1. I have altered the name of the driver to protect his identity.
2. For a vignette of a young Latino Muslim voter in central Florida, and a snapshot of this growing demographic of Muslims in the state at large, see Khaled A. Beydoun, “Muslim-Americans Can Impact Elections,” Orlando Sentinel, March 15, 2016.
3. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between Indigence, Islamophobia, and Erasure: Poor and Muslim in ‘War on Terror’ America,” California Law Review 104 (2016).
4. Matt Welch, “Trump May Have Bad Intentions, But Obama Was a Deporter-in-Chief,” Los Angeles Times, February 17, 2017.
5. I refer to the community of Muslim citizens in the United States as Muslim Americans, over the “American Muslim” descriptor others prefer.
6. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Please Don’t Be Arabs or Muslims,” Al Jazeera English, April 16, 2013.
7. Executive Order No. 13,769, Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States, Daily Compilation of Presidential Documents no. 00076 (January 27, 2017).
8. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Donald Trump: The Islamophobia President,” Al Jazeera English, November 9, 2015.
9. Khaled A. Beydoun, “‘Muslim Bans’ and the (Re)Making of Political Islamophobia,” University of Illinois Law Review 2017, no. 5 (2017).
10. On the ways politicians deploy coded messaging against nonwhites to further their objectives or campaigns, see Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
11. Daniel Funke and Tina Susman, “From Ferguson to Baton Rouge: Deaths of Black Men and Women at the Hands of Police,” Los Angeles Times, July 12, 2016.
12. “According to an August 2008 report by the U.S. Census Bureau, those groups currently categorized as racial minorities—blacks and Hispanics, East Asians and South Asians—will account for a majority of the U.S. population by the year 2042.” Hua Hsu, “The End of White America,” Atlantic, January/February 2009, p. 3.
13. U.S. Census Bureau, “New Census Bureau Report Analyzes U.S. Population Projections,” March 3, 2015.
14. D’vera Cohn, “It’s Official: Minority Babies Are the Majority among the Nation’s Infants, but Only Just,” Pew Research Center, June 23, 2016.
15. A national security program formally implemented by President Barack Obama in 2011, whereby DHS works closely with local law enforcement and elements within the Muslim American community to identify prospective radicals and prevent terror attacks. Countering Violent Extremism programs were piloted in three cities in 2014: Boston, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis.
16. Victims of Immigration Crime Enforcement, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Although the explicit mission of the program is to “support victims of crimes committed by criminal aliens through access to information and resources,” the hotline also enables individuals to call in and report the whereabouts and identity of an undocumented individual.
17. Khaled A. Beydoun, “America Banned Muslims Long before Donald Trump,” Washington Post, August 18, 2016.
18. Poor or working-class whites are commonly caricatured to be the primary proponents of Islamophobia, a population effectively examined and humanized in J.D. Vance’s Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016).
19. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979).
20. Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2015).
21. Cindy Carcamo, “Like an Invisibility Cloak, Latina Muslims Find the Hijab Hides Their Ethnicity—from Latinos,” Los Angeles Times, March 24, 2017.
22. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na‘im, What Is an American Muslim? Embracing Faith and Citizenship (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 3.
23. Ashley Moore, “American Muslim Minorities: The New Human Rights Struggle,” Human Rights and Human Welfare 91 (2010): 1.
24. Toni Johnson, “Muslims in the United States,” Council on Foreign Relations, 2011.
25. The term “intersectionality” was coined by Kimberlé W. Crenshaw in her landmark law review article, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43 (1993): 1241, 1244. Crenshaw defines intersectionality as the various ways in which multiple social categories shape the complexity, and determine the vulnerability, of lived experiences.
26. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Why Intersectionality Can’t Wait,” Washington Post, September 24, 2015.
Epigraphs: Muneer I. Ahmad, “A Rage Shared by Law: Post–September 11 Racial Violence as Crimes of Passion,” California Law Review 92 (2004): 1318. Yusor Abu-Salha quoted by her father in Margaret Talbot, “The Story of a Hate Crime,” New Yorker, June 22, 2015.
1. Margaret Talbot, “The Story of a Hate Crime,” New Yorker, June 22, 2015.
2. “‘We’re All One’: Chapel Hill Victim Talks Diversity in America,” Al Jazeera America, February 13, 2015.
3. Omar Alnatour, “10 Things We Can Learn from Our Three Winners,” Huffington Post blog, February 10, 2017.
4. Jorge Valencia, “Razan and Yusor Abu-Salha Were All-American Sisters Who Loved Their Family, Service and the Beach,” North Carolina Public Radio, February 9, 2016.
5. Saeed Ahmed and Catherine E. Shoichet, “3 Students Shot to Death in Apartment near UNC Chapel Hill,” CNN, February 11, 2015.
6. Talbot, “The Story of a Hate Crime.”
7. Dalia Mogahed and Youssef Chouhoud, “American Muslim Poll 2017: Muslims at the Crossroads,” Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, March 21, 2017, p. 9.
8. “Dislike of or prejudice against Islam or Muslims, especially as a political force,” Oxford Dictionary online.
9. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Islamophobia: Toward a Legal Definition and Framework,” Columbia Law Review Online 116 (2016).
10. Hamid Dabashi, “The Liberal Roots of Islamophobia,” Al Jazeera English, March 3, 2017.
11. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Muslims between Hillary Clinton and a Hard Place,” Al Jazeera English, July 25, 2016.
12. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Why Can’t Muslims Talk about the Muslim Ban on US TV?” Al Jazeera English, February 17, 2017.
13. Julie Alderman and Nina Mast, “When Discussing Trump’s Muslim Ban, Cable News Excluded Muslims,” Media Matters for America, February 9, 2017.
14. Nathan Lean, The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims (London: Pluto Press, 2012), p. 66.
15. Kalia Abade, “Anti-Muslim Protests—Some Armed—Planned for at Least 20 Sites across the Country,” Imagine 2050, September 29, 2015.
16. Sara Rathod, “2015 Saw a Record Number of Attacks on US Mosques,” Mother Jones, June 20, 2016.
17. Scott Malone, “U.S. Anti-Muslim Bias Incidents Increased in 2016, Group Says,” Reuters, May 9, 2017.
18. Southern Poverty Law Center, “Hate Groups Increase for Second Consecutive Year as Trump Electrifies Radical Right,” February 15, 2017.
19. Nancy Coleman, “On Average, 9 Mosques Have Been Targeted Every Month This Year,” CNN, August 7, 2017.
20. Christopher Mathias, “2016 Election Coincided with Horrifying Increase in Anti-Muslim Hate Crimes, Report Finds,” Huffington Post, May 9, 2017.
21. Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2015).
22. Emma Green, “Americans Still Confuse Sikhs with Muslims,” Atlantic, January 27, 2015.
23. Tamar Lewin, “Sikh Owner of Gas Station Is Fatally Shot in Rampage,” New York Times, September 17, 2001.
24. Victoria Kim and Joseph Serna, “For Sikhs, Often Mistaken As Muslims, It’s ‘A Hostile and Scary Time,’” Los Angeles Times, December 29, 2015.
25. Interview with Arjun S. Sethi, May 14, 2017.
26. Beydoun, “Islamophobia,” 115.
27. Leti Volpp, “The Citizen and the Terrorist,” UCLA Law Review 49: 1586.
28. Evelyn Alsultany, Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11 (New York: New York University Press, 2012).
29. See Marie A. Failinger, “Islam in the Mind of American Courts: 1800 to 1960,” Boston College Journal of Law and Social Justice 32 (2012): 1.
30. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between Indigence, Islamophobia, and Erasure: Poor and Muslim in ‘War on Terror’ America,” California Law Review 104 (2016): 1471.
31. “Obama’s Speech in Cairo” (text of speech), New York Times, June 9, 2009. The historic address, dubbed the “speech to the Muslim World,” was delivered at Al-Azhar University, one of the leading institutions of Islamic thought and the flagship center of Sunni Islamic thought.
32. Kaveh Waddell, “America Already Had a Muslim Registry,” Atlantic, December 20, 2016.
33. Ryan Ahari, “Policy Brief: Designating the Muslim Brotherhood as a Foreign Terrorist Organization,” Muslim Public Affairs Council, 2017.
34. John Eligon and Michael Cooper, “Blasts at Boston Marathon Kill 3 and Injure More than 100,” New York Times, April 15, 2013.
35. Sarah Kendzior, “The Wrong Kind of Caucasian,” Al Jazeera English, April 21, 2013.
36. Alex Dobuzinskis, “Two Men Stabbed to Death on Oregon Train Trying to Stop Anti-Muslim Rant,” Reuters, May 29, 2017.
37. See www.buzzfeed.com/talalansari/columbus-ohio-brawl?utm_term=.ftKaN4k4O#.uxGQlAPAY.
38. Kelly James Clark, “Why Don’t Moderate Muslims Denounce Terrorism?” Huffington Post, December 4, 2015.
39. Shirin Sinnar, “Preparing American Muslim Daughters for What Awaits,” Opinion, Mercury News, November 25, 2015.
40. Amanda Sakuma, “Muslim Women Wearing Hijabs Assaulted Just Hours after Trump Win,” NBC News, November 10, 2017.
41. Theodore Schleifer, “Donald Trump: ‘I Think Islam Hates Us,’” CNN, March 10, 2016.
42. Ahmad, “A Rage Shared by Law,” 1319.
43. Michael S. Schmidt and Richard Pérez-Peña, “F.B.I Treating San Bernardino Attack as Terrorism Case,” New York Times, December 4, 2015.
44. Victoria Shannon, “Brussels Attacks: What We Know and Don’t Know,” New York Times, March 22, 2016.
45. Julie Ann Taylor, Sanaa Ayoub, and Fatima Moussa, “The Hijab in Public Schools,” Religion in Education 41 (2013): 8.
46. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Islamophobia Has a Long History in the US,” Viewpoint, BBC Magazine, September 29, 2015.
Epigraphs: Theodore Schleifer, “Donald Trump: ‘I Think Islam Hates Us,’” CNN, March 10, 2016. Judge Stephen Field in Ross v. McIntyre, 140 U.S. 453, 454 (1891); this case addressed the applicability of American law to foreign sailors on U.S. ships while in the territory of another country.
1. Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), pp. 39–40.
2. Fajr is “break of dawn” or “sunrise” in Arabic. Sunrise marks the time for the first of the five daily prayers.
3. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Antebellum Islam,” Howard Law Journal 58 (2015): 143–144.
4. Khaled A. Beydoun, “America Banned Muslims Long before Donald Trump,” Washington Post, August 18, 2016.
5. Mike Gonzalez, “Multiculturalism and the Fight for America’s National Identity,” Heritage Foundation, November 23, 2016.
6. Harper Neidig, “Trump Warns against Syrian Refugees: ‘A Lot of Those People Are ISIS,’” The Hill, June 29, 2016.
7. Ian Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996).
8. Sylviane A. Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas (New York: New York University Press, 1998), p. 47.
9. Beydoun, “Antebellum Islam,” pp. 147–148.
10. Daniel Martin Varisco, Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007), p. 4.
11. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979), pp. 1–2.
12. Varisco, Reading Orientalism, p. 47.
13. Said, Orientalism, p. 2.
14. Ibid., p. 9.
15. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994), p. 55. Omi and Winant describe race as “an unstable and ‘decentered’ complex of social meanings constantly being transformed by political struggle,” and they describe racialization as the use of race as a basis for distinguishing among human groups.
16. López, White by Law, p. xiii. López continues, “Race exists alongside a multitude of social identities that shape and are themselves shaped by the way in which race is given meaning.”
17. Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2015), p. 10.
18. The Levant is the westernmost region of the Asian continent and includes modern-day Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, and sometimes Jordan.
19. “The term Middle East likely emerged in the 1850s from Britain’s India Office. It did not enjoy widespread usage in policy circles, however, until the early twentieth century, when it was used in the work of American naval strategist Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan. In an article first published in September 1902, Mahan used the term Middle East to refer to a region of growing strategic importance in the emerging conflict pitting Britain and the United States against Germany and Russia.” John Tehranian, Whitewashed: America’s Invisible Middle Eastern Minority (New York: New York University Press, 2009), p. 65.
20. Denise Spellberg, Thomas Jefferson’s Qur’an: Islam and the Founders (New York: Vintage, 2014), p. 6.
21. Robert Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776–1815 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 45–46.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Precious Rasheeda Muhammad, “Muslims and the Making of America: 1600s to the Present,” Muslim Public Affairs Commission, 2013, p. 23.
25. Beydoun, “Antebellum Islam,” p. 145.
26. Cheryl I. Harris, “Whiteness as Property,” Harvard Law Review 106 (1993): 1716.
27. Frederick Douglass, The Frederick Douglass Papers, Series 2, Autobiographical Writing, vol. 3, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, ed. John R. McKivigan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), p. 118.
28. Muslim-led rebellions were common in the New World. Wolof and Fulani Muslims spearheaded the first slave revolt in the history of the Americas in Hispaniola in 1522, with subsequent insurrections in present-day Puerto Rico, Panama, and Colombia from 1533 to 1580. These insurrections illustrated the distinct brand of insubordination that emanated from Islamic belief. Since many of the slave codes in the antebellum South were specifically concerned with preempting insurrections, rebellions in the United States were comparatively fewer than in Latin America. However, Muslim slaves did play key roles in the insurrections that took place, including Florida’s “Seminole Slave Rebellions” in 1835–1838. See Beydoun, “Antebellum Islam,” p. 191.
29. Diouf, Servants of Allah, p. 3.
30. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Ramadan: A Centuries-Old American Tradition,” Al Jazeera English, June 24, 2014.
31. Five central responsibilities are required of each Muslim. These “five pillars” include five daily prayers, abstinence from food or drink during the holy month of Ramadan, pilgrimage to the holy sites in Mecca, almsgiving to the poor, and the declaration that there is “only one God, and the Prophet Mohammed is his messenger.” “Pillars of Islam,” Oxford Islamic Studies Online, 2014.
32. Joseph R. Haiek, “Department of Justice Affirms Arab Race in 1909,” in The Arab American Almanac, 6th ed. (Glendale, CA: News Circle, 2010).
33. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between Muslim and White: The Legal Construction of Arab American Identity,” NYU Annual Survey of American Law 69 (2013): 31–33.
34. Sarah Gualtieri, “Syrian Immigrants and Debates on Racial Belonging in Los Angeles, 1875–1945,” Syrian Studies Association Bulletin 15 (2009).
35. López, White by Law, p. 2.
36. James Baldwin, “On Being White . . . and Other Lies,” Essence, April 1984, http://engl101-rothman.wikispaces.umb.edu/file/view/On+Being+White+and+Other+Lies.pdf.
37. Tehranian, Whitewashed, p. 15.
38. Ex parte Shahid, 205 F. 812, 813 (Eastern District Court of South Carolina, 1913).
39. Ibid., 816.
40. Beydoun, “Between Muslim and White,” p. 223.
41. Dow v. United States, 226 F. 145, 146 (4th Circuit Court, 1915). See generally Sarah M.A. Gualtieri, Between Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early American Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), for a history of the experience of the early waves of Syrian immigrants.
42. Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 141. “Many Syrian Muslims sought to pass as Christian in order to be more easily accepted into the United States and to circumvent Ottoman regulations which forbade the emigration of Muslims.” Ibid.
43. Samir Khalaf, “The Background and Causes of Lebanese/Syrian Immigration to the United States before World War I,” in Crossing the Waters: Arabic-Speaking Immigrants to the United States before 1940, ed. Eric J. Hooglund (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987), p. 23.
44. In re Ahmed Hassan, 48 F. Supp. 843, 845 (Eastern District of Michigan, 1942).
45. Ibid., p. 845.
46. Gualtieri, Between Arab and White, p. 158.
47. BBC News, “US Republican Hopeful Ben Carson: No Muslims as President,” September 29, 2015.
48. Jeremy Diamond, “Jindal: Some Muslims Trying to ‘Colonize’ West,” CNN Politics, January 21, 2015.
49. A case involving a Muslim petitioner from Saudi Arabia, Mohamed Mohriez (Ex Parte Mohriez, 54 F. Supp. 941), argued within the District Court of Massachusetts, ended the longstanding Muslim naturalization ban in 1944.
50. Christopher Mathias and Carol Carovilla, “Women’s March Organizer Targeted by Vicious Islamophobic Attacks Online,” Huffington Post, January 24, 2017.
51. See Derrick Bell, “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma,” Harvard Law Review 93 (1980): 518, 525, for a famous law review article that frames “interest convergence theory,” which contends that civil rights progress is generally had when it aligns with, and advances, majoritarian (white) interests.
52. Gualtieri, Between Arab and White, p. 161.
53. “Unlike many other racial minorities in our country, Middle Eastern Americans have faced a rising, rather than diminishing, degree of discrimination over time—a fact highlighted by recent targeted immigration policies, racial profiling, a war on terrorism with a decided racial bent, and growing rates of job discrimination and hate crime.” Tehranian, Whitewashed, p. 3.
54. “For example, in 1993, the Arab American Institute and the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee lobbied Congress to create a separate ‘Middle Eastern’ or ‘Arab American’ category, arguing that by moving Arabs from the ‘Caucasian’ category, they would obtain eligibility for certain remedial programs and better protection under antidiscrimination laws.” Ibid., p. 168. These efforts were renewed starting in 2014, when a broader group of ethnic groups and organizations, representing Arabs, Turks, Iranians, Coptics, and Chaldeans, showed support for the MENA classification being considered for the 2020 U.S. Census.
55. See Khaled A. Beydoun, “Boxed In: Reclassification of Arab Americans on the U.S. Census as Progress or Peril?” Loyola University of Chicago Law Journal 47 (2016).
56. “From 1948 to 1965, the number of students from Muslim-majority countries in the United States increased more than five-fold from 2,708 to 13,664. The Muslim-majority country that sent the most students to the United States was Iran [then a staunch ally of the United States], followed by Egypt, Pakistan, and Turkey. A sizable number of students also came from Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia.” GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, p. 264.
57. “Under these quotas, only 100 immigrants from most Muslim-majority countries were allowed entry into the United States. The quotas did not apply to visitors, foreign students, immediate family members of U.S. citizens, and members of certain professions, such as professors and religious workers.” Ibid., p. 292.
58. Ibid., p. 273.
1. W. Joseph Campbell, 1995: The Year the Future Began (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015).
2. Jim Naureckas, “The Oklahoma City Bombing: The Jihad That Wasn’t,” Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR), July 1, 1995, p. 2.
3. Ibid., p. 5.
4. Larry B. Stammer and Carla Hill, “Terror in Oklahoma City: American Muslims Feel Sting of Accusations in Bombing’s Wake,” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 1995.
5. “Certain groups may now enjoy nominal citizenship status, but their members are, in fact, afforded less in the way of substantive citizenship than others in society.” Linda Bosniak, The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 30.
6. Naureckas, “The Oklahoma City Bombing,” p. 8.
7. Ibid., p. 4.
8. See Jack G. Shaheen, The TV Arab (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Press, 1984), for an analysis of damaging representations of Arabs, Muslims, and Middle Easterners on television and film through 1984. For a more recent study by Shaheen, see Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (Northampton, MA: Olive Branch Press, 2014).
9. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, “American Plots against Iran” (speech), Emam Archive, November 5, 1979.
10. Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 329.
11. Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 22–49.
12. Ibid.
13. Eugene Volokh, “State Rep. John Bennett Stands by Anti-Islam Comments, ‘Islam Is Not Even a Religion,’” Huffington Post, September 22, 2014.
14. Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (London: Phoenix, 2003), p. xv.
15. Hamid Dabashi, Brown Skin, White Masks (London: Pluto, 2011), p. 11.
16. Ibid., p. 12.
17. Bosniak, The Citizen and the Alien, p. 30.
18. Khaled Beydoun and Abed Ayoub, “Hollywood Shoots Arabs: The Movie,” Al Jazeera English, January 25, 2015.
19. Ibid.
20. Pamela McClintock, “Box Office Milestone: ‘American Sniper’ Hits $500 Million Globally, Becomes Top 2014 Title in the U.S.,” Hollywood Reporter, March 8, 2015.
21. Evelyn Alsultany, Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11 (New York: New York University Press, 2012), pp. 8–9.
22. For an excellent and concise read about the Islamic Revolution, see Hamid Algar, Roots of the Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oneonta, NY: Islamic Publications International, 2001).
23. Carol K. Winkler, In the Name of Terrorism: Presidents on Political Violence in the Post–World War II Era (Albany: SUNY Press, 2006), p. 41.
24. GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, p. 274.
25. Ibid., p. 329.
26. Ibid., p. 332.
27. Ibid.
28. Wolf Blitzer, “The Whole World Was Watching,” CNN, May 29, 2015.
29. Edward Said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Vintage, 1981), p. 34.
30. See www.revealnews.org/article/home-is-where-the-hate-is/.
1. “The First 9/11 Backlash Fatality: The Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi,” Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund (SALDEF), August 30, 2011.
2. Ibid., p. 1.
3. Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 328.
4. Ed Pilkington, “Donald Trump: Ban All Muslims Entering US,” Guardian, December 7, 2015.
5. “President Bush Addresses the Nation” (text of speech), Washington Post, September 20, 2001.
6. Donald W. Garner and Robert L. McFarland, “Suing Islam: Tort, Terrorism and the House of Saud,” Oklahoma Law Review 60 (2007): 228.
7. Rebecca Copeland, “War on Terrorism or War on Constitutional Rights? Blurring the Lines of Intelligence Gathering in Post–September 11 America,” Texas Tech Law Review 35 (2004): 21.
8. Evelyn Alsultany, Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11 (New York: New York University Press, 2012), p. 3.
9. “President Bush Addresses the Nation,” op. cit.
10. Alsultany, Arabs and Muslims in the Media, p. 5.
11. Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (Northampton, MA: Olive Branch Press, 2014), p. 11.
12. John Tehranian, “The Last Minstrel Show? Racial Profiling, the War on Terrorism and the Mass Media,” Connecticut Law Review 41 (2009): 4.
13. Ibid.
14. Ashley Moore, “American Muslim Minorities: The New Human Rights Struggle,” Human Rights & Human Welfare 91 (2010): 92–93.
15. Leti Volpp, “The Citizen and the Terrorist,” UCLA Law Review 49: 1586.
16. “How Americans Feel about Religious Groups: Jews, Catholics and Evangelicals Rated Warmly, Atheists and Muslims More Coldly,” Pew Research Group, July 16, 2014.
17. Asifa Quraishi Landes, “5 Myths about Sharia Law Debunked by a Law Professor,” Dallas Morning News, July 19, 2015.
18. Andrea Elliot, “The Man behind the Anti-Shariah Movement,” New York Times, July 31, 2011.
19. Asma T. Uddin and David Pantzer, “A First Amendment Analysis of Anti-Sharia Initiatives,” First Amendment Law Review 10 (2012): 371.
20. Interview with Kameelah Mu’min Rashad, May 15, 2017.
21. Ibid.
22. “Obama’s Speech in Cairo” (text of speech), New York Times, June 4, 2009.
23. Hamid Dabashi, Brown Skin, White Masks (London: Pluto, 2011), p. 123.
24. Lauren Gambino, “Hillary Clinton Outlines Plan to Fight Homegrown Terrorism and ISIS,” Guardian, December 15, 2015.
25. Michelle Boorstein and Juliet Eilperin, “Obama to Make First Visit of His Presidency to a U.S. Mosque Next Week,” Washington Post, January 30, 2016.
26. Jack Jenkins, “Obama on Rise of Islamophobia: ‘An Attack on One Faith Is an Attack on All Our Faiths,’” ThinkProgress, February 3, 2016.
27. “Remarks by the President at the Islamic Society of Baltimore,” February 3, 2016, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/03/remarks-president-islamic-society-baltimore.
28. Zachary Tarrant, “Zaki Barzinji Named White House Liaison to American Muslims,” Arab America, May 28, 2016.
29. Interview with Kameelah Mu’min Rashad.
30. Albert Camus, The Stranger (New York: Knopf, 1988), p. 84.
31. Edward Said, Out of Place: A Memoir (New York: Knopf, 1999).
32. Gloria E. Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 1997).
33. “Remarks by the President at the Islamic Society of Baltimore,” op. cit.
34. Kenneth L. Karst, “Paths to Belonging: The Constitution and Cultural Identity,” North Carolina Law Review 64 (1986): 305.
35. Peter Morey and Amina Yaqin, Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 208.
36. Leti Volpp, “Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and Alien Citizens,” Michigan Law Review 103 (2004): 1595.
37. Natsu Saito, “Symbolism under Siege: Japanese American Redress and the Racing of Arab Americans as Terrorists,” Asian American Law Journal 8 (2001): 12.
38. Devon W. Carbado and Mitu Gulati, Acting White? Rethinking Race in “Post-Racial” America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 168.
39. Karen Engle, “Constructing Good Aliens and Good Citizens: Legitimizing the War on Terror(ism),” University of Colorado Law Review 75 (2004): 62–63. Principal among “good Muslim” expressions are “denouncing terrorism, supporting the war on terror, and waving the American flag.” See also Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New York: Harmony, 2004), for an anthropological examination of the genesis of the good versus bad Muslim binary and its global application.
40. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Acting Muslim,” Harvard Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Law Review 53 (2018).
41. Khaled A. Beydoun, “The Myth of the ‘Moderate’ Muslim,” Al Jazeera English, May 20, 2017.
42. Nesrine Malik, “I Am Not Your Muslim,” NPR, May 6, 2017.
43. Declan Walsh, “American Muslims and the Politics of Division,” New York Times, August 11, 2016.
1. This person’s real name and some facts about his story have been altered to protect his, and his family’s, anonymity.
2. Fawaz A. Gerges, ISIS: A History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), p. 221.
3. David Ignatius, “How ISIS Spread in the Middle East: And How to Stop It,” Atlantic, October 29, 2015, p. 2.
4. Ibid.
5. Janet Reitman, “The Children of ISIS,” Rolling Stone, March 25, 2015.
6. Richard Engel, Ben Plesser, Tracy Connor, and John Schuppe, “The Americans: 15 Who Left the United States to Join ISIS,” NBC News, May 16, 2016.
7. Ignatius, “How ISIS Spread,” p. 23.
8. Khaled A. Beydoun, “America, Islam, and Constitutionalism: Muslim American Poverty and the Mounting Police State,” Journal of Law and Religion 31, no. 3 (2016): 279–292.
9. Samuel J. Rascoff, “Establishing Official Islam? The Law and Strategy of Counter-Radicalization,” Stanford Law Review 64 (2012): 137.
10. Sahar Aziz, “Policing Terrorists in the Community,” Harvard National Security Law Journal 5 (2014): 164.
11. Amna Akbar, “Policing ‘Radicalization,’” University of California Irvine Law Review 3 (2014): 811.
12. Ibid., 814.
13. FBI Counterterrorism Division, The Radicalization Process: From Conversion to Jihad, FBI (2006), p. 2.
14. Akbar, “Policing ‘Radicalization,’” 817.
15. Ibid., 815.
16. Olivier Roy, “What Is the Driving Force behind Jihadist Terrorism? A Scientific Perspective on the Causes/Circumstances of Joining the Scene,” speech at the Bundeskriminalamt (BKA) Autumn Conference, November 18, 2015.
17. W.E. B. Dubois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1903), p. 8.
18. Pew Research Center, “Muslim Americans: No Signs of Growth in Alienation or Support for Extremism,” August 30, 2011. The federal poverty level for 2011 was $29,990 for a family of six, $22,350 for a family of four (https://aspe.hhs.gov/2011-poverty-guidelines-federal-register-notice).
19. Dalia Mogahed and Youssef Chouhoud, “American Muslim Poll 2017: Muslims at the Crossroads,” Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, March 21, 2017, p. 9.
20. Ibid.
21. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Between Indigence, Islamophobia, and Erasure: Poor and Muslim in ‘War on Terror’ America,” California Law Review 104 (2016): 1477.
22. Amanda Sperber, “Somalis in Minnesota Question Counter-Extremism Program Targeted at Muslims,” Guardian, September 14, 2015.
23. Beydoun, “Muslim American Poverty and the Mounting Police State.”
24. Pew Research Center, “Muslim Americans”; Maryam Asi and Daniel Beaulieu, “Arab Households in the United States: 2006–2010,” U.S. Census Bureau, May 2013.
25. Ibid.
26. Hamid Dabashi, Brown Skin, White Masks (London: Pluto, 2011), p. 36.
27. M. Zuhdi Jasser, “September 11 Terrorist Attacks Awakened Us to a ‘Battle for the Soul of Islam,’” Washington Post, September 18, 2012, p. 2.
28. Niraj Warikoo, “Dearborn Group Gets $500,000 Grant from DHS to Counter Extremism,” Detroit Free Press, January 19, 2017.
29. Ibid., p. 1.
30. Ibid.
31. Department of Homeland Security, “Statement by Secretary Jeh Johnson Announcing First Round of DHS’s Countering Violent Extremism Grants,” January 13, 2017.
32. Interview with Asha Noor, May 17, 2017.
33. Sperber, “Somalis in Minnesota Question Counter-Extremism Program.”
Epigraphs: Muhammad Ali, from a 1975 Playboy interview republished upon his death in 2016, http://www.playboy.com/articles/muhammad-ali-playboy-interview-1975. Muhammad Ali, Jr., from a February 2017 interview on MSNBC, after being detained at a Florida airport in the wake of the Muslim travel ban, www.colorlines.com/articles/muhammad-alis-son-airport-profiling-im-not-american.
1. “And while the boxing champion should be celebrated, some have questioned the authenticity of those tributes owing to the rise of Islamophobia and racism that still takes place throughout the world today.” Mehdi Hassan, “Let’s Not Whitewash Muhammad Ali’s Legacy,” Al Jazeera English, June 10, 2016.
2. Alicia Garza, “A Herstory of the #BlackLivesMatter Movement,” http://blacklivesmatter.com/herstory/.
3. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation (Chicago: Haymarket, 2016), p. 147.
4. Su’ad Abdul Khabeer, Muslim Cool (New York: New York University Press, 2017), p. 222.
5. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, p. 13.
6. Tariq Touré, Black Seeds: The Poetry and Reflections of Tariq Touré ([North Charleston, SC]: CreateSpace, 2016), p. 78.
7. John Bowden, “Trump Considers Sheriff Who Called Black Lives Matter ‘Terrorists’ for DHS Post,” The Hill, April 28, 2017.
8. Priscilla Ocen and Khaled A. Beydoun, “Are We Witnessing the Emergence of a Black Spring?” Ebony, May 5, 2015.
9. Dalia Mogahed and Youssef Chouhoud, “American Muslim Poll 2017: Muslims at the Crossroads,” Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, March 21, 2017, p. 8.
10. Ibid.
11. Interview with Dalia Mogahed, May 11, 2017.
12. NBA Muslims, “Muslims, Say No to Events Erasing Black Muslims,” Patheos, April 23, 2017.
13. Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 243.
14. Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 101.
15. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Islam Incarcerated,” University of Cincinnati Law Review 84 (2016): 119.
16. Edward Curtis, “Islamism and Its African American Muslim Critics: Black Muslims in the Era of the Arab Cold War,” American Quarterly 59 (2007).
17. GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, p. 265.
18. Sherman A. Jackson, Islam and the Blackamerican: Looking toward the Third Resurrection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 29.
19. 5Pillars, “Hamza Yusuf Stokes Controversy with Comments about Black Lives Matter and Political Islam,” December 25, 2016, http://5pillarsuk.com/2016/12/25/hamza-yusuf-stokes-controversy-with-comments-about-black-lives-matter-and-political-islam/.
20. Emma Green, “Muslim Americans Are Divided by Trump—and Divided by Race,” Atlantic, March 11, 2017.
21. Khabeer, Muslim Cool, p. 226.
22. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Why Ferguson Is Our Issue: A Letter to Muslim America,” Harvard Journal on Racial and Ethnic Justice 31 (2015): 4.
23. Donna Auston, “Mapping the Intersections of Islamophobia and #BlackLivesMatter: Unearthing Black Muslim Life and Activism in the Policing Crisis,” Sapelo Square, May 19, 2015.
24. Ibid., p. 6.
25. Queenie Wong, “Sudanese Student at Stanford Detained, Handcuffed at JFK Airport,” Mercury News, January 28, 2017.
26. “Sudanese Stanford Ph.D. Student Speaks Out after Being Detained at JFK under Trump Muslim Ban,” Democracy Now, January 30, 2017.
27. Tessa Berenson, “Donald Trump: Minnesota Has ‘Suffered Enough’ Accepting Refugees,” Time, November 6, 2016.
28. Helina Faris, “5 Fast Facts about Black Immigrants in the United States,” Center for American Progress, December 20, 2012.
1. Abed Ayoub and Khaled A. Beydoun, “Executive Disorder: The Muslim Ban, Emergency Advocacy, and the Fires Next Time,” Michigan Journal of Race and Law 23 (2017).
2. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (New York: Dial, 1963), p. 5.
3. Khaled A. Beydoun, “9/11 and 11/9: The Law, Lives and Lies That Bind,” City of New York University Law School Law Review 20 (2017): 501.
4. Chauncey Devega, “From 9/11 to 11/9: Is Donald Trump’s Election Collateral Damage from the ‘War on Terror’?” Salon, November 16, 2016.
5. Speaking at the 20th Anniversary Gala Celebration of the African American Policy Forum, “Say Her Name: 20 Years of Intersectionality in Action,” June 10, 2017.
6. Khaled A. Beydoun and Linda Sarsour, “Trayvon Martin: The Myth of US Post-Racialism,” Al Jazeera English, March 22, 2012.
7. Meghan Keneally, “Donald Trump Captures Presidency in Historic and Stunning Upset of Hillary Clinton,” ABC News, November 9, 2016.
8. See “As Trump’s Rallies Become ‘Racism Summits,’ Linda Sarsour and Mohamed Elibiary Debate Islamophobia,” Democracy Now! March 11, 2016.
9. Jeremy Diamond, “Silently Protesting Muslim Woman Ejected from Trump Rally,” CNN, January 11, 2016.
10. Bridge Initiative Team, “Islamophobia in the 2016 Elections,” Bridge, April 15, 2015.
11. Khaled A. Beydoun, “‘Muslim Bans’ and the (Re)Making of Political Islamophobia,” University of Illinois Law Review 2017, no. 5 (2017): 1237.
12. “Bloomberg Politics Poll: Nearly Two-Thirds of Likely GOP Primary Voters Back Trump’s Muslim Ban,” Bloomberg, December 9, 2015.
13. Ibid.
14. Marc Fisher, “What Is the Long-Term Effect of Donald Trump,” Washington Post, October 22, 2016.
15. Ibid.
16. David Smith, “Virginia Muslim Teenager’s Death Being Investigated as Road Rage, Police Say,” Guardian, June 19, 2017.
17. Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).
18. Ibid., p. 219.
19. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Beyond the Paris Attacks: Unveiling the War within French Counterterror Policy,” American University Law Review 65 (2016): 1275.
20. Jack Healy and John Eligon, “Orlando Survivors Recall Night of Terror: ‘Then He Shoots Me Again,’” New York Times, June 17, 2016.
21. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Fred Korematsu: An Unsung ‘Muslim-American’ Civil Rights Hero,” Islamic Monthly, February 2, 2015.
22. Wajahat Ali, “Please Don’t Let It Be a Muslim,” Salon, April 17, 2013.
23. Nadine Naber, “The Rules of Forced Engagement: Race, Gender, and the Culture of Fear among Arab Immigrants in San Francisco Post-9/11,” Cultural Dynamics 18, no. 3 (November 1, 2006).
1. Khaled A. Beydoun, “Being a Muslim under Trump Is Risky. That’s Why Many Are Hiding Their Identity,” Guardian, March 30, 2017.
2. Dana Afana, “‘Emergency Townhall’ Scheduled over Trump Immigration Orders,” MLive, February 1, 2017.
3. Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic, June 2014.