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Aboriginal Australians, 448–51, 454, 466–68
Ache people, 465
acquired traits, 56–57, 426–27. See also Lamarckism
Adams, James Truslow, 567–68
Adygei people, 223
African Americans, 166–67, 179–80, 206, 212, 315–16, 567
age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 277
Agricultural Revolution, 31–33, 468–69, 476–77, 492, 495, 563
AIP gene, 275
Akey, Joshua, 245
Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 352
alleles, 126, 149, 151, 279–80, 475, 539
alphaproteobacteria, 418–19
Altmann, Richard, 417–19
Alzheimer’s disease, 529, 538–39
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 512–13
American Museum of Natural History, 235
American Psychological Association, 102, 314
American Society of Human Genetics, 500
amino acids, 116, 134, 138, 139, 410. See also proteins
aneuploidy, 367–68
ankylosing spondylitis, 535–36
anthropology
and cultural inheritance, 448, 451–52
and cumulative culture, 460–61, 465
and Du Bois’s research, 203
and paleogenetics, 225–26
and racial classifications, 196
and scientific racism, 206–7
and skin color, 201
and tracing lineages, 178
and wealth inequality, 470
See also paleoanthropology
Anthropometric Laboratory, 290
antibiotic resistance, 141–42
antibodies, 143, 217, 345, 377, 401, 556–58
Apinayé people, 13
apple trees, 41–42
“The Apportionment of Human Diversity” (Lewontin), 208
Arabidopsis thaliana, 443
Archebaud, John, 159
Aristotle, 14–16, 19, 24, 219, 324–25, 331–32, 484
artificial insemination, 501–4. See also in vitro fertilization
Asbury, Kathryn, 317
Ashkenazi Jews, 180, 212, 220, 222–24
Atabrine, 385–86
Augustus Caesar, 253
Aurignacian culture, 226–27
aurochs, 498
Australian Aboriginals, 448–51, 467
Austro-Hungarian Empire, 221
Avdonin, Alexander, 175–76
Ayash, Chen Aida, 541
bacteria
and cell division, 323–24
and cell theory, 326
and CRISPR system, 143–44, 488–89
and discovery of genes, 124
environmental influences of, 564
and evolution of DNA-based life, 138–42
and genetic engineering, 508–9, 511
and immune response, 345, 401, 487–89
and light organs, 406
and mitochondria, 144–45, 417–21, 466
and origin of eukaryotes, 144–45
Bailey, Harriet, 197
bald eagle evidence, 171, 173–74, 499
Bale, Tracy, 441
Baltimore, David, 523–24, 527, 534, 565
Banfield, Jill, 488–89
Bantu people, 233
Barnes, Jennifer, 447
Barrett, Helen, 313
Barrett, Louise, 270
Barry, Joan, 171–74
Bartels, Friedrich, 312
Bath, Sarah, 306–7
Beck, Tracy, 131
Begley, Sharon, 527
bell curve, 259–60, 263, 290–91
Belov, Kathy, 393
Berg, Paul, 523–24
beta-thalassemia, 510, 512, 525
BHH gene, 525
Bickel, Horst, 126–29
Bier, Ethan, 551–55, 558, 560–61, 572
Biesecker, Leslie, 356–57
bifidobacteria, 416
Blaine, Delabere, 395
Blashko, Alfred, 350–51
Blattabacterium, 409–10
Blood Groups in Man (Race), 379–80
blood transfusions, 385–86
blood types, 172–78, 203–4, 208, 377–78, 380–81
blue tits, 456–58
Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 196
Bohannon, John, 537
Bonduriansky, Russell, 474–78
Boubakar, Leila, 343–44
Boveri, Theodor, 352–54
Boyle, Robert, 137
brain physiology
and cultural heredity, 469–70
and epigenetics, 432–34
and inheritance of behavioral traits, 429–30
and intelligence research, 295–96
and mitochondrial replacement therapy, 520–21
and mosaicism, 368–69
and Neanderthals, 236
and neurogenesis, 345–47
Brave New World (Huxley), 507
BRCA1 gene, 180
breast milk, 413–14
Brinch, Christian, 309
Brooks, William Keith, 330
Brown, Louise Joy, 504–5
Buck, Caroline (“Carol”), 107–15, 120–21, 126, 131–32, 317
Buck, Carrie, 93
Buck, Lossing, 107–12, 115, 126, 131–32, 506
Buck, Pearl, 107–15, 120, 126, 129, 131–32, 506
bud sports, 349–50. See also mosaicism
bumblebees, 454–56
Burbank, Elizabeth, 64–65, 486
Burbank, Luther, 30–31, 42–43, 48–52, 61–66, 80, 376–77, 443–44, 485
Burt, Cyril, 298–99
Bushmen of the Kalahari, 292
Bygren, Lars Olov, 427–28
Byrne, Charles (The Irish Giant), 253, 255, 273–75, 351
Cabana, Graciela, 209
Caenorhabditis elegans, 441–42
cancers
and exosomes, 442
and fertility science, 535, 538, 541
and genetic testing and counseling, 4, 180–81, 184
and H. pylori, 414
and mechanisms of heredity, 472
and mosaicism, 352–55
and pigmeitos, 273
and radiation-induced mutations, 333
and role of immune cells, 324
and skin color variations, 229
Candidatus Photodesmus blepharus, 406, 411
cane toads, 571
canine transmissible venereal tumor (CTVT), 395–97, 399–400
Capato, Karen and Robert, 541–42
carbon-14, 346–47
Carmi, Shai, 224
Carnegie, Andrew, 62
Cary, S. Craig, 409
Cas enzymes, 143, 489. See also CRISPR/Cas system
cell lineages
and chimerism, 379, 382, 384, 392–93, 401
and embryonic development, 331–32
and engineering of embryonic cells, 546
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 542–43
and freemartins, 371–76
and gene therapy, 510
and Lyon’s research, 333–38
and microbiomes, 413–14
and mitochondria, 418
and mosaicism, 368–69
and regeneration of various cell types, 344–47
Celsius, Olof, 423
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 479
Centerwall, Willard, 129, 131–32
CFTR gene, 496
Chang, Joseph, 189–90
Charles II, 26–28
Charles V, 11–12, 14, 16, 19–21
Charpentier, Emmanuelle, 489
Chetty, Raj, 568
CHILD disorder, 357–58
The Child Who Never Grew (Buck), 114, 129
chimerism
and anxiety surrounding genetic engineering, 511
and complexity of heredity, 472
and contagious cancers, 391–401
freemartins, 370–77
human chimeras, 377–87
and immune systems responses, 389–91
microchimerism, 388–90
and in vitro gametogenesis, 546–49
chimpanzees, 229, 240, 255, 414, 446–47, 458–63, 466
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 524
Chittka, Lars, 455–56
Christensenella, 415–17
chromosomes
and bacterial reproduction, 323
and chimerism, 380–81, 386–91, 393, 398
and CRISPR mechanism, 143, 494, 523, 525, 552–54, 558, 573
and discovery of genes, 123–24
and Drosophila research, 98
and embryonic development, 328
and epigenetic inheritance, 472
and eukaryotes, 144
and fertilization process, 341, 542
and genetic testing and counseling, 3, 5, 505
and horizontal inheritance, 140–41, 142
and lyonization, 334–41
and meiosis, 145–53
and modern concept of heredity, 57–59
and mosaicism, 349–50, 352–57, 359, 367
and paleogenetics, 239, 242–43
and spread of genetic variations, 205, 207
and tracing lineages, 176, 178–79, 186–87, 190–92, 223
and transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, 441
chronic myelogenous leukemia, 354
Church, George, 528, 529–30, 560
Claypoole, James, 165
Clerget-Darpoux, Françoise, 280
Cline, Martin, 509–12
cloning, 149–50, 265, 473, 516, 519, 544, 548
cockles, 398
Cockrell, T. D. A., 350
cockroaches, 409–10
Cognitive Genomics Lab, 536–37
Cold Spring Harbor, 79, 84–85, 234
Collier, Eugenia, 170
Columbus, Christopher, 19–20
Committee for the Heredity of Feeble-mindedness, 85–86
Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the American Population, 85–86
Common Sense (Paine), 164
COMT gene, 301–2
Concerning the Origin of Malignant Tumors (Boveri), 353–54
Conklin, Edwin Grant, 329–33
Conley, Dalton, 300
Cook, James, 467–68
Cooke, Robert E., 315
Coop, Graham, 188–90
Correns, Carl, 60
Cossetti, Cristina, 442
Cowdry, Edmund, 417–18
Crabbe, John, 301
Craven, Isabel, 72
Creger, William, 385
cretinism, 70, 306. See also feeblemindedness
Crick, Francis, 124–25
CRISPR/Cas system
and Drosophila research, 550–54
early research on, 488–91
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 542
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 474
and human genome editing, 495–97, 523–34, 560–61
impact on human gene pool, 537–40, 565
and microbial immune systems, 143–44
and mosquito control research, 557–58, 570–74
and plant domestication, 493–94
Cro-Magnons, 236–37
Crumbling Genome (Kondrashov), 540
cultural history and inheritance
and environmental impact of humans, 570–71
human cumulative culture, 460, 463, 465–66, 468–69, 562–65, 567
and intelligence research, 292
and memes, 452–54
and non-genetic inheritance, 471–80
Cushing, Harvey, 274
Danbury, Lewis, 104
Dar-Nimrod, Ilan, 317–18
Darnovsky, Marcy, 528
Darwin, Charles
and Galton’s plant breeding experiments, 260
and modern concept of heredity, 6, 43–56, 58–62, 426
and recessive traits, 473
research on bud sports, 349
and Weismann’s germ line research, 328, 409
Das Erbe (film), 94–95
Davenport, Charles, 79–81, 84–85, 93, 99, 100, 200–202, 234–35, 499
Davenport, Gertrude, 80, 201–2
Davidson, Ronald, 338
Dawkins, Richard, 452–53
Day, Troy, 474–78
Dean, Lewis, 459–60
Delbrück, Max, 551
DeLong, Robert, 307–8
De morbis hereditariis—On Hereditary Diseases (Mercado), 24, 27
Desai, Michael, 149–50
Desai, Rajendra, 385
d’Este, Isabella, 254
devil face tumor disease, 392–400
de Vries, Hugo, 29–31, 60–62, 64, 79, 125–26, 424, 426
diabetes, 211, 216–17, 250–51, 273, 276, 278
Díaz de Games, Gutierre, 18
Dictionary of Races or Peoples (Thomas), 211
Dinka people, 229–30
Dishley Grange, 33–35
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and bacterial restriction enzymes, 487–88
and beneficial mutations, 149
and carbon-14 dating, 346
and causes of PKU, 129
and chimerism, 380–84, 388, 391, 393, 396–98
and CRISPR research, 488–91, 538–40, 566
and cumulative culture, 465
and Dawkins’s meme concept, 452
and diagnosis of hereditary diseases, 133
and discovery of genes, 123–26
and effects of meiosis on heredity, 150–52
and embryonic development, 333
and epigenetics, 430–31, 433, 436–41
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 542
and family genealogies, 160
fingerprinting, 381
and genetic engineering, 507–8
and genetic screening, 503–5
and genetic testing and counseling, 3–4, 6–7
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472, 475, 479
and genome sequencing, 182–85
and height research, 251, 273, 275–77, 284
and human ancestral lines, 175–81, 186–93, 197, 216–20
and human genome editing, 495–97
and human germ line engineering, 523–28, 530–31
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 240–49
and intelligence research, 300, 301–4, 311, 317, 319
and interbreeding of human populations, 231–34, 240
and light organs, 406
and lyonization, 338–39
and mechanism of heredity, 427
and Mendel’s Law, 473
and microbial immune systems, 323
and mosaicism, 353–55, 357–60, 363–64, 366–67, 369
and mosquito control research, 555–60
and Muller’s Germinal Choice, 502
and mutagenic chain reaction, 552, 554
and Nazi racism, 497–98
of Neanderthals, 238–40
and neuronal cells, 343
and ooplasm transfers, 514–15
origins of DNA-based life, 138–42
and paleogenetics, 225–28
and the Peloria plant, 424–25
and plant domestication, 494
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 535–37
and radiation damage, 333
and RFMix, 222–24
and selective breeding, 484–85
and skin color, 230–31
and spread of genetic variations, 207, 209
of Taita thrushes, 214–15
and totipotent cells, 341–42
and twin studies, 266–67
and in vitro gametogenesis, 547–49
See also mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA
DNA Land database, 186–87
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 204–7
A Domestic Treatise on the Diseases of Horses and Dogs (Blaine), 395
Donnelly, Peter, 215
dopamine, 301
The Double Helix (Crick, Watson, and Wilkins), 125
Doudna, Jennifer, 488–90, 496–97, 523–27, 530, 561
Douglass, Frederick, 166, 197–98, 267
Drake, Francis, 255
Drosophila research, 97–98, 147, 149, 153–54, 204–10, 550–55, 557
DSCF5 gene, 244
Du Bois, W. E. B., 202–4
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 340
Dunlap, Knight, 100–101
Dunn, Rob, 412
Dutton, Warren, 51
Dwarf Alberta spruce, 348–49
dwarfism, 118, 253–54, 272, 278, 306
dystrophin, 340
Eanes de Azurara, Gomes, 20
East, Edward, 205–6
East Wind: West Wind (Buck), 111
E. coli, 140
ecological inheritance, 562–63, 565
Edge, Michael, 213
Edison, Thomas, 30
“The Effects of Race Intermingling” (Davenport), 202
Egan, Michael, 301–2
Egeland, Borgny, 115–17
Egeland, Liv, 115
eggs, 419–20, 513–20, 527–28. See also germ cells and germ lines
Ehrlich, Paul, 454
“The Elimination of Feeble-Mindedness” (Davenport), 85
Ellis, Erle, 570
Ellison, Jane, 521
embryos and embryonic development
and CRISPR research, 496–97, 560, 565
early theories on, 324–33
and engineering of embryonic cells, 543–49
and epigenetics, 436–37, 440–42
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 542
and freemartins, 371–72, 374–76
and gene drives, 561–62
and gene therapy, 509
and genetic screening, 504–6
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 471
and heredity within individuals, 323–24
and human germ line engineering, 523–28, 530–34
and impact of CRISPR technology, 538
and inheritance of behavioral traits, 430
and lineage of cells, 333–38
and lyonization, 337–42
and microbiomes, 413
mitochondria, 421
and mitochondrial replacement therapy, 517–19, 522
and mosaicism, 353, 355–58, 360, 364, 367–69
and mutagenic chain reaction, 551, 553
and neural development, 343–44
and ooplasm transfers, 513–16
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 535–37
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 166
The End of Sex and the Future of Human Reproduction (Greely), 547
Enterococcus faecium, 141
epigenetics and epigenesis
and animal biology, 440–42
and cell lineages, 344
and CRISPR research, 566
and embryonic development, 325, 332
and environmental influences, 430–34, 466
epigenome described, 430–34
and fetal alcohol syndrome, 479–80
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472, 474–76
and inheritance of acquired traits, 427–30
and Lamarckism debate, 426–27, 434–38, 442–44
and Lyon’s research, 334
and plant biology, 422–26, 438–40
Eskanazi, Brenda, 306
Esvelt, Kevin, 560–61
ethnicity, 88, 185, 192, 203, 207, 223, 269–70
eugenics
and criticisms of Goddard’s work, 100–103, 111
genetic engineering contrasted with, 507–8
and Goddard, 75–76, 83–86, 92–95, 101–2
and height research, 260
and human germ line engineering, 528
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 234–35
and intelligence research, 290, 299, 312–14
and The Kallikak Family, 88, 92–96
and mitochondrial replacement therapy, 519
and Morgan’s research, 99–100
and Muller’s Germinal Choice, 503
and Muller’s research, 499–501
and Osborn, 237
and Penrose’s research, 118, 121–23
and racism, 199–200
Eugenics Education Society, 84
Eugenics Record Office, 84–85, 93–94, 100, 528
eukaryotes, 144, 152–54, 418–19
evening primroses, 61–62
evolution
and acquired traits, 427
and brain development, 469
and chimerism, 399–401
and CRISPR technology, 561
and cultural inheritance, 445, 461, 463
of DNA-based life, 138–39
and endosymbiosis, 410
and environmental impact of humans, 570
and environmental influences, 466, 468–69
and epigenetics, 442
and eugenics ideology, 235–37
of eukaryotes, 144
and genetic engineering, 508, 546
and genome sequencing, 2
and horizontal inheritance, 141
and human ancestry, 213, 238, 240, 246, 269–70
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 246
and memes, 452–54
and microbiomes, 414
and modern concept of heredity, 43–44, 47–48, 53, 59
and mosquito control research, 557
and mutation load, 501, 539–40
and mutation theory, 60–62
and non-genetic inheritance, 471–80
and skin color, 230–31
Ex Ovo Omnia (Harvey), 325
extinctions, 155, 214, 410, 498
Fairchild, Lydia, 382–84
Fairfax Cryobank, 503
familial Mediterranean fever, 184–85
Farmer, Joseph, 286–87
feeblemindedness
and discrediting of Goddard’s research, 97
and eugenics ideology, 84–85, 111, 235, 312
and fetal alcohol syndrome, 478–79
and Følling’s research, 117
and Goddard’s research, 75–79, 81–83, 86–90, 93, 99, 101–4, 163, 200, 304–5
and Penrose’s research, 118–19
and scientific racism, 93–96
and the Vineland Training School, 70–72
See also phenylketonuria (PKU)
Festetics, Imre, 37
fetal alcohol syndrome, 305–6, 478–80
Feyrer, James, 307–9
Fischbach, Ruth, 391
Fisher, James, 457
flower-suppressing proteins, 493
Fogel, Robert, 267–68
Følling, Asbjørn, 115, 126, 129, 131
Fortenberry, Jeff, 519
fossil and fossilized DNA
and Asian nursery theory, 235, 237
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 244, 246–48
and interbreeding of human populations, 232–33, 240
of Neanderthals, 238–39
and paleogenetics, 225–26
and skin color variations, 229
Franke, Uta, 273
Franklin, Benjamin, 164
Franklin, Rosalind, 124–25, 164
Frederick Augustus III, 35–36
Freeman, Frank, 297
freemartins, 370–72, 373–76, 378
Frisén, Jonas, 346–47
Gaius, 12
Galloway, Taryn Ann, 309
Galton, Francis
and eugenics ideology, 84, 199, 499
eugenics research lab endowment, 121
family background, 286–90, 567
and Fisher’s research, 334
and height research, 259–62, 264–65, 268
and intelligence research, 290–91, 297–98, 304, 312–13
and modern concept of heredity, 53–54
and Muller’s Germinal Choice, 503
Galton, John, 287
Galton Society, 234–35
Gantz, Valentino, 550–55, 558, 560–61, 572–73
Garnet, Henry Highland, 166–67
Geck, Peter, 390
Gelsinger, Jesse, 511–12
gemmules, 46–48, 53–54, 409, 442
genealogy, 13, 16, 18, 157–67, 169, 188, 220, 472
gene drives, 154–56, 400, 473, 553, 557, 560–61, 571–72
gene therapy, 509–13, 527, 529–30, 532
genetic diversity, 207, 209, 212–13, 218, 222
genetic engineering, 487–88, 507–9, 541–42
genetic essentialism, 317–18, 384
Genetic Investigation of ANthropometric Traits (GIANT), 279, 280
The Genetics of the Mouse (Grüneberg), 337
Genetics Society of America, 341
genetic testing and counseling, 1–7, 129, 180, 183, 317
Génin, Emmanuelle, 280
genome sequencing
and base pairs, 125
and CRISPR system, 488–90
and Denisovan DNA, 248
and exome sequencing, 357
and genetic testing and counseling, 2–3, 129, 133, 183–86
and height research, 251, 278, 284
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 233–34
and intelligence research, 301
and microbiomes, 412
and mitochondria, 418
and mosaicism, 354, 362–64, 367–69
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 535–37
and restriction enzymes, 487
and technological advances, 504
and tracing lineages, 177, 191
genome-wide association studies, 277–78, 280–83
germ cells and germ lines
and CRISPR technology, 524
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472, 478–79
and Germinal Choice program, 501–4, 507, 534–35, 540
germ layers, 437
germ-plasm heredity, 329
human germ line modification, 512, 515, 523–29
and meiosis, 145
and microbiomes, 407–9
and mutagenic chain reaction, 552–54, 558
and pluripotent stem cells, 545–47
somatic vs. germ line mutations, 350
and Weismann’s research, 55–58, 426
The Germ-Plasm: A Theory of Heredity (Weismann), 329
Gershenson, Sergey, 153–54
GHR gene, 273
Giblett, Eloise, 381
Gilbert, Walter, 133
Gill, Peter, 176
Giovannoni, Stephen, 409
Gm variant, 217
GNAQ gene, 358–59
Goddard, Henry
background, 73–75
critiques of research, 96–97, 99–106, 111
and Davenport’s research, 80–81
and eugenics ideology, 75–76, 83–86, 92–95, 101–2, 163
and Følling’s research, 117
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 478–80
and intelligence research, 291, 304–5
and The Kallikak Family, 86–91
Pearl Buck on, 114
research agenda, 76–79
and scientific racism, 237
Godspeed family, 159
Godzilla (film), 333
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 424
Goff, Stephen, 397
golden carpet shell clams, 398
The Good Earth (Buck), 112–13
Goodrich, Julia, 415–16
Goodspeed family, 158–63, 187–88
Göring, Hermann, 498
Gottesman, Elias, 187
Grant, Madison, 93
The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck), 112
Gravettian culture, 226–27, 268
Gray, Charlie, 449
Greek culture and mythology, 14–16, 253, 255–56, 376–77, 483–85
Greely, Henry, 547
Gregory, James, 50
Grifio, Jamie, 515
Gromme, Markus, 367
growth plates, 282–85
Grüneberg, Hans, 337–38
Guan people, 180
Guéneau de Montbeillard, Philippe, 257
Guevara-Aguirre, Jaime, 272–73
Gurdon, James, 544
Habsburgs, 11, 16, 20–22, 32, 80, 194
Hadza people, 465
Haggard, Howard, 479
Haier, Richard, 292
Hain, James, 458
Hall, G. Stanley, 74
Hall, Prescott, 88
Hammer, Michael, 178–79
Haneda, Yata, 406
Hanka people, 203
haplogroups and haplotypes, 190–91
Harrison, Ross, 330–32
Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 326
Harvey, William, 275, 325–26, 332
Hayashi, Katsuhiko, 546–49
HBB gene, 510
Head Start program, 315–16
The Health and Physique of the Negro American (Du Bois), 203
Heard, Edith, 438
height
in author’s family, 251–52
correlation with intelligence, 290, 310
and environmental influences, 267–69
and extreme outliers, 272–75
genes associated with, 275–80
heritability of, 259–67, 280–85
and Hirschhorn’s early research, 250–51
historical perspective on, 252–59
and human ancestors, 269–72
Heine, Steven, 317–18
Heinrich, Joseph, 448
Heliobacter pylori, 414–15
hemimegalencephaly, 359–60
hemophilia, 512
Henry VI, 14
Henry VIII, 32
Hereditary Genius (Galton), 54, 289–90
Herzenberg, Leonard, 386–87
Hewlett, Barry, 461
HEX-A gene, 3
Heyes, Cecilia, 463
Hiatt, Jesse, 41–42
Hill, Kim, 465
Hinde, Robert, 457
Hippocrates, 14, 15, 20, 47, 56, 255–56
Hirschhorn, Joel, 250–51, 275–76, 278–79, 281–84, 303
History of the Goodspeed Family (Goodspeed), 159–62, 180
HLA genes and proteins, 383, 386–87, 399, 540
Hoh, Josephine, 277
Holzinger, Karl, 297
hominins, 229, 237–38, 414, 467
Homo sapiens, 195–96, 213, 216, 228, 238, 465, 534
Hoover, J. Edgar, 172
Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 120
horizontal inheritance, 140–41
horticulture, 30, 63, 348–49, 376–77
Horvath, Steve, 433–34
HTT gene, 538
Huang, Xingxu, 496
Hubby, John Lee, 207
Hubisz, Melissa Jane, 242–43, 248–49
Huerta-Sanchez, Emilia, 248
Hughes, Langston, 167
human growth hormone, 533
Hungerford, David A., 353–54
Hunley, Keith, 209
Hunter, John, 274
hunter-gatherers, 227–29, 231–33, 243, 461, 465, 469–71, 562, 567
Hunterian Museum, 275
hunting skills, 458, 461–62, 468
Huntington’s disease, 80, 99, 505–7, 530, 538
Hurst, Laurence, 146
Huxley, Aldous, 507
hybrids and hybridization, 36, 39–40, 44, 146, 246, 376–77, 486
hydrogen sulfide metabolism, 408–9
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 531, 532
imbecillitas phenylpyruvica, 116, 119. See also phenylketonuria (PKU)
immigration, 88–89, 93, 199–200, 268
immune system
and antibodies, 143, 217, 345, 377, 401, 556–58
and chimerism, 383–84, 389, 396, 399–401
and epigenetics, 431
and freemartins, 375–76
and height research, 273
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 246
and malaria resistance, 556
in-and-in breeding, 34
Indian corn, 485–86
Industrial Revolution, 270–71, 288, 563, 564
intellectual development disorders, 114, 117–19, 306
intelligence
and criticisms of Goddard’s work, 101–2
and environmental influences, 304–12
and Goddard’s research agenda, 76
and heredity, 291–304
intelligence quotients (IQ), 313
intelligence tests, 77–78, 86, 89–90, 114, 128, 294–95, 297–300, 313
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 536–37
and scientific racism, 237
and in vitro gametogenesis, 548
International Summit on Human Gene Editing, 527
Intracellular Pangenesis (de Vries), 58
in vitro fertilization
and chimerism, 380
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 541
and genetic screening, 504–7
and human germ line engineering, 533–34
and impact of CRISPR technology, 538
and mitochondrial replacement therapy, 517–22
and ooplasm transfers, 513–17
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 535
and in vitro gametogenesis, 546–49
iodine deficiency, 306–9
Iroquois, 12–13
isolation of populations, 214–15
James, Anthony, 555–57, 571–74
James, William, 52–53
Jan, Lily Y., 551
Janssens, Frans Alfons, 146–47
Jefferson, Thomas, 163–64
Jellinek, Elvin, 479
Jensen, Arthur, 315
Johannsen, Wilhelm, 81
Johnson, Lyndon, 315
Johnson, Scott C., 435
Johnstone, E. R., 70–73, 75–76, 92
Jones, Electa Fidelia, 164–65
Jones, Kenneth, 479
Jones, Mary, 126–29
Jones, Sheila, 126–29
Jordan, David Starr, 52, 201–2
Jordan, Harvey, 200–201
Jose, Antony, 441–42
Kalash people, 219
The Kallikak Family (Goddard), 87, 91–97, 99–103, 105, 115, 118, 297, 314, 317, 478, 480
Kamin, Leon, 298–99
Karp, Robert, 480
Kaufman, Alan, 309
Kaufman, Jay, 435
Keegan, Karen, 383–84
Keith, Arthur, 274
Kennedy, John F., 129–30
Khaldun, Ibn, 20
Khazars, 223
Kidwell, Margaret, 557
King, John, 449–50
Kirby, Malachi, 180
Kite, Elizabeth, 81–83, 86, 89, 97, 102–3
Knight, Thomas Andrew, 36–37
Knowler, William, 217
Koch, Helen, 313
Kondrashov, Alexey, 540
Korbonits, Márta, 275
Krause, Johannes, 247
Krings, Matthias, 239
Kuzma, Jennifer, 572
lactose and lactase, 416, 476–77
Lakritz, Naomi, 514–15
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 47–48, 56–57, 328, 426, 435
Lamarckism, 47–48, 144, 443, 478
Landis, Charles, 67
Laron syndrome, 272, 275, 277, 300
Laughlin, Harry, 93–94, 100, 528
LCT gene, 477
Leboulch, Philippe, 512
left-handedness, 267
LE gene, 146
Leggett, John, 167
leukemia, 397–401
Lewontin, Richard, 207–8
Li, Edison, 361–65
light organs, 405–6
Lillie, Frank, 371–72, 374, 379
lines of Blashko, 350–51, 356–58
Linnaeus, Carl, 195–96, 423, 474–75
Lippmann, Walter, 96–97, 491–95
Loike, John, 391
Long, Edward, 195
Long, Jeffrey, 209
long QT syndrome, 360–65
Loving, Mildred and Richard, 202
Lucas, Prosper, 45–46
luciferin, 406
Luther Burbank Company, 63
Lyell, Charles, 45
Lyme disease, 561
Lyon, Mary, 333–38, 340–41, 343
lyonization, 337–41
Lysenko, Trofim, 500
lysosomes, 418
Maasai people, 570
Macdonald, David, 103
Magellan, Ferdinand, 255
Magnus, Albert, 16
malaria, 246, 555–58, 560–61, 572
Mann Act, 172
mannose-binding lectin protein deficiency, 184–85
Manuela, Maria, 21
Margulis, Lynn, 418
Marine Society, 256
Martienssen, Robert, 422, 425–26, 438–40, 443–44, 474, 566
Mary Lyon Award, 341
master genes, 341–42
maternal ancestry, 176–77, 420, 432. See also mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA
Matienzo, Juan, 19
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 225
McAdams, Nancy, 103
McGrath, Kammy and Sheila, 130
Mead, Margaret, 461
Medical Research Council, 124, 333, 340–41, 377
Megaselia scalaris (humpbacked fly), 551–52
meiosis, 145–49, 151–52, 186–87, 242, 246, 542, 547
melanocytes and melanosomes, 229, 231
memes, 452–54
Mendel, Gregor
background, 38–39
and Davenport’s research, 79–81
and discovery of genes, 132–33
and Drosophila research, 98–99
early plant experiments, 39–40, 46, 152–53
and embryonic development research, 329
and eugenics ideology, 84
and Fisher’s research, 334
and Goddard’s research, 82
and height research, 260–62
and meiosis, 146
and modern concept of heredity, 56, 59–60, 63, 68
and Peloria plant, 424
See also Mendel’s Law
Mendel’s Law
and blood types, 172, 174, 203
and CRISPR technology, 144, 561
and epigenetics, 438
and evolution of DNA-based life, 137–38
and gene drives, 154–56
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472–73, 549
and hawkweed research, 152–53
and height research, 262
and microbial life, 137–38, 140
and mitochondria, 420
and mosquito control research, 557
and mutagenic chain reaction, 553–55
and selective breeding, 486
and skin color, 201
Merikangas, Kathleen, 276–77
Merrick, Joseph (the Elephant Man), 351–52, 356
Mesoudi, Alex, 464
Metamorphoses (Ovid), 484
methyl groups and methylation
and CRISPR system, 489
and epigenetics, 430–31, 433–34, 436–41, 566
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 479
and lyonization, 338
and the Peloria plant, 425
and pluripotent cells, 342
Metzger, Michael, 397
microchimerism, 388–90
Mitalipov, Shoukhrat, 517, 530–32, 537–38
Mitchell, Kevin, 437
mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA
and chimerism, 399–400
and development of CRISPR technology, 523
and environmental influences, 466
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 244
and mitochondrial replacement therapy, 517–22, 542, 548
and mosaic cancers, 354
and Neanderthals, 239
and ooplasm transfers, 513–15
origin and evolution of, 417–21
and origin of eukaryotes, 144
and tracing lineages, 176–79, 190–92
Model Animal Research Center, 496
Model Eugenical Sterilization Law, 528
Montagu, Ashley, 207
Montaigne, Michel de, 23–26
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 97–101, 123, 125–26, 133, 147, 204–5, 426, 499, 550–51
morons, 73, 78, 82, 87, 89–90, 102, 105, 567. See also feeblemindedness
mosaicism
and aneuploidy, 367–68
and chimerism, 389, 392–93, 396
diagnostic complication resulting from, 360–66
discovery of, 348–52
early research on, 352–54
and embryonic development, 355–56
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472, 549
and hemimegalencephaly, 359–60
and human germ line engineering, 525, 531
mosaic healing, 366–67
and neurons, 368–69
and Proteus syndrome, 356–57
and skin conditions, 357–59
mosquito control research, 555–61, 572–74
Mount Carmel, 244–45
Muller, Hermann, 499–504, 507, 534–35, 537, 539–40, 548
Murchison, Elizabeth, 391–98
muscular dystrophy, 340, 367, 512
Musk, Elon, 497
mutations
and alleles, 125–26
beneficial, 149–50
and CRISPR research, 490, 496, 531–32, 538–40, 542
and diagnosis of hereditary diseases, 133–34
and Drosophila research, 97–99, 499
and embryonic development, 331
and endosymbiosis, 410
and epigenetics, 438
and evolution of DNA-based life, 139
and fertility science, 504–6, 535–36
and genetic testing and counseling, 3, 5
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472, 475–77
and genome sequencing, 184–85
and Habsburg interbreeding, 26
and height research, 272–73, 275, 278–81, 283–85
and human germ line engineering, 525, 528
and human/Neanderthal interbreeding, 247
and intelligence research, 301, 305
and Lyon’s research, 333–38
and microbiomes, 415
and mitochondria, 420–21, 517, 520–22
and modern concept of heredity, 59–62
and Muller’s research, 499–502
and mutagenic chain reaction, 550–55, 558
mutation load, 539–40
and Neanderthal DNA, 239
and the Peloria plant, 424–25
and plant domestication, 492–95
and selective breeding, 486
and skin color variations, 229, 231
and spread of genetic variations, 210
and tracing lineages, 176–77, 179–81, 190–91, 193
and in vitro gametogenesis, 548
The Mutation Theory (de Vries), 60–61
MYBPC3 gene, 531
myeloid cells, 345
Myerson, Abraham, 97
Nadeau, Joseph, 280
Nanog gene, 342
Napp, Cyrill Franz, 38–41
nardoo, 448–49
Nathans, Jeremy, 339
National Academy of Sciences, 521, 524, 527, 530, 561
National Center for Antimicrobial and Infection Control (Denmark), 142
National Center for Human Genome Research, 133
National Institute of Mental Health, 301
National Institutes of Health, 510–11, 526
National Origins Act, 93–94
natural selection
Darwin’s development of theory, 44
and endosymbiosis, 410
and evolution of DNA-based life, 139
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 475–78
and height, 269
and human-altered environments, 468
and impact of CRISPR technology, 539–40
and mutation load, 501
and skin color, 230
and Weismann’s germ line theory, 57
nature vs. nurture, 245, 263, 298, 304, 434
Nazism, 94–95, 100, 121, 123, 211, 312–13, 337, 497–501
Neanderthals, 234–36, 238–40, 240–48, 465
neural crest cells, 343–44
neurofibromatosis, 356
neurogenesis, 346–47
New Jersey State Institution for Feeble-Minded Women, 91
Newman, Horatio, 297
Newton, Isaac, 137
New York Genome Center, 186, 190
Niakan, Kathy, 526–27
Nicholas II of Russia, 175, 177, 420
Nielsen, Rasmus, 248
Norman, Tom, 351
Not Only Genes (Bonduriansky and Day), 474–76
Novinski, Mstislav, 395
Nowell, Peter, 353–54
nuclear weapons, 333, 335, 346
nuclei of cells
discovery of, 55
and embryonic development, 328, 330
and engineering of embryonic cells, 544
and evolution of eukaryotes, 144
and mitochondria, 418, 520–22, 542
and ooplasm transfers, 515–18
and Weismann’s germ line theory, 57–58
Nussenzweig, Ruth, 556
Ochman, Howard, 413–14
“Of the Resemblance of Children to Their Fathers” (Montaigne), 23
Og, king of Bashan, 252–53
oligosaccharides, 413–14
omnigenic traits, 284
Omnis cellula e cellula (Virchow), 326
one-fin flashlight fish, 405–7, 411, 417
O’Neill, Oona, 171–72
ooplasm transfers, 513–20
Opitz, James, 341
orchids, 45
Order of the Crown of Charlemagne, 165, 189–90
Orgel, Leslie, 517
The Origin of Species (Darwin), 43–44, 46, 53
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 235–37
Osler, William, 211
Our Children in the Atomic Age (Goddard), 102
Överkalix, Sweden, 427
Pääbo, Svante, 225, 239–41, 247
Page, Clarence, 169
Paine, Thomas, 164
paleoanthropology, 226, 238–39, 464
paleogenetics, 225, 235–40, 240–49
pangenesis, 47–48, 53–56, 58–60, 409
Papanicolaou, George, 478–79
parasites, 246, 401, 419, 441. See also malaria
Parkinson’s disease, 543
paternity disputes, 170–79
Pavisi, 256
pea plants
and chromosomes, 144
and Goddard’s research, 82
and height research, 260, 262, 264
and Knight’s research, 37–39
and Mendel’s research, 46, 133, 137–38
Pearson, Karl, 262, 291, 304, 312–13
Pearson, Nathaniel, 222–24
pedigrees
and chimerism, 384
and Davenport’s research, 80
and embryonic development, 329
and European history, 13–14
and freemartins, 373
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 478
and The Kallikak Family, 87
and livestock breeding, 281
and Morgan’s research, 99
and the Peloria plant, 422
and Penrose’s research, 123
and scientific racism, 95
and in vitro gametogenesis, 549
P element, 557
Peloria plant, 423–26, 439–40, 443, 474
Penrose, Lionel, 117–21, 121–23, 126–27, 131, 183
Pevsner, Jonathan, 358
Phaethon, 483–85
phenylalanine, 116–17, 120, 126–29, 133–34
phenylketonuria (PKU)
and complexity of heredity, 252
diagnosis and treatment, 126–34, 506, 512
and early genetics research, 172
and genetic engineering, 508–9
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 471
and genome sequencing, 184
and height research, 274
and intelligence research, 300–301, 317
and Penrose’s research, 119–23
phenylpyruvic acid, 116
Philip II, 11–12, 14, 16, 21–22, 24
Philip III, 22
Picea glauca “Conica,” 349
Pickrell, Joe, 220–22
Pigafetta, Antonio, 255
pigmeitos, 272
PIGV gene, 535
Pima Indians, 216–20
Pinhasi, Ron, 225
placentas, 327, 341–42, 371, 374, 377, 385–86, 437
plant mutagenics, 486–87
plasmids, 141
Plasmodium, 556. See also malaria
Platerus, 253
Pliny the Elder, 253
pluripotency, 342, 407, 545–48
Poduri, Annapurna, 359
Pohl, Marilou, 158
polar bodies, 146
pollen, 36–37, 39–40, 49, 59, 146, 152, 424, 439, 486
polygenic traits, 284
Popenoe, Paul, 93
population genetics, 538
Porteus, Stanley, 292
port-wine stains, 350, 352, 358–59
poverty and wealth inequality, 310–11, 471, 566–69
preformationists, 325–26
pregnancy, 378, 380–82, 385–89, 391, 400–401
preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 506, 527–28, 530, 532, 535–37
Prichard, James Cowles, 255, 275
Priest, James, 361–66
primates, 413–14, 458–60. See also hominins
Pritchard, Jonathan, 214–16, 218–19, 283–84
proteins
and CRISPR system, 495–96
and epigenetics, 431
and evolution of DNA-based life, 138–39
and freemartins, 373
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 475
and height research, 270
and light organs, 405
and lyonization, 338
and measurement of genetic diversity, 207–8
and meiosis, 145–46
and mitochondria, 418, 518, 521
and mosaic cancers, 354
and plant domestication, 493
Proteus syndrome, 356–57
pseudogenes, 364
psychology, 75, 292–93, 298, 305, 314–15, 318
Pye, Ruth, 398
Quake, Stephen, 364
Quastel, Juda, 119
Questions About the Breeding of Animals (Bakewell), 44
Race, Robert, 377–80
race and racism
and cumulative culture, 567
and Dobzhansky’s research, 204–6
and Du Bois’s research, 202–4
and Goddard’s research, 93–94
and intelligence research, 312–16
and Lewontin’s research, 207–9
origins of race concept, 17
racial classifications, 195–96, 208–10
racial hierarchies, 196
racial hygiene laws, 95, 198–202
scientific racism, 93–96, 206–7
and tracing lineages, 193–98
Rader, Evelyn, 157
Radiobiological Research Unit, 333–34
Ralph, Peter, 189
Ramon y Cajal, Santiago, 346
Ramsay, Paul, 504–5
Rankin, Dorothy, 158
Rawls, Lindsey, 572
recessive traits and mutations
and causes of PKU, 117, 119, 122–23, 126, 129
and Davenport’s research, 79
and Drosophila research, 98
and genome sequencing, 184–85
and Germinal Choice program, 504
and Goddard’s research, 81
and isolation of populations, 214
and meiosis, 152
and Mendel’s research, 60, 137–38, 473
and mutagenic chain reaction, 550–55
and selective breeding, 486
Reich, David, 226, 232–33, 240
Rendell, Luke, 458
restriction enzymes, 489
retrotransposons, 441
Rh factors, 208
Risch, Neil, 276–77
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
and bacterial restriction enzymes, 488
and CRISPR system, 489–91
and DNA replication, 125
and epigenetics, 439–42
and evolution of DNA-based life, 138–39
and gene drives, 155
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 475
and lyonization, 338–39
and plant defense systems, 566
and plant domestication, 495
and stem cells, 345
Roberts, Dorothy, 316
Robeson, Paul, 157
Rogers, Lois, 514
Roman culture, 12–15, 253–54, 370
Roots: The Sage of an American Family (Haley), 168–70, 179–80
Rose, Steven, 133–34
Rose, Willie Lee, 169
Royal Eastern Counties Institution at Colchester, 118
Royal Society, 54, 137, 256, 524
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 237
satellite cells, 345
Scheinfeld, Amram, 101
Schmorl, Christian Georg, 385
Schork, Nicholas, 216
Schwann, Theodor, 326
Schwann cells, 393–94
Scientific Revolution, 26, 325
scleroderma, 390
Scottish Council for Research in Education, 293
Scottish Mental Survey, 293, 302
sea urchins, 352–53
seed balls, 49
Seegen, Joseph, 211
The Selfish Gene (Dawkins), 452–54
Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, 496
Sheldon, Ben, 457–58
short tandem repeats, 176
Shull, George, 62–63, 80, 485–86, 488
siblings, 151–52, 186–87, 291. See also twins
sickle cell anemia, 212
Siemens, Hermann Werner, 265–66
Siepel, Adam, 234, 242–44, 248–49
Silventoinen, Karri, 266
Simon, Theodore, 77
Simon-Binet test, 77–78, 96, 291
Simson, Richard, 210–11
single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 193, 210, 213
skin color, 199–202, 228–31, 484
skin diseases, 229–31, 265–66, 357–58, 367, 535
Skinner, Michael, 428
Skinner, Robert and Judith, 254
slipper limpets, 329–30
Smith, David, 479
Society of Friends, 287–88
somatic cells
and CRISPR technology, 524
and engineering of embryonic cells, 544, 546
and genetic engineering, 511
and human germ line engineering, 526–27
and microbiomes, 409
and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, 532
somatic mutation, 354, 360, 368
and Weismann’s germ line theory, 56
Spearman, Charles, 297
sperm, 408, 441, 479–80, 503–4, 527–28, 540
spermatids, 547
sprue, 108
Stalin, Joseph, 500
Station for Experimental Evolution, 79
statistical analysis, 35, 119, 155, 259–60, 283–84
Stephens, Matthew, 215
sterilization, 85, 87, 93–95, 101, 118, 312
Stockard, Charles, 478–79
Stocks, Percy, 266
Stoddard, George, 313
STRUCTURE, 215–16, 218–20, 283
Stulp, Gert, 270
Sturge-Weber syndrome, 358–59
Sturtevant, Alfred, 148
Surani, Azim, 440–41
Sutti, Sheila, 183–85
Swaythling, England, 456–57
Szyf, Moshe, 432–33
Takahashi, Kazutoshi, 544–45
Tasmanian devils, 391–400
T cells, 345
TERT protein, 529
tetragametic chimeras, 382, 384
thiaminase, 448–49
Third International Eugenics Congress, 499
Thomas, W. H., 211
Thomson, James, 545
Tippett, Patricia, 379–80
Tishkoff, Sarah, 229–31
toadflax, 423–25, 439, 443, 475
tomatoes, 492–93
totipotency, 341–42, 382, 407, 436, 546
transcription factors, 242
transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, 435–36, 438–41, 443, 566
Treatise on Cattle (Mills), 370
Treatise on Natural Inheritance (Lucas), 45–46
Treves, Frederick, 351–52
Tsoi, Astrea, 360–65
Tsoi, Sici, 360–65
Tsuji, Frederick, 406
Tucker, William, 299
tumors, 274, 353–54, 392–400, 472. See also cancers
Turkheimer, Eric, 310–11
Turnbull, Doug, 517
twins
and CRISPR research, 497
and effects of meiosis on heredity, 151–52
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 541
and freemartins, 370–72, 373–76, 378–79
and genetic screening, 505
and height research, 264–67, 280
and intelligence research, 290, 297–300, 303, 305, 310–11
and Mengele’s research, 187
and microbiomes, 415
and ooplasm transfers, 516
Twins (Newnan, Freeman, and Holzinger), 297–98
twin spotting, 350
Type II diabetes, 216
Tyson, Edward, 254–55
Udolph, Gerald, 389
“The Uniqueness of the Individual” (Medawar), 379
US Army Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 178
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 515, 521
US Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee, 512
Uyghurs, 307–8
vaccinations, 532–33
vancomycin resistance, 141–42
The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (Darwin), 43, 48, 52, 54, 442
Verschuer, Otmar van, 94
vertical inheritance, 140
Villermé, Louis-René, 257–58, 267
Vineland Training School
and Carol Buck, 111
and Davenport, 79–81
and eugenics ideology, 84–85, 88–91, 96, 101–2
Goddard’s removal from, 92, 101
and Goddard’s research, 75–79, 81–83, 88–91
and Kite’s fieldwork, 81–83
origin of, 67–68
Pearl Buck’s support of, 113–15
Penrose’s visit to, 120–21
and PKU testing, 131–32
Wolverton’s admission to, 68–73
Virchow, Rudolf, 326
viruses
and bacterial restriction enzymes, 487
and chimerism, 392–93, 395, 397–98, 400–401
and CRISPR mechanism, 143–44, 488–89, 524
and horizontal inheritance, 142
and Mendel’s Law, 473–74
and retrotransposons, 441
Visscher, Peter, 151, 266–67, 281–82, 303
Waddington, Conrad, 331–34, 342, 344
Wagner, Richard, 498
Wallace, Douglas, 421
Walsh, Christopher, 368–69
Walsh, Richard, 111–12
water fleas, 475–76
Watson, James, 124–25
Weismann, August
and chimerism, 394
and embryonic development research, 328–29, 332–33
and epigenetics, 437
and ethical issues of scientific advances, 543
and genetic vs. nongenetic heredity, 472–73, 478–79
and germ line/soma distinction, 56–60, 143–44, 329, 394, 409, 426, 511, 524, 545–46
and neurogenesis, 347
and ooplasm transfers, 515
Wellcome Trust study, 278
Whalley, Lawrence, 293–94
What Is Intelligence? (Flynn), 308
White, Philip Dudley, 212
White, William Allen, 90
Whiten, Andrew, 459
Wiedenheft, Blake, 489
Wilker, Karl, 94
Wilkins, Maurice, 124
William Harvey Research Institute, 275
William the Conqueror, 163, 165, 241
Wilmut, Ian, 544
Wilson, Allan, 192
Wilson, Edmund Beecher, 330–31
Wilson, J. G., 211
Wilson, Woodrow, 85
Winkler, Hans, 377
Winthrop, John, 166
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, 301–2
witches’-broom, 348–49. See also mosaicism
Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, 326
Wolff, Louis, 127–29
Wolverton, Emma
burial place, 132
and fetal alcohol syndrome, 478, 480
and Goddard’s research, 77–78, 82–83, 103–6
and The Kallikak Family, 86, 91–92
and theories of wealth inequality, 566
and the Vineland Training School, 69–73, 91–92, 111
Wolverton, John, 83, 86, 103, 163
Wolverton, Malinda, 69, 82, 104, 163
Wolynn, Mark, 436
World War II, 101, 113, 121, 206, 296, 313, 375, 499
Wormeley, Agatha, 165
Wright, Robert, 134
X chromosomes
and Drosophila research, 98, 153
fragile X mutation, 4–5
and genetic screening, 505
and genetic testing and counseling, 5
and Lyon’s research, 334–41
and meiosis, 147–48
and mosaicism, 355
and mutagenic chain reaction, 554
Xic, 338–39
Xist, 339
X-ray mutagenesis, 490
Yamnaya culture, 227–28
Yandruwandha people, 448–51, 454
Y chromosomes
and chimerism, 380–81, 387–91, 393, 398
and Drosophila research, 98
and genetic screening, 505
and Lyon’s research, 334–35
and mosaicism, 355
and tracing lineages, 178–79, 190–92
Y-chromosome “Adam,” 192
yellow gene, 550–55
Yong, Ed, 537
Zhang, Feng, 490–91
Zielinski, Dina, 222–24
Zimmer, Ben, 252
Zimmer, Charlotte, 1–7, 150–51, 251–52, 344, 445–47, 449, 463
Zimmer, Grace, 1–7, 150–51, 155, 180, 184–85, 344
Zimmer, Jacob, 170
Zimmer, Veronica, 5, 150–51, 251–52, 344
Zimmer, Wolf, 221
Zioberg, Magnus, 422–23
zygotes
and ancestral overgrowth, 327
and chimerism, 393
and CRISPR research, 496
and embryonic pedigrees, 329
and freemartins, 374
and human germ line engineering, 525
and microbiomes, 407
and mosaicism, 355, 357, 360, 366
and ooplasm transfers, 516
and totipotency, 341