This bibliography should serve as a general guide to the various kinds of materials that are extant on the study. Listing all the references to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study would take a volume in itself. Sources for the archives that hold the major primary documents in the study are provided. Not every secondary article is included, nor are the numerous websites. Some general works on syphilis treatment in the 1930s and on the politics in Tuskegee are listed. In 1972, when the study first made national news, and again in 1997, when President Bill Clinton made the formal apology on behalf of the U.S. government, there was a flurry of media accounts in major newspapers, television and radio reports, and web pages. There are too many to list here.
Using any standard search engine (i.e., Hotbot, Alta Vista, Yahoo) and the search terms “Tuskegee syphilis” will yield numerous citations and websites. Some of these sites are course outlines, guides to further reading, and personal comments on the study, as well as materials from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee, news stories on the apology, and citations to journal articles. An excellent beginning guide to the medical literature can be found through the National Library of Medicine’s website, Internet Grateful Med, http://igm.nlm.nih.gov.
The asterisk indicates that the citation, or a selection from the citation, is in this volume.
Much of the organizational work on this bibliography was done by Kristel E. E. Maney. I am more than grateful for her assistance and good spirits.
Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Alabama
Alabama Department of Public Health Administrative Files of the State Health Officer
District Court of the United States, Middle District of Alabama, Montgomery, Alabama
Charles W. Pollard et al. v. United States of America et al., Civil Action No. 4126-N
National Archives and Records Administration, Southeast Regional National Archives, East Point, Georgia
Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, 1930–80
National Archives and Records Administration, Washington D.C.
United States Public Health Service Division of Venereal Diseases, Record Group 90 (1918–36)
National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland Tuskegee Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel Papers
Thompson, Lillian A. “Eunice Rivers Laurie (interview, 10 October 1977).” In The Black Women Oral History Project, ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill, 7:213–42. New Providence, N.J.: K. G. Saur Verlag, 1992.
Tuskegee University Archives, Hollis Burke Frissell Library, Washingtonian Collection, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama
*Dibble, Helen, and Daniel Williams. “An Interview with Nurse Rivers,” 1977
Eugene Dibble Papers
R. R. Moton Papers
Tuskegee Syphilis Study Papers
Alabama Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights. “Alabama Commission Report.” Montgomery: State of Alabama, 1973.
*“Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1973.
*“Nomination of Dr. Henry Foster for Surgeon General of the United States.” Washington, D.C.: Federal Document Clearing House, Inc., 1995.
*“Quality of Health Care and Human Experimentation, 1973.” Hearings before the Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Ninety-third Congress, Washington, D.C., 1973.
Caldwell, Joseph G. “Aortic Regurgitation in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 26 (1973): 187–94.
Clark, E. Gurney, et al. “The Oslo Study of the Natural History of Untreated Syphilis.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 2 (September 1955): 343.
Deibert, A. V., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: III. Evidence of Cardiovascular Abnormalities and Other Forms of Morbidity.” Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946): 301–14.
*Heller, John R., and et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Mortality during Twelve Years of Observation.” Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946): 34–38.
Olansky, Sidney, et al. “Environmental Factors in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis.” Public Health Reports 69 (1954): 691–98.
Olansky, Sidney, et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Twenty-two Years of Serological Observation in a Selected Syphilis Study Group.” A.M.A. Archives of Dermatology 73 (1956): 519–22.
Olansky, Sidney, et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: X. Twenty Years of Clinical Observation of Untreated Syphilitic and Presumably Nonsyphilitic Groups.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 4 (1956): 177–85.
Pesare, Pasquale J., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro.” Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946): 202.
Pesare, Pasquale J., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Observation of Abnormalities over Sixteen Years.” American Journal of Syphilis, Gonorrhea, and Venereal Diseases 34 (1950): 201–13.
Peters, Jesse J., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Pathologic Findings in Syphilitic and Nonsyphilitic Patients.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 1 (1955): 127–48.
*Rivers, Eunice, et al. “Twenty Years of Follow-Up Experience in a Long-Range Medical Study.” Public Health Reports 68 (1953): 391–95.
Rockwell, Donald H., et al. “The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis: The Thirtieth Year of Observation.” Archives of Internal Medicine 114 (1961): 792–98.
Schuman, Stanley H., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Background and Current Status of Patients in the Tuskegee Study.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 2 (1955): 543–58.
Shafer, J. K., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Prospective Study of the Effect on Life Expectancy.” Public Health Reports 69 (1954): 691–97.
Vonderlehr, R. A., et al. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Comparative Study of Treated and Untreated Cases.” Venereal Disease Information 17 (1936): 260–65, and Journal of the American Medical Association 107 (1936): 856–60.
*Angell, Marcia. “The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World.” N. E. J. Med. 337, no. 12 (1997): 847–49.
Brawley, O. W. “The Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.” Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 40, no. 1 (1998): 5–8.
Butler, Broadus. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” Journal of the National Medical Association 65, no. 4 (1973): 345–48.
Byman, B. “Out from the Shadow of Tuskegee: Fighting Racism in Medicine.” Minn. Med. 74, no. 8 (1991): 15–20.
*Cave, Vernal G. “Proper Uses and Abuses of the Health Care Delivery System for Minorities with Special Reference to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” J. Nat. Med. Assoc. 67, no. 1 (1975): 82–84.
Cobb, W. M. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 65, no. 4 (1973): 345–48.
Coughlin, S. S., G. D. Etheredge, C. Metayer, and S. A. Martin Jr. “Remember Tuskegee: Public Health Student Knowledge of the Ethical Significance of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” Am. J. Prev. Med. 12, no. 4 (1996): 242–46.
Cox, J. D. “Paternalism, Informed Consent and Tuskegee.” Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 20, no. 1 (1998): 1–2.
Curran, William J. “Law-Medicine Notes: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” New England Journal of Medicine 289, no. 14 (1973): 730–31.
*Cutler, John C., et al. “Venereal Disease Control by Health Departments in the Past: Lessons for the Present.” American Journal of Public Health 78, no. 4 (1988): 372–76.
Dowd, S. B., and B. Wilson. “Informed Patient Consent: A Historical Perspective.” Radiol. Technol. 67, no. 2 (1995): 119–24.
Gerrity, Patricia L. “Public Health Initiatives and the Legacy of Tuskegee: A Case Study.” Family Community Health 17, no. 3 (1994): 15–22.
Grunfeld, G. B. “Dissimilarities between Tuskegee Study and HIV/AIDS Programs Emphasized.” Am. J. Public Health 82, no. 8 (1992): 1176.
Guinan, M. E. “Black Communities’ Belief in ‘AIDS as Genocide’: A Barrier to Overcome for HIV Prevention.” Ann. Epidemiol. 3, no. 2 (1993): 193–95. Harris, Y., P. B. Gorelick, P. Samuels, and I. Bempong. “Why African Americans May Not Be Participating in Clinical Trials.” J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 88, no. 10 (1996): 630–34.
Hazen, H. H. Syphilis in the Negro: A Handbook for the General Practitioner. Vol. Supplement No. 15, Venereal Disease Information. Washington, D.C.: Federal Security Agency, U.S. Public Health Service, 1942.
Hinton, William A. Syphilis and Its Treatment. New York: Macmillan Company, 1936.
*Kampmeier, R. H. “The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis.” Southern Medical Journal 65 (October 1972): 1247–51.
———. “The Final Report on the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” Southern Medical Journal 67, no. 11 (1974): 56–67.
Lewis, Julian Herman. The Biology of the Negro. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942.
McCarthy, C. R. “Historical Background of Clinical Trials Involving Women and Minorities.” Acad. Med. 69, no. 9 (1994): 695–98.
*McDonald, Charles J. “The Contribution of the Tuskegee Study to Medical Knowledge.” J. Nat. Med. Assoc. 66, no. 1 (1974): 1–7.
*Parran, Thomas. “White Man’s Burden.” In Shadow on the Land, 160–81. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1937.
*Roy, Benjamin. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Biotechnology and the Administrative State.” J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 87, no. 1 (1995): 56–66.
———. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Medical Ethics, Constitutionalism, and Property in the Body.” Harvard Journal of Minority Health 1, no. 1 (1995): 11–15.
———. “The Julius Rosenwald Fund Syphilis Seroprevalence Studies.” J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 88, no. 5 (1996): 315–22.
*Silver, George A. “The Infamous Tuskegee Study.” Am. J. Public Health 78, no. 11 (1988): 1500.
Talone, P. “Establishing Trust after Tuskegee.” Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Phys. 40, no. 1 (1998): 3–4.
*Thomas, Stephen. B., and Sandra Crouse Quinn. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Education Programs in the Black Community.” American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 1498–1506.
“Treponemes and Tuskegee.” Lancet 1, no. 7817 (23 June 1973): 1438. “The Tuskegee Study.” J. Okla. State Med. Assoc. 66, no. 2 (1973): 47–51.
*Varmus, Harold, and David Satcher. “Ethical Complexities of Conducting Research in Developing Countries.” N. E. J. Med. 337, no. 14 (1997): 1003–5. Vessey, J. A., and S. Gennaro. “The Ghost of Tuskegee.” Nurs. Res. 43, no. 2 (1994): 67.
White, R. M. “Grand Dragon or Windmill: Why I Opposed the Presidential Apology for the Tuskegee Study.” J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 89, no. 11 (1997): 719–20. Wolinsky, Howard. “Steps Still Being Taken to Undo Damage of ‘America’s Nuremberg.’ ”Annals of Internal Medicine 127 (15 August 1997): 143–44.
Aptheker, Herbert. “Racism and Human Experimentation.” Political Affairs, Theoretical Journal of the Communist Party LIII (2 1974): 47–59.
*Benedek, T. G. “The ‘Tuskegee Study’ of Syphilis: An Analysis of Moral versus Methodologic Aspects.” Journal of Chronic Diseases 31, no. 1 (1978): 35–50. Bowie, Sibyl Kaye. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: A Case Study in Crisis Communication in Public Relations.” Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, 1986.
Brandt, Allan M. No Magic Bullet. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
*———. “Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” In Sickness and Health in America, eds. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, 392–404. 3d (rev.) ed. Madison: Wisconsin Press, 1997.
*Caplan, Arthur L. “When Evil Intrudes.” The Hastings Center Report 22, no. 6 (1992): 29–32.
Dawson, Emory. “The Protection of Human Subjects: The Tuskegee Study.” Maxwell Review 10, no. 2 (1974): 49–56.
Dula, Annette. “African American Suspicion of the Healthcare System Is Justified: What Do We Do about It?” Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 3 (1994): 347–57.
*Edgar, Harold. “Outside the Community.” Hastings Center Report 22, no. 6 (1992): 32–35.
*Fairchild, Amy L., and Ronald Bayer. “Uses and Abuses of Tuskegee.” Science 284 (7 May 1999): 919–21.
Forman, James. Sammy Younge, Jr. : The First Black College Student to Die in the Black Liberation Movement. New York: Grove Press, 1968.
Foster, Henry W. Jr. Make a Difference. New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1997.
Fourter, A. W., C. F. Fourtner, and C. F. Herreid. “Bad Blood: A Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project.” J. College Sci. Teach. 23, no. 23 (1994): 277–85. Gamble, Vanessa Northington. “A Legacy of Distrust: African Americans and Medical Research.” Am. J. Prev. Med. 9 November-December 1993, Suppl.): 35–38.
———. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Women’s Health.” J. Am. Med. Women’s Assoc. 52, no. 4 (1997): 195–196.
*———. “Under the Shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and Health Care.” AJPH 87 (November 1997): 1773–78.
Goldner, Jesse A. “An Overview of Legal Controls on Human Experimentation and the Regulatory Implications of Taking Professor Katz Seriously.” St. Louis University Law Journal 38 (Fall 1993): 63–134.
Gray, Fred D. Bus Ride to Justice: Changing the System by the System, The Life Works of Fred Gray. Montgomery, Ala.: Black Belt Press, 1995.
*———. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond. Montgomery: Black Belt Press, 1998.
Guzman, Jessie Parkhurst. Crusade for Civic Democracy: The Story of the Tuskegee Civic Association, 1941–1970. New York: Vantage Press, 1984.
Hammar, Lawrence. “The Dark Side to Donovanosis: Color, Climate, Race and Racism in American South Venereology.” Journal of Medical Humanities 18 (Spring 1997): 29–57.
*Hammonds, Evelynn M. “Your Silence Will Not Protect You: Nurse Eunice Rivers and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.” In The Black Woman’s Health Book: Speaking for Ourselves, ed. C. Evelyn White, 323–31. 2d ed. Seattle: Seal Press, 1994.
Hiltner, Seward. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study under Review.” The Christian Century 90, no. 43 (1973): 1174–76.
*Hine, Darlene Clark. Black Women in White. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
*Johnson, Charles S. Shadow of the Plantation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1934.
Jones, James H. Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New York: Free Press., 1981, Revised Edition, 1992.
———. “The Tuskegee Legacy: AIDS and the Black Community.” The Hastings Center Report 22, no. 6 (1992): 38–40.
Katz, Jay. “The Regulation of Human Experimentation in the United States—A Personal Odyssey.” IRB: A Review of Human Subjects Research 9 (January/February 1987): 1–6.
*King, Patricia A. “The Dangers of Difference.” Hastings Center Report 22, no. 6 (1992): 35–37.
Kirp, David L. “Blood, Sweat, and Tears: The Tuskegee Experiment and the Era of AIDS.” Tikkun 10, no. 3 (1995): 50–54.
Lederer, Susan. “The Tuskegee Syphilis Study in the Context of American Medical Research.” Sigerist Circle Newsletter and Bibliography 6 (Winter 1994): 2–4. Norrell, Robert J. Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee. New York: Vintage, 1986.
Reverby, Susan M. “History of an Apology: From Tuskegee to the White House.” Research Nurse 3 (July/August 1997): 1–9.
*———. “Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Nurse Rivers, Silence and the Meaning of Treatment.” Nursing History Review 7 (1999): 3–28.
*Rosenkrantz, Barbara. “Non-Random Events.” Yale Review 72 (1983): 284–96. Rothman, D. J. “Were Tuskegee and Willowbrook ‘Studies in Nature’?” Hastings Center Report 12, no. 2 (1982): 5–7.
———. “Research Ethics at Tuskegee and Willowbrook [letter].” Am. J. Med. 77, no. 6 (1984): A49.
Savitt, Todd L. “The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation and Demonstration in the Old South.” Journal of Southern History 48 (August 1982): 331–48.
Shick, Tom W. “Race, Class and Medicine: ‘Bad Blood’ in Twentieth-Century America.” Journal of Ethnic Studies (Summer 1982): 97–105.
Smith, Joyce E. “A Black Experiment, or the Tuskegee Study.” Consciousness IV Series No. 2 (1973) Washington, D.C.: Howard University Library.
Smith, Susan L. “Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired”: Black Women’s Health Activism in America, 1890–1950. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
*———. “Neither Victim nor Villain: Nurse Eunice Rivers, the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, and Public Health Work.” Journal of Women’s History 8 (Spring 1996): 95–113.
*Solomon, Martha. “The Rhetoric of Dehumanization: An Analysis of Medical Reports of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project.” Western Journal of Speech Communication 49, no. 4 (1985): 233–47. Reprinted in Critical Questions: Invention, Creativity, and the Criticism of Discourse and Media, eds. William L. Nothstine, Carole Blair, and Gary A. Copeland. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.
Stanfield, John H. “Venereal Disease Control Demonstrations among Rural Blacks in the American South.” Western Journal of Black Studies 5, no. 4 (1981): 246–53.
Taper, Bernard. Gomillion versus Lightfoot: The Tuskegee Gerrymander Case. New York: McGraw Hill, 1962.
Winters, Myrtle V. “A Study of the Development and Organization of the Public Health Department of Macon County, Alabama.” Master’s thesis, Tulane University School of Social Work, 1941.
Barker, Martha G. “Civil Rights Center Dedicated in Tuskegee.” Opelika-Auburn News, 17 May 1998, A-1.
*Heller, Jean. “Syphilis Victims in U.S. Study without Therapy for Forty Years.” New York Times, 26 July 1972, 1, 8.
*Junod, Tom. “Deadly Medicine.” Gentlemen’s Quarterly, June 1993, 164–71, 231–34.
Levine, Martin P. “Bad Blood: The Health Commissioner, the Tuskegee Experiment, and AIDS Policy.” New York Native 16 February 1987, 13–16. Shelton, Deborah L. “Legacy of Tuskegee.” American Medical News 3 June 1996, 24–30.
Spear, Ken L. “Tuskegee Launches Bioethics Center,” Montgomery Advertiser 15 May 1999, 1A, 2A.
Stryker, Jeff. “Tuskegee’s Long Arm Still Touches a Nerve.” New York Times, 13 April 1997, 4.
Trafford, Abigail. “The Ghost of Tuskegee.” Washington Post, 6 May 1997, A19. Washington, Harriet A. “Human Guinea Pigs.” Emerge: Black America’s New Magazine, 6 (1 October 1994): 24.
*Yoon, Carol Kaesuk. “Families Emerge as Silent Victims of Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments.” New York Times, 12 May 1997, A1.
Bad Blood. Video. London: Diverse Production, 1992.
*Bryon, Don. Tuskegee Experiments. Elektra Nonesuch 79260-2. Compact disc. 1992.
Critical Thinking in Nursing: Lessons from Tuskegee. Video. New York: National League for Nursing Videos, 1993.
The Deadly Deception. Video. NOVA, WGBH Educational Foundation Films, 1993.
Living Black and White: Tuskegee, Alabama. Video. Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Center for Public Television, 1996.
McDonald, Leroy. Tuskegee Subject No. 626. Film. Dallas: Leroy McDonald, 1991. Miss Evers’ Boys. New York: HBO, 1997.
Race Prejudice and Health Care: The Lessons of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. Audiotapes. Minneapolis: Illusion Theater, 1993.
Scott-Herron, Gill. Bridges. Arista: AB 4147. Compact disc, 1994.
Susceptible to Kindness: “Miss Evers’ Boys” and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Video. Ithaca: Cornell University Media Services, 1993.
“The Tuskegee Study.” Video. New York: ABC, “Prime Time Live,” 6 February 1992.
“White House Apology.” Video. Atlanta: CNN Live, 16 May 1997.
Chandler, Duane. The Trees Don’t Bleed in Tuskegee: A Play in Two Acts Based on the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Unpublished manuscript. Hasbrouck Heights, N.J., 1997.
*Feldshuh, David. Miss Evers’ Boys. New York: Dramatists Play Service, Inc., 1995.
*Hemphill, Essex. “Civil Servant.” In Ceremonies, 22–24. New York: Plume, 1992.