed fruits. Provençal cooking (the culinary tradition of Provence) is characterized by a predominance of olive oil, tomato and garlic, with herbes de Provence (thyme, rosemary, bay, basil, savory, and nowadays also lavender). Italian food has become part of the global village, as seen in the popularity of pizza, pasta and risotto, together with salami and Parma ham, Parmesan and Gorgonzola, not to mention Italian ice cream. Pasta and rice dishes are particularly interesting and varied. Garlic, tomatoes, mozzarella cheese, truffles and saffron often feature prominently. Popular herbs include basil, thyme, sage, oregano, rosemary and parsley. Pesto is a famous Genoese sauce made with pounded fresh basil, parsley and marjoram. Greek cuisine shows many regional variations but common features include the use of fish and mutton with Mediterranean vegetables and the liberal use of herbs, lemon juice and olive oil. An Eastern influence is noticeable in the eating of meze or small appetizers, enjoyed with ouzo. Fish is often prepared with herbs such as fennel, anise or coriander (cilantro). Feta is the best-known of the many Greek cheeses which, together with lettuce, onions, herbs and ripe olives, make a Greek salad. Turkish cuisine was inspired by both European and Eastern traditions and has influenced the cooking traditions of many countries in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as Greece and Russia. Turkish specialities include pilaf rice, lamb kebab, meze, stuffed aubergines, dried figs, coffee and patisserie (e.g. halva, baklava and Turkish delight), sometimes flavoured with rose water or orange-flower water.

Middle East

Many of the best-known spices and herbs had their origins in the Middle East, which is often referred to as the Cradle of Agriculture and the Cradle of Civilization. There is indeed a golden thread of cultural continuity that links modern dishes such as Italian pizza, French ragout and Spanish tapas to ancient Mesopotamian dishes such as Babylonian flatbread, Persian khoresh and meze, respectively. Middle Eastern cuisines are based on local ingredients such as olives, chickpeas, dates, honey, dried limes, pitas, pomegranate, saffron, sesame seeds, sumac, parsley, mint, thyme and za’atar, However, it has been influenced by African okra, Mongolian dumplings, New World tomatoes, as well as Indian and East Indian spices (black pepper, cloves, cumin, garlic, turmeric).

Mesopotamian and Iraqi cuisine has a long history dating back 10 000 years with influences from neighbouring countries such as Iran, Syria and Turkey. Meals are started with appetizers and salads, known as mezza. It is the region of origin of kebabs (grilled meat, marinated in garlic, lemon and spices), falafel (fried chickpea patties served in a pita with salad and spicy sauces or pickles) and stuffed vegetable dishes such as dolma and mahshi. Other typical dishes include gauss (a wrap of grilled meat similar to döner kebab), and various lamb and rice dishes. Tahini is a popular paste made from hulled and roasted sesame seeds. The culinary traditions of Persia are equally diverse and ancient. Iranian stew (khoresh or khoresht) comes in many different variations but is often made with lamb and liberal amounts of saffron and other spices. Vegetarian koreshts are not uncommon and may comprise almost entirely of herbs, such as khoresht-e gormeh sabzi. A plate of fresh herbs, called sabzi khordan (made with ingredients such as basil, cilantro, cress, fennel, fenugreek, peppermint, radishes, za’atar, savory, tarragon and Welsh onion) is an essential accompaniment to lunch and dinner. Levantine cuisine represents the culinary traditions of the Levant, which includes modern-day Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, parts of southern Turkey and northern Iraq. Aleppo was the main cultural and commercial centre during the days of the spice trade. Essential components of Syrian cooking include baharat or Aleppo seven-spice mixture, roasted red pepper paste and pomegranate molasses. Mezzas often include baba ghanoush (a dip or paste made from aubergines and spices with a smoky flavour) and hummus (chickpea and sesame paste). Syrian muhammara is a spicy red bell pepper and walnut dip made with pomegranate molasses. Tabbouleh usually accompanies the meze. It is a type of salad with finely chopped parsley, mint, baby lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, onion and garlic, mixed with bulgur (wheat groats) or couscous and seasoned with olive oil, lemon juice and salt. The shawarma, now an international fast food, is another Levantine invention, as are kibbeh, meatballs made from mince meat, chopped onions and bulgur. Israeli dishes today often include chilli-based hot sauces introduced by immigrant Jews, such as skhug from the Yemen, harissa from Tunisia and filfel chuma from Libya. Amba is a mango pickle from Iraqi and Indian origin. These sauces may be blended with hummus and tahini and served with appetizers, stews, grilled meats, egg dishes, sandwiches and falafels.

East Asia

East Asian cuisine includes mainly the Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditions, which are all ultimately derived from or inspired by China. Chinese cooking has also greatly influenced the cooking of Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and even America. East Asian cuisine and its influence can most easily be identified by the use of chopsticks as eating utensils and the preparation of food into bite-sized pieces. Other give-aways are the prominence of rice as the staple food, the liberal use of fermented soy and fish sauces during cooking as well as eating, and the popularity of tea (in many variations, but mainly green or black) as an everyday drink.

The interactions of Chinese traditions with regional and local indigenous customs in Asia over thousands of years have created a marvellously complicated culinary system in which the principles of yin and yang (opposites that balance each other) feature prominently. This does not only apply to the dishes themselves, but also to the different courses of a meal. There is often a combination (or succession) of hot and cold, spicy and mild, crispy and soft, pickled and fresh, sour and sweet, dark and light-coloured and so on. (This I learnt from a memorable evening of fine dining with the late Lannice Snyman in a Chinese restaurant in Singapore in 1998, when the first edition of her best-selling book, Rainbow Cuisine, was being printed). Peking duck for example, is typically served as two courses, first the dark, crispy skin and then the pale, soft meat. Food is judged by four criteria, matching the four main senses used in eating: colour (visual), aroma (olfactory), texture (tactile) and taste (gustatory). Chinese cuisine is also characterized by an extreme diversity of ingredients and dishes (almost anything is eaten), techniques of preservation (salting, drying, fermenting and pickling), as well as cooking techniques (boiling, braising, smoking, stewing, baking, steaming and stir-frying) and regional eating styles.

The most famous Chinese spice is “five-spice powder” or “five-spices powder” (wu xiang fen), made from star anise, fennel fruits, cassia bark, cloves and Sichuan pepper. There are many variations but star anise is always a key ingredient. Less well-known spice mixtures commonly used in China (see Spice mixtures ) include “spice liquid” (lu shui), “major spices” (da liao), “fish spices” (yu xiang) and “hot peanut sauce” (sha cha jiang).

There are eight major culinary traditions in China, namely Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan and Zhejiang. Cantonese cooking is known for dim sum (small hearty dishes) such as dumpling, soups, lotus leaf rice and stir-fried vegetables. Cantonese cuisine has spread to many parts of the world, where countless versions of chow mein (“fried noodles”) and chop suey (“assorted pieces”, stir-fried meat and vegetables) have been popularized. Also well known is Cantonese “sweet and sour pork”, originally a Jiangsu dish called “pork in a sugar and vinegar sauce”. In the same way, numerous versions of Mongolian hotpot have become popular within China and other parts of Asia. The Sichuan style (from southwestern China) is known for hot and spicy dishes, resulting from the liberal use of strong flavours, including Sichuan pepper or hua jiao (Zanthoxylum piperitum), ginger, garlic and “facing heaven pepper” (chao tian jiao), which accurately describes the erect fruits of Capsicum frutescens (as opposed to the down-facing fruits of all other species). Examples of the more than 4 000 dishes of Hunan cuisine (many of them hot and spicy) include fried chicken with Sichuan pepper sauce and smoked pork with dried long green beans. A few more examples of regional delicacies include bamboo shoots and mushrooms (Anhui, Fujian and Zhejiang), sweet and sour carp and braised abalone (Shandong) and Nanjing’s Jinling salted dried duck (one of many dishes of Jiangsu cuisine).

Other features of Chinese cuisine include Chinese noodles, made from rice flour or wheat flour, tofu (“soy cheese”) and fermented tofu (often smelly, not unlike blue cheeses), numerous indigenous vegetables (bok choy, gai lan, mustard greens – too many to list), rice vinegar, oyster sauce, bean-based sauces (hoisin sauce, peanut sauce, yellow bean sauce) and prawn crackers as a popular snack. Finally, there is an astounding diversity of tea types, as an integral part of the culinary tradition: green, oolong, black, scented, white or compressed, each with numerous different variations.

Japanese cuisine is characterized by an appreciation and respect for the individual tastes of food items and the seasonality (shun) of the ingredients. Despite its simplicity, it has developed into a complex system of culinary traditions and techniques based on many different and sometimes unique ingredients. In the Western world, Japanese food is strongly associated with sushi – bite-sized food items in countless variations, created from vinegared sticky rice (sushi-meshi) and some savoury ingredient or filling (neta), which may or may not include raw fish, and usually wrapped in a sheet of nori (edible seaweed). Sushi is often confused with sashimi (raw fish), which is eaten with various condiments and dips, such as soy sauce and wasabi. The traditional Japanese meal comprises steamed white rice and miso soup, with side dishes of fish, pickles (tsukemono) and vegetables.

The taste of individual food items is appreciated and great care is taken to keep them apart. Spices and condiments (yakumi) are therefore used rather infrequently, and for very specific purposes (e.g. to remove an unwanted smell during cooking). Spices and herbs are most often added to the dish as a garnish (or served on the side). These may include grated ginger or daikon radish, wasabi, mitsuba (Cryptotaenia japonica) or shiso leaves (Perilla frutescens) and nori (edible seaweed). Food is generally flavoured only with dashi, soy sauce, mirin, vinegar, sugar and salt. Mirin is a strongly flavoured type of sweet rice wine, not unlike sherry. It is one of the most popular condiments in Japanese cuisine. The best-known spice is shichimi togarashi (“seven flavour chilli pepper”) or simply shichimi, which is a mixture of ground chilli pepper with smaller amounts of ground sansho (Zanthoxylum piperitum), roasted orange peel, black sesame seed, white sesame seed, hemp seed, ground ginger and nori seaweed. It may also include poppy seed, rape seed, shiso or yuzu peel. Yuzu is a hybrid between mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and the Ichang papeda (C. ichangensis). On its own, chilli powder is called ichimi togarashi (“one flavour chilli pepper”) or simply ichimi.

Miso soup is a Japanese culinary staple made from dashi and miso. Dashi is a fish stock (broth) made from kombu (a type of edible kelp) and kezurikatsuo (preserved and fermented shavings of skipjack tuna, sometimes substituted by young bonito). The fish is rich in sodium inosinate and contributes umami flavour. Miso is a traditional Japanese seasoning paste made from fermented soybeans (sometimes with rice or barley added). Fish is often served raw as sashimi or as sushi. Seafood and vegetables may be in the form of tempura – deep-fried in a light batter. Soba noodles (made from buckwheat) and udon noodles (made from wheat flour) are usually eaten alone and not as part of a meal. Another common dish (especially in winter) is oden, made from various ingredients stewed in dashi broth. The ingredients may include fish cakes, hard-boiled eggs, daikon radish, tofu and yam cake (konnyaku), made from the root of the konjac plant (Amorphophallus konjac). Beef sukiyaki has become a favourite, named after the sukiyaki method of soaking beef in a marinade (sukiyaki sauce) and then regularly basting the meat with the sauce while it is grilled. In recent years, Chinese ramen (noodle soup) and fried dumplings have become popular, as well as Western-style hamburgers (but often adapted to local taste preferences).

Korean cuisine resembles those of China and Japan but with important differences. Food is eaten with stainless steel chopsticks, oval in transverse section. Rice and soup are eaten with a long-handled, shallow spoon (the rice or soup bowl is never lifted and brought to the mouth as in China and Japan). The staple food comprises rice, vegetables and especially meats, for which Korea has become well known. Beef, chicken and pork are highly prized food items, as are kimchi or kimchee (fermented napa cabbage), which is served at almost every meal. Seafood, soups, stews and noodles also feature prominently amongst the hundreds of traditional Korean dishes. Rice (historically, millet, barley and other cereals were the main staple foods) is not only eaten as a bowl of steamed rice but is ground to flour to make countless variants of rice cakes (tteok), as well as numerous other dishes (not to mention rice wines and rice vinegars). Sesame oil plays an important role. Soybeans are used for a wide variety of purposes, including the production of soybean pastes used as condiments and collectively known as jang. Doenjang (fermented soybean paste) and its more pungent version called cheonggukjang are widely used. The local version of soy sauce is called ganjang. Gochujang is a special spicy paste, made from red chilli powder, glutinous rice powder, fermented soybean powder and salt. Mung beans and adzuki beans are used in many different ways – as sprouts, porridge, pancakes, noodles, additives for soups and stews, as well as the jelly-like food item known as muk. Spices include garlic, ginger, chilli pepper, black pepper, sansho pepper and mustard. Onions, leeks, scallions and perilla leaves are also popular. Seasonings include saeujeot, made from salted baby shrimps. Korea has numerous regional cuisines and a vibrant, dynamic street food culture.

South Asia

The cuisines of India and those of its close neighbours such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh represent an astounding mosaic of regional traditions, based not only on many interesting local food ingredients and spices, but also on religious and cultural principles. These include vegetarianism, an ancient but now increasingly popular trend (not only in India but also in many other parts of the world) and the Hindu taboo on eating beef. Food is eaten by hand. The staple food is often roti, the typical Indian bread made from atta (stoneground wholewheat flour), used alongside rice. This age-old cuisine has been strongly influenced by colonialism and cultural exchanges with other societies, especially the introduction of New World chilli peppers and potatoes by the Portuguese and the modern-day concept of curry by the British. India’s contribution to the spice trade and the wealth it created in Europe can easily be underestimated but its far-reaching impact on the use of spices in all modern-day Western food cultures can hardly be overlooked. Especially prominent are the ancient influence seen in Southeast Asian cuisines and the more recent influence on the British and Caribbean food cultures. In a speech on British identity in 2001, the British foreign secretary proclaimed that chicken tikka masala is a “true British” national dish! Chilli pepper (mirch) has become a feature of the stereotype concept of Indian cuisine, but spices such as asafoetida (hing), coriander (dhania), cumin (jeera), black pepper (kali mirch), fenugreek (methi), ginger (adrak), turmeric (haldi), cardamom (elaichi), curry leaves (karipata), cinnamon (dalchini) and mustard seeds (sarso) are equally typical and highly characteristic. Garam masala, goda masala and sambar podi are among the best known and most widely used spice mixtures (see Spice mixtures ). Curry leaf is especially important in Gujarati, South Indian and Sri Lankan cuisines. Rose water, cardamom, saffron and nutmeg are widely used to flavour sweet dishes and desserts. Pickles (achar), often made from green mangoes, and various forms of chutney (made from different fruits and herbs) are widely used as condiments. The astounding regional diversity includes spicy and searing hot Bengali dishes, vegetarian Gujarati food (with roti, rice and vegetables), intensely flavoured seafood with a frequent use of coconut and kokum in Goa, vegetables and dhals with kalonji (nigella) in Odisha, tandoori food from the Punjab (especially tandoori chicken, naan bread and masalas rich in onion, garlic and ginger) and finally South Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil food, with rice and lentils, curry leaves, tamarind, chutneys and sambar. The word “curry” is derived from the Tamil kari (meaning “sauce”). Pakistani dishes reflect the cultural diversity of the country and the influence of Muslim culinary traditions, especially halal. Commonly used spices include coriander fruit powder, cumin, chilli powder, cardamom (both green and brown), cinnamon, cloves, bay leaves, nutmeg, mace and black pepper. Garam masala is used in many dishes. Meat (especially goat, lamb and chicken) is much more popular in Pakistan than in India and is used to make everyday food items such as korma (a type of spicy curry), aloo gosht (spiced meat and potato stew) and especially kebabs, in countless variations. Food in Bangladesh is typically very hot and spicy and closely resembles Indian food. A popular spice mixture, called panch phoron, is usually composed of radhuni (Trachyspermum roxburghianum), jeera (cumin), kalo jira (nigella), methi (fenugreek) and mouri (anise).

Southeast Asia

The cuisines of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines) represent a blend of culinary influences from India and China, integrated into the already diverse local food customs. Distinctive features of this region include the abundance of exotic tropical fruits, the diversity of culinary herbs and spices that are used, the importance of rice as a staple food and the common use of a fork and spoon as eating utensils. The fork, held in the left hand, is used to push food onto the spoon held in the right hand.

Thai food is aromatic, spicy and complex, prepared with a balance between sweet, sour, bitter and salty. The staple food is jasmine rice or sticky rice, with many shared side dishes, all served at the same time. Herbs and spices are typically used fresh (rather than dried). Herbs include lime leaves (bai makrut), pandan leaves (bai toei), cilantro (phak chi), lemongrass (takhrai) and Thai basils, as well as spearmint, shallots and garlic. Typical fresh spices are galangal (kha), turmeric (khamin), fingerroot (krachai) and peppercorns (phrik thai), while popular dried spice mixtures include five-spice powder (phong phalo) and curry powder (phong kari). Thai dishes and soups often contain coconut milk, fresh turmeric and lime leaves. The famous hot and sour tom yam soup contains lime leaves (with galangal, lemongrass, lime juice and, of course, chillies). The Chinese influence is seen in the use of a wok for deep‐frying or stir‐frying, the importance of soy sauce and dishes such as rice pudding (chok), fried rice noodles (kuai-tiao rat na) and stewed pork with rice (khao kha mu). Indian kuai influence is seen in yellow curry (kaeng kari); Muslim (Persian) influence in massaman curry (kaeng matsaman). Sour tastes may come from tamarind or coconut vinegar, while sweetness often originates from palm sugar and coconut sugar. Typical of Thai cuisine are fermented fish sauce (nam pla), oyster sauce (namman hoi), chilli pastes (nam phrik), curry pastes (phrik kaeng), light soy sauce (si-io khao), dark soy sauce (si-io dam) and soy paste (taochiao). A variety of sauces and condiments in small containers are served with the meal, especially various forms of the chilli‐based nam phrik (the equivalent of Malaysian and Indonesian sambals) used for dipping. Popular examples are nam pla phrik (fish sauce, chopped chillies, garlic and lime juice) and nam phrik num (green chillies, coriander leaves, garlic and shallots). Dishes popularized by Thai restaurants include tom yam kung (soup with prawns), tom yam kai (soup with chicken), pad thai (a stir‐fried rice noodle dish, commonly served as street food), massaman curry (made from beef, chicken, duck or tofu and potatoes, with coconut milk, fish sauce, chilli sauce, tamarind, peanuts, bay leaves, cardamom, cinnamon, star anise and palm sugar), som tam (shredded unripe papaya, prepared as a spicy salad) and khao phat (a stir‐fried jasmine rice dish).

Vietnamese cuisine is characterized by an abundance of fresh herbs and vegetables, many different types of soup and a colourful presentation of food. It relies on rice, fish sauce, soy sauce, shrimp paste and fresh herbs and spices for the distinctive tastes and flavours. Commonly used herbs include lemongrass, spearmint, peppermint, Vietnamese mint, culantro (long coriander), basil and lime leaves, while ginger, Saigon cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi) and black cardamom (Amomum costatum) are common spices. It is considered important to include all five traditional taste elements (spicy, sour, bitter, salty and sweet) and all five senses (sight, sound, taste, smell and touch). Northern Vietnamese food typically contains black pepper rather than chilli pepper and is therefore less spicy. Signature dishes include bún riêu (a soup made with rice vermicelli, meat, shrimp paste and tomatoes), bánh cuôn (a rice noodle roll made from rice batter, pork, mushrooms and shallots), bún bò (a lemongrass flavoured soup made from thick rice vermicelli and beef) and bánh xèo (a type of savoury pancake made from rice flour and stuffed with meat and vegetables). Most dishes are served with generous helpings of fresh herbs, which include unusual ingredients such as fish mint (Houttuynia cordata), rice paddy herb (Limnophila aromatica), common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare), Vietnamese balm (Elsholtzia ciliata) and shredded banana flower, together with more familiar items such as raw bean sprouts, green onion leaves, basil, cilantro, culantro, water spinach, Vietnamese mint and perilla leaf. Chinese and French influences are visible not only in some of the ingredients of Vietnamese food but also in many of the dishes.

Malaysian cuisine is a mixture of Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai and other culinary traditions. The national dish is considered to be nasi lemak (steamed rice with coconut milk and served with fried anchovies, hard-boiled eggs, sliced cucumber and the typical sambal – spicy chilli paste). Another favourite dish is nasi goreng (fried rice). Curry and meat stew (rending) are also popular, as are many different types of seafood. Various noodles, made from rice, wheat or mung beans are common, as well as Indian‐style bread. A diversity of fruits form an important part of the cuisine, including durian (the “King of fruits”), mangosteen (the “Queen of fruits”), lychee, rambutan, longan and mango. Many dishes start of as a rempah (a mixture of fresh herbs and spices that are pounded and then briefly fried in a little oil to bring out the flavours). A very popular dish in Malaysia is satay – marinated and skewered meat, grilled over an open fire and dipped in bumbu kacang, a special spicy peanut sauce. Asam laksa is an example of a dish of Chinese origin – rice noodles served in soup made from fish, onion, tamarind, torch ginger flower, basil, pineapple and cucumber. Desserts often have coconut milk and palm sugar as main ingredients.

Singapore, where eating is considered a national passion, is the place to experience street food and the ultimate in fusion food, elaborated from Malay, Chinese, Indian, Indonesian, Philippine, British and many other culinary traditions. An example of hybrid food is the local laksa or katong laksa, a noodle dish with seafood, chicken or eggs in a rich coconut curry sauce. Eating chilli crab in Singapore is an unforgettable experience. It is made from a hard‐shelled mud crab cooked in tomato and chilli sauce and served on a bed of steamed rice.

Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago. Amongst the 18 000 islands are the famous Spice Islands (Maluku or the Moluccas), the home of cloves and nutmeg. Since ancient times there have been many influences on the local cuisine, especially from India, China and the Middle East but more recently also from Europe (Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands). Meals are usually served at room temperature, with rice as staple food, accompanied by soup, salad, sambals (spicy relishes, such as sambal ulek), krupuk (traditional crunchy crackers), emping melinjo (crackers made from Gnetum gnemon) and kripik (crisps made from banana or cassava). A typical Indonesian spice (rempah) and spice mixture (bumbu) may comprise the indigenous pala (nutmeg and mace), cengkeh (cloves) and laos (galangal), or several other popular spices introduced in ancient times: black pepper, candlenut, cinnamon, coriander, lemongrass, shallot, tamarind and turmeric from India; and garlic, ginger and scallions from China. Kecap asin, the common (salty) soy sauce and kecap manis, the uniquely Indonesian soy sauce sweetened with palm sugar, are also important flavourings and components of marinades used for grilled meat or fish, satay and semur (Indonesian stew). Coconut and coconut milk are important ingredients of many dishes. Peanuts, introduced by the Portuguese and Spanish during the 16th century, have become integrated into Indonesian dishes and are used in sambal kacang (roasted and ground chilli pepper and peanuts) and the well-known peanut sauce (bumbu kacang), used as dipping sauce with satay and as garnish with gado-gado. The sauce is made from fried peanuts, chilli pepper, black pepper, sweet soy sauce, coconut sugar, garlic, shallots, ginger, tamarind, lemon juice, lemongrass, salt and water. Signature dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice, the origin of the Dutch Rijsttafel or “rice table”), gado-gado (a salad of boiled vegetables dressed with peanut sauce), satay (grilled skewered meat) and soto (traditional soups made from broth, meat and vegetables). There are many other typical dishes such as pisang goreng (fried bananas), lumpia goreng (fried spring rolls) and bami (fried noodles). Street food is very common and includes sweet and savoury dishes, desserts, fruit juices, fruit crisps and various snacks, cakes and pastries, sold from bicycles and carts at the roadside.

The Philippines comprise a group of over 7 000 islands named after Philip II of Spain. The cuisine is based on steamed rice as staple food but bread is also quite common. It reflects various cultural and ethnic influences, including Malay, Spanish, Chinese, Indonesian and many others. Dishes typically have salty and sweet or salty and sour elements. Dipping sauces are common, including vinegar, soy sauce, calamansi juice (Citrus madurensis) or combinations of the three. Fish sauce, fish paste, shrimp paste and crushed ginger are used as condiments. Coconut and coconut milk are important ingredients of many savoury and sweet dishes. Fruits and vegetables are widely used, including bananas, guavas, mangoes, papayas, pineapples and calamansi, as well as water spinach, napa cabbage, eggplants, tomato, onions and garlic. There are hundreds of traditional dishes, often made with meat (chicken, pork, beef) or seafood stewed with vegetables in tomato, soy or pineapple sauce. Well-known examples include lechón (roasted whole pig), adobo (chicken or pork fried in oil, soy sauce, vinegar and garlic), kare-kare (oxtail and vegetables stewed in peanut sauce), sinigang (fish with vegetables in sour sauce), pancit (noodles) and lumpia (spring rolls).

North America

The cuisine reflects the dynamic and multicultural origins of the people that make up North American society today. Almost all food traditions of the world are represented. Every conceivable combination of ancient and modern trends in cooking has been adopted somewhere by someone to come up with new culinary concepts, from Canadian pizza (“pizza québécoise”) to California rolls (“USA sushi”) and jambalaya (“Creole or Cajun paella”).

Canadian maple syrup, with aboriginal roots, is perhaps the best known but other contenders for Canadian national dishes include poutine (potato fries topped with cheese curds and gravy), butter tarts (a Canadian speciality of flaky pastry with a semi-solid filling of butter, sugar, syrup and egg), smoked and dried salmon, Kraft Dinner (a packed mixture of dry macaroni and cheese) and Montreal-style bagels (handmade, wood-fired, and topped with poppy seeds or sesame seeds). Many typically American food items are derived or adapted from the culinary traditions of Germany (hamburgers, hotdogs, chicken-fried steak, apple pie), Italy (pizza, pasta), Mexico (Tex-Mex tacos, burritos, enchiladas) and China (chow mein, General Tso’s chicken and fortune cookies). In the state of Louisiana, Cajun and Creole cooking have become popular, reflecting French, Acadian and Haitian influences but resulting in uniquely American dishes. These include boudin (white sausage made from pork or seafood, sometimes rolled into a ball), crawfish étouffée (a shellfish stew made with a roux and served on rice), gumbo (a stew of seafood or chicken with celery, bell peppers and onions, thickened with African okra, Choctaw filé powder or a dark French roux and served on rice) and jambalaya (similar to gumbo but made with long-grain rice in the same way as paella or risotto). Other American culinary concepts that have become popular throughout the world include peanut butter, popcorn, Coca-Cola, muffins, brownies, doughnuts and cupcakes.

Latin America

The cuisines of Latin American countries are distinctive in having chilli peppers as common flavour ingredient, often eaten with various bread-like containers made from the indigenous Mexican corn (maize) and stuffed with a diversity of meat and vegetable creations. Chicha, a fermented or non-fermented beverage made from grains or fruits, often accompanies a meal. There are notable exceptions, such as Caribbean cuisine (based on rice, not maize) and Cuban food (also based on rice but traditionally without chilli).

Mexican cuisine represents a rich cultural heritage derived from the indigenous Aztec and Mayan traditions and Spanish influences. The cuisine is based on indigenous crops that have become international commodities: maize (corn), beans, pumpkins and tomatoes, with a rich diversity of herbs and spices, the most famous of which are chilli peppers, chocolate and vanilla. Mexican food in various regional forms (e.g. Tex-Mex, Cal-Mex) has become well known, not only throughout North and South America, but also in the rest of the world. Mexican restaurants have become one of the most popular amongst those serving ethnic cuisines. Famous traditional dishes are tacos (maize tortillas folded around food), quesadillas (tortillas filled with cheese and other ingredients), enchiladas (maize tortillas rolled around various fillings and topped with chilli sauce), burritos (wheat tortillas folded into a cylindrical shape to completely enclose a filling of meat, beans and/or other ingredients), tamales (starchy maize dough – masa – steamed or boiled in a leaf wrapper and filled with a seasoned filling of meat, cheese, vegetables, fruits and often chilli peppers) and moles (the generic name for various sauces or dishes derived from them). In Mexico, moles are associated with festivals and celebrations. The most famous of the moles is mole poblano (some say it is the national dish of Mexico). It is made from about 20 ingredients but has dried mulato pepper and chocolate as the main ingredients. The chocolate serves to counteract the heat of the chillies and contributes to the dark colour of the sauce. Mulato peppers have a distinctive taste – they are medium spicy and dark brown to blackish (usually sold dry). An example of a regional speciality from Puebla is chiles en nogada, which consists of a green poblano chilli filled with picadillo (a spicy meat and fruit mixture), topped with nogada (a white, walnut-based cream sauce) and sprinkled with pomegranate seeds. The green chilli, white sauce and red pomegranate give the three colours of the Mexican flag.

Peru has a varied and interesting cuisine that has remained relatively unknown to the outside world. Lima is sometimes considered to be the culinary capital of the Americas, where African and Chinese immigrants have added Creole cuisine and other cooking styles. The ancient Inca traditions and food ingredients, blended with Spanish influences have resulted in many unique features. Most notable are tubers (potatoes, oca, ulluco), fruits (avocado, cherimoya, lucuma, pineapple) and indigenous meats (taruca, llama, guinea pig). The main spice is aji (Capsicum pubescens) and there are many unique dishes such as ceviche (seafood in citrus juice) and Andean pachamanca (meat, potato and broad bean stew), often accompanied by chicha.

South Americans love meat and various forms of asado (barbecue) are popular in many countries. Regional specialities include Colombian bandeja paisa, Costa Rican and Nicaraguan gallo pinto, Ecuadorian hornado, El Salvadorian pupusa, Honduran baleadas, Uruguayan dulce de leche and Paraguayan sopa paraguaya, to name only a few.

Oceania

Polynesia is made up of more than 1 000 islands in the triangle between Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The Polynesian staple food is poi, a type of porridge or dough made from the corms of the taro plant (Colocasia esculenta). Traditional dishes include ota ika (raw fish marinated in citrus juice and coconut milk) and rewana paraoa (sourdough bread made from potatoes). Polynesian cuisine is less well known than Tiki cuisine, a 20th century theme used in Polynesian-style restaurants and clubs, mainly in the USA. It was inspired by Tiki carvings and mythology but is an American form of kitsch rather than authentic Polynesian.

The cuisines of New Zealand and Australia are based on British traditions, but with some Polynesian (Maori) and Asian influences that have become more evident in recent years. Fish and chips, meat pies, custard squares and pavlova are considered typical dishes. Australian food is based on Irish and British traditions but there has been a revival of interest in so-called bush tucker (the food of the indigenous Australians). Typical are roast dinners, barbeques, fish and chips and meat pies, but modern Australia features many exotic influences such as organic and biodynamic food, haute cuisine and nouvelle cuisine. The traditional billy tea (of Waltzing Matilda fame), flavoured with a gum leaf, has been enriched by excellent wine, beer and coffee (e.g. flat white, an Australian invention – cafe latte with no foam). Also typical are kangaroo meat, macadamia nuts, the damper (wheat flour bread baked in the coals of a campfire) and Anzac biscuits, made from rolled oats and coconut (associated with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps of World War I, hence ANZAC). Popular condiments include tomato sauce, barbecue sauce and Vegemite. Indigenous culinary herbs and spices that have become more widely known in recent years include lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora), mountain pepper (Drimys lanceolata), lemon-scented tea (Leptospermum citratum) and mint bush (Prostanthera rotundifolia).