1. J. Marmol,Amalia,2vols. (Buenos Aires,1944), vol.1, p.39. I owe my interpretation of Amalia’s decor to a remark of Professor Beatriz Pastor’s.
Introduction: THE ITCH TO CIVILIZE
1. By “society” I mean any group of people who share some sense of belonging to the group. This is not of course meant to be a definition—just a guide to usage in the present context.
2. The most useful summaries of the history of the word, its cognates, and their usages are in M. Melko and L. R. Scott, eds.,The Boundaries of Civilizations in Space and Time(Lanham, Md.,1987); F. Braudel,Grammaire des civilisations(Paris,1987), pp.33–39; J. Huizinga, “Geschonden Wereld: Een Beschouwing over de Kansen op Herstel van Onze Beschaving,” in Huizinga,Verzamelde Werken,vol.7(Haarlem,1950), pp.479–90. I am grateful to Professor H. Wesseling and Drs. W. Hugenholz for this reference. Also of value are A. Banuls, “Les Mots ‘ culture’ et ‘civilisation’ en francais et allemand,”…tudes germaniques,vol.24(1969), pp.171–80; E. Benveniste,Civilisation: Contribution ‡ l’histoire d’un mot(Paris,1954); E. Dampierre, “Note on ‘culture’ and ‘civilisation,’”Comparative Studies in History and Society,vol. 3 (1961), pp.328–40
.3. H. Fairchild,The Noble Savage(London,1925); H. Lane,The Wild Boy of Aveyron(London,1977); R. Shattuck,The Forbidden Experiment: The Story of the Wild Boy of Aveyron(New York,1980).
4. J.-M.-G. Itard,The Wild Boy of Aveyron,ed. and trans. G. and M. Humphrey (New York,1962), p.66
.5. A. Dazat, J. Dubois, and H. Mitterand,Nouveau Dictionnaire etymologique et historique(Paris,1971), p.170
.6. T. Steel,The Life and Death of St Kilda(Glasgow,1986), p.34
.7. I should make it clear that I make no distinction between man and nature: the former is part of the latter. If language I use sometimes seems to reflect belief in the traditional man-nature dichotomy it is only because some societies set such great store by it that it acquires a species of reality: people behave, that is, as if there were such a dichotomy. See P. Coates,Nature: Changing Attitudes Since Ancient Times(London,1998); J.-M. Drouin,Reinventer la nature: L’…cologie et son histoire(Paris,1974), especially pp.174–93; also P. Descola and G. Palsson, eds.,Nature andSociety: Anthropological Perspectives(London and New York,1996), pp.2–14,63–67. I am grateful to Professor Frans Thieuws for lending me this work.
8. J. Goudsblom,Fire and Civilization(London,1992), pp.2,6–7,23.
9. On the distinction, such as it is, see A. L. Kroeber and C. Kluckhohn,Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology,vol.47(1952), pp.15–29; Huizinga, “Geschonden Wereld,” pp.485–86. Alfred Weber usedHochkulturento mean societies distinguished by the garniture commonly ascribed to “civilizations” in work in other Western languages and madeZivilisationa term applicable to such societies only if they displayed other features: large-scale, overarching structure (especially of a political or religious kind or in terms of legal traditions, though at times he implied that common technologies or unifying communications systems might also be sufficient or necessary) and a “rational” economic order. SeeKulturgeschichte als Kultursoziologie(Munich,1950), especially pp.25–27(on the distinction betweenKulturenandHochkulturen),428.
10. F. Haskell,Taste and the Antique(New Haven and London,1981), pp.148–51
.11. K. Clark,Civilisation: A Personal View(Harmondsworth,1982), pp.18,27
.12. “Since from August1914to November1918, Great Britain and her Allies were fighting for civilization, it cannot, I suppose, be impertinent to enquire precisely what civilization may be” (C. Bell,Civilization: An Essay[New York,1928], p.3). The same sort of program was announced by Albert Schweitzer in, for instance,The Decay and Restoration of Civilization(London,1932); the work of P. A. Sorokin,Social and Cultural Dynamics,4vols. (New York,1937–41), made little sense, except in a certain ideological context, but was animated by similar minatory obsessions: the desire to explain the wreckage of the revolution in which he had played a minor part. His truly baffling attempt to define civilization, or at least to distinguish it from culture, can be found in the last volume, disarmingly calledBasic Problems, Principles and Methods(1941), pp.145–96. The fact that German uses the termsKulturandZivilisationin senses distinct from those of their cognates in other languages has caused a great deal of wasted time and indignation: the concept of civilization covers the same range for thinkers in German as for everyone else. See n.9above, and S. Huntington,The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order(New York,1996), p.41
.13. O. Spengler,The Decline of the West,2vols. (New York,1966), vol.1, pp.230,396
.14. Ibid., pp.31,106
.15. K. R. Popper,The Open Society and Its Enemies,2vols. (London,1947), vol.2, p.72
.16. V. G. Childe,Man Makes Himself(London,1936), pp.74,118
.17. V. G. Childe,Social Evolution(London,1951), p.26
.18. E. Huntington,Civilization and Climate(New Haven,1922), especially pp.335–45
.19. A. J. Toynbee,A Study of History,vol.1(London,1934), pp.147–48,189.20. Ibid., p.192
.21. R. Redfield,The Primitive World and Its Transformations(Ithaca, N.Y.,1953), pp.112–21
.22. P. Valery,La Crise de l’esprit,premiere lettre. (Oeuvres,ed. J. Hytier,2vols. [Paris,1957], vol.1, p.988.)
23. “Une civilisation qui sait qu’elle est mortelle ne peut etre une civilisation comme les autres” (J. Monnerot,Sociologie du communisme[Paris,1949], p.492, quoted in E. Callot,Civilisation et civilisations: Recherche d’une philosophie de la culture[Paris,1954], p. vii).
24. V. Alexandrov,The Tukhachevsky Affair(1963); J.F.C. Fuller,The Decisive Battles of the Western World,2vols. (London,1970), vol.2, pp.405–28.
25. A. Bramwell,Blood and Soil: Richard Walther Darre and Hitler’s “Green Party”(Bourne End,1985).
26. P. Hulten, ed.,Futurism and Futurisms(New York,1986). See E. Hobsbawm, “Barbarism: A User’s Guide,”New Left Review,vol.206(1994), pp.44–54; my paragraph is based on myMillennium: A History of Our Last Thousand Years(New York,1995), pp.513–17, andThe Times Illustrated History of Europe(London,1995), pp.173–74.
27. M. Mead,Coming of Age in Samoa(New York,1928).
28. There is now a revised edition: P. Geyl, “Toynbee the Prophet,” in Geyl,Debates with Historians(London,1974).29. P. Bagby,Culture and History: Prolegomena to the Comparative Study of Civilizations(London,1958), p.184.
30. W. H. McNeill,Arnold Toynbee: A Life(New York,1989), pp.251–52. I am grateful to Professor Leonard Blusse for discussing this work with me.
31. C. Quigley,The Evolution of Civilizations: An Introduction to Historical Analysis(New York,1961), especially pp.66–92; M. Melko,The Nature of Civilizations(Boston,1969), pp.101–60; C. H. Brough,The Cycle of Civilization: A Scientific, Deterministic Analysis of Civilization, Its Social Basis, Patterns and Projected Future(Detroit,1965); C. Tilly,As Sociology Meets History(New York,1981);Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons(New York,1984); S. K. Sanderson,Social Transformations: A General Theory of Historical Development(Oxford,1995), especially pp.53–85.
32. Clark,Civilisation,p.17. Sir David Attenborough, who commissioned Clark’s work for the BBC, has described its genesis in a television interview: Clark was reluctant to try the medium, but a response was stirred in him when Attenborough used the word “civilization” in an attempt to express the subject of the sort of series he envisaged. (Ibid., p.14.)
33. N. Elias,The Civilising Process(Oxford,1994), p.3.
34. N. Elias,Power and Civility: The Civilizing Process,vol.2(New York,1982), p.52.
35. Huizinga, “Geschonden Wereld,” p.481.
36. See, for example, C. Renfrew,Before Civilization(Harmondsworth,1976), andThe Emergence of Civilization(London,1972).
37. The journal of the “school” of historians to which he belonged continued to distinguish “economies, societies, civilizations,” but in his later work he preferred to speak of “world orders” as appropriate large units of study, by which he meant groups of groups which shared a common political cosmology or a concept of an overarching political ecumene. Thus, China could be thought of as a “world order” because of the mandate of heaven, and Western Christendom as a world order because of the lingering imprint of a Roman notion of universal empire, or Islam because of the shared belief in the descent of political authority with the mantle of the prophet. This was a useful concept, but nowadays political scientists use “world order” to mean a system of global political and economic relations designed to promote or preserve peace, and this meaning has driven out Braudel’s in common usage. Braudel’s thinking on this subject is best represented by hisGrammaire des civilisations,pp.33–68.
38. Ibid., p.23.
39. Ibid., p.41.
40. J. Parry,The Age of Reconnaissance(London,1963).
41. J. Needham et al.,Science and Civilisation in China(Cambridge,1954–).
42. Ibid., vol.4, pt.3(1971), pp.540–53.
43. S. Huntington,Clash of Civilizations,pp.21–29.
44. See, for example, the superb exposition of E. Wolf,Europe and the Peoples Without History(New York,1983).
45. Or “defining characteristic” (S. Huntington,Clash of Civilizations, p.47).
46. Ibid., pp.26–27,48,159.
47. F. Koneczny,On the Plurality of Civilizations(London,1962), p.167.
48. Outstanding works of this sort include W. H. McNeill,The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community(Chicago,1963); I. Wallerstein,The Modern World-System,3vols. so far (New York,1972–); L. S. Stavrianos,Lifelines from our Past: A New World History(New York,1992); G. Parker, ed.,The Times Atlas of World History,5th ed. (London,1993); D. Landes,The Wealth and Poverty of Nations(New York,1998); A. Gunder Frank,ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age(Berkeley and Los Angeles,1998).
49. Fernandez-Armesto,Millennium,p.20.
50.“. . . des systemes complexes et solidaires qui, sans etre limites ‡ un organisme politique determine, sont pourtant localisable dans le temps et dans l’espace . . . qui ont leur unite, leur maniere d’etre propre”(E. Durkheim and M. Mauss, “Note sur la notion de civilisation,”Annee sociologique,vol.12, p.47; the text has been translated as “Note on the Notion of Civilization,”Social Research,vol.38[1971], pp.808–13).
51. A. L. Kroeber,An Anthropologist Looks at History(Berkeley and Los Angeles,1963), andStyle and Civilization(Berkeley and Los Angeles,1963).
52. O. F. Anderle, ed.,The Problem of Civilizations(The Hague,1961), p.5.
53. Clark,Civilisation,p.17.
54. Toynbee,Study of History,vol.1, pp.63–129.
55. Quigley,Evolution of Civilizations,p.32.
56. See his helpful summary of the tradition, S. Huntington,Clash of Civilizations,pp.42–48, cf.26–27. In Melko and Scott, eds.,Boundaries of Civilizations,an extraordinary array of different lists is assembled and analyzed with an engaging mixture of solemnity and irony.
57. C. Levi-Strauss,The Elementary Structures of Kinship(London,1971), p.23.
58. Alfred North Whitehead,Adventures of Ideas(New York,1933), p.365.
59.“La civilizacion no es otra cosa que el ensayo de reducir la fuerza aultima ratio” (J. Ortega y Gasset,La rebelion de las masas[Madrid,1930], p.114).
60. R. G. Collingwood,The New Leviathan,ed. D. Boucher (Oxford,1992), pp.283–99.
61. Toynbee,Study of History,vol.12, p.279.
62. Bell,Civilization,pp.67,200–264.
63. “The same etymological argument would tell us that ‘circularization’ should mean the process of rendering something circular; and the fact that it actually means the process of rendering persons the recipients of a kind of advertisement called a circular throws doubt upon the whole argument” (Collingwood,New Leviathan,p.281).
64. S. Freud,Civilization and Its Discontents(New York,1961), p.44.
65. S. W. Itzkoff,The Making of the Civilized Mind(New York,1990), pp.9,274.
66. Ibid., p.26.
67. Toynbee,Study of History,vol.12, p.279.
68. L. Mumford,The Transformations of Man(New York,1956), pp.44–45.
69. S. Huntington,Clash of Civilizations,p.574.
70. See the arguments of J. Derrida,De la grammatologie(Paris,1967), who, I think, is right at least in this; and the brilliantly exemplified case made out for Native American mapping and “picture-writing” by G. Brotherson,Book of the Fourth World: Reading the Native Americans Through their Literature(Cambridge,1992).
71. For a selection, see Melko and Scott, eds.,Boundaries of Civilizations,especially L. R. Scott, “Qualities of Civilizations,” at pp.5–10.
72. P.R.S. Moorey, ed.,The Origins of Civilization(Oxford,1979), pp. v–vi.
73. N. Bondt, “De Gevolgen der Beschaaving en van de Levenswyze der Hedendaagische Beschaafde Volken,”Niew Algenmeen Magazijn van Wetenschap, Konst en Smaack,vol.4(1797), pp.703–24. I am grateful to Professor Peter Rietbergen for bringing this work to my attention.
74. Quoted in McNeill,Arnold Toynbee,p.96.
75. R. J. Puttnam and S. D. Wratten,Principles of Ecology(London,1984), p.15.
76. E. Huntington,Civilization and Climate,pp.45–46.
77. Ibid., p.259.
78. Ibid., pp.127–48.
79. N. Elias,The Symbol Theory,ed. R. Kilminster (London,1991), p.146. I thank Professor Johan Goudsblom for introducing me to this work.
Chapter One: THE HELM OF ICE
1. E. Gruening, ed.,An Alaskan Reader,1867–1967(New York,1966), p.369.
2. J. Ross,Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a Northwest Passage(London,1835), p.191.
3. F. G. Jackson,The Great Frozen Land(London,1895), p.17.
4. F. Fernandez-Armesto, “Inglaterra y el atlantico en la baja edad media,” in A. Bethencourt y Massieu et al.,Canarias e Inglaterra a traves de los siglos(Las Palmas,1996), pp.14–16.
5. H. P. Lovecraft,At the Mountains of Madness and Other Tales of Terror(New York,1971), pp.45–46.
6. Quoted in Y. Slezkine,Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North(Ithaca, N.Y.,1994), p.80.
7. K. Donner,Among the Samoyed in Siberia(New Haven,1954), pp.7–8,101.
8. Ibid., pp.114–29,144.
9. Slezkine,Arctic Mirrors,pp.56–57,115.
10. Ibid., pp.126–27,133.
11. Jackson,Frozen Land,pp.57,62,75,77.
12. Quoted in R. Bosi,The Lapps(New York,1960), p.43.
13. Olaus Magnus,Description of the Northern Peoples(1555), ed. P. Foote, vol.1(London,1996), p.201.
14. Slezkine,Arctic Mirrors,pp.33–35.
15. N.-A. Valkeap‰‰,Greetings from Lappland: The Sami, Europe’s Forgotten People(London,1983), p.9.
16. L. Larsson, “Big Dog and Poor Man: Mortuary Practices in Mesolithic Societies in Southern Sweden,” in T. B. Larsson and H. Lundmark, eds.,Approaches to Swedish Prehistory: A Spectrum of Problems and Perspectives in Contemporary Research(Oxford,1989), pp.211–23.
17. Valkeap‰‰,Greetings,p.17.
18. J. and K. Imbrie,Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery(Short Hills, N.J.,1979); A. Berger,Milankovitch and Climate(Dordrecht,1986).
19. M. Jochim, “Late Pleistocene Refugia in Europe,” in O. Soffer, ed.,The Pleistocene Old World: Regional Perspectives(New York,1987), pp.317–31.
20. B. V. Eriksen, “Resource Exploitation, Subsistence Strategies, and Adaptiveness in Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene Northwest Europe,” in L. G. Straus et al., eds.,Humans at the End of the Ice Age: The Archaeology of the Pleistocene–Holocene Transition(New York,1996), p.119.
21. N. Benecke, “Studies on Early Dog Remains from Northern Europe,”Journal of Archaeological Science,vol.14(1987), pp.31–49.
22. L. Straus, “Les Derniers Chasseurs de rennes du monde pyreneen: L’Abri Dufaure: Un Gisement tardiglaciaire en Gascogne,”Memoires de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise,vol.22(1995); it should not of course be supposed that reindeer were the only or even, in every region, the principal game. See Eriksen, “Resource Exploitation,” p.115.
23. J. Turi,Turi’s Book of Lappland(New York,1910), p.22.
24. Bosi,Lapps,p.158.
25. Soffer, ed.,Pleistocene Old World,pp.333–48.
26. Jackson,Frozen Land,p.71.
27. G. Eriksson, “Darwinism and Sami Legislation,” in B. Jahreskog, ed.,The Sami National Minority in Sweden(Stockholm,1982), pp.89–101.
28. Magnus,Description of the Northern Peoples,p.54.
29. Bosi,Lapps,p.53.
30. L. Forsberg, “Economic and Social Change in the Interior of Northern Sweden6,000bc–1000ad,” in Larsson and Lundmark, eds.,Approaches to Swedish Prehistory, pp.75–77.
31. Donner,Among the Samoyed,p.104.
32. A. Spencer,The Lapps(New York,1978), pp.43–59.
33. P. Hajd¯,The Samoyed Peoples and Languages(Bloomington,1963), p.10.
34. Ibid., p.13.
35. Donner,Among the Samoyed,p.106.
36. Magnus,Description of the Northern Peoples,p.63.
37. Ibid., p.222.
38. Ibid., pp.20,22,19,46–48,50–53.
39. Ibid., pp.18,194.
40. Hajd¯,Samoyed Peoples,p.35.
41. D. B. Quinn et al., eds.,New American World,5vols. (London,1979), vol.4, pp.209,211,240. I am grateful to Professor Joyce Chaplin for pointing out these texts.
42. B. G. Trigger and W. E. Washburn, eds.,The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas,vol.1, pt.1(Cambridge,1996), p.134.
43. D. R. Yesner, “Human Adaptation at the Pleistocene–Holocene Boundary (circa13,000 to8,000BP)in Eastern Beringia,” in Straus et al., eds.,Humans,pp.255–76.
44. Ross,Narrative of a Second Voyage,p.245.
45. M. S. Maxwell, “Pre-Dorset and Dorset Prehistory of Canada,” in D. Damas, ed.,Handbook of North American Indians(Washington, D.C.,1984), p.362.
46. R. G. Condon et al.,The Northern Copper Inuit: A History(Norman, Okla.,1996), p.64.
47. J. Diamond,Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies(London,1997), pp.257–58,311–13.
48. Ross,Narrative of a Second Voyage,p.186.
49. D. E. Dumond,The Eskimos and Aleuts(London,1987), pp.139–41.
50. J. Bockstoce,Arctic Passages(New York,1991), pp.18–19,32.
51. Ibid., pp.41,47–48.
52. A. Fienup-Riordan,Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup’ik Eskimo Oral Tradition(Norman, Okla.,1994), pp.266–98.
53.The Private Journal of G. F. Lyon(London,1824), p.330.
54. Dumond,Eskimos and Aleuts,p.142.
55. Ross,Narrative of a Second Voyage,p.257.
56. Adam of Bremen,History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen,ed. P. J. Tschan (New York,1959), p.218.
57. K. Seaver,The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America, c.A.D.1000–1500(Stanford,1996), p.95.
58. Ibid., pp.21,48,50–51.
59. Seaver,Frozen Echo,p.104.
60. Ibid., pp.190–94.
61. Ibid., pp.174–75.
62. T. McGovern, “Economics of Extinction in Norse Greenland,” in T. M. Wrigley, M. J. Ingram, and G. Farmer, eds.,Climate and History: Studies in Past Climates and Their Impact on Man(Cambridge,1980), pp.404–34.
63. R. Vaughan,The Arctic: A History(Stroud,1994), p.240.
Chapter Two: THE DEATH OF EARTH
1. E. Wagner,Gravity: Stories(London,1997), p.204.
2. Ibid., pp.197–231.
3. R. Venturi, D. Scott Brown, and S. Izenour,Learning from Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form(Cambridge, Mass., and London,1997), pp.9–72.
4. J. W. Elmore et al., eds.,A Guide to the Architecture of Metro Phoenix(Phoenix,1983).
5. V. L. Scarborough and D. R. Wilcox, eds.,The Mesoamerican Ball Game(Tucson,1991).
6. B. G. Trigger and W. E. Washburn, eds.,The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of North America,vol.1, pt.1(Cambridge,1996), pp.203–33. See also S. Lekson et al.,Great Pueblo Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico(Albuquerque,1984).
7. G. P. Nabhan,The Desert Smells like Rain: A Naturalist in Papago Indian Country(San Francisco,1982), andEnduring Seeds: Native American Agriculture and Wild PlantConservation(San Francisco,1989).
8. G. Bawden,The Moche(Oxford,1996), pp.44–67.
9. Ibid., pp.110–22.
10. S. G. Pozorski, “Subsistence Systems in the Chimu State,” in M. E. Moseley and K. C. Day, eds.,Chan Chan(Albuquerque,1982), pp.182–83.
11. M. E. Moseley and E. Deeds, “The Land in Front of Chan Chan,” in ibid., p.48.
12. J. Reinhard,The Nazca Lines: A New Perspective on their Origin and Meaning(Lima,1985); W. J. Conklin and M. E. Moseley, “The Patterns of Art and Power in the Early IntermediatePeriod,” in R. W. Keatinge, ed.,Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society(Cambridge,1988), pp.157–58.
13. Herodotus,Histories,bk. IV, c.183.
14. C. M. Daniels,The Garamantes of Southern Libya(Ann Arbor, Mich.,1988).
15. J. Wellard,Lost Worlds of Africa(New York,1967), pp.17–25.
16. Ibid., p.44.
17. M. C. Chamla,Les Populations anciennes du Sahara et des regions limitrophes(Paris,1968), pp.200–210.
18. J. Nicolaisen,Economy and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg(Copenhagen,1963), pp.209–16.
19. Quoted in M. Brett and E. Fentress,The Berbers(Oxford,1996), p.201.
20. J. Needham,Science and Civilisation in China(Cambridge,1956–),vol.4, pt.1(1962), pp.330–32; pt.3(1971), pp.651–56; pt.7(1986), pp.568–79; W. H. McNeill,The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force and Society sinceAD1000(Chicago,1982), pp.24–62.
21. H. A. R. Gibb and C. F. Beckingham, eds.,The Travels of Ibn Battuta,A.D.1325–54,vol.4(London,1994), pp.946–50.
22. R. Latham, ed.,The Travels of Marco Polo(Harmondsworth,1972), p.39.
23. A. Stein,Ruins of Desert Cathay: Personal Narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China,2vols. (London,1912), vol.2, p.404.
24. Ibid., p.85.
25. Ibid., p.321; A. von Le Coq,Buried Treasures of Chinese Turkestan(New York,1929),p.36.
26. M. Ipsiroglu,Painting and Culture of the Mongols(London,1967), pp.70–81,102–4.
27. H. Yule, ed.,Cathay and the Way Thither,2nd ed.,4vols. (London,1914–16), vol.3(1914), pp.146–52.
28. Ibid., p.154.
29. J. Grosjean,Mapamundi: The Catalan Atlas of the Year1375(Geneva,1978).
30. O. Lattimore,The Desert Road to Turkestan(Boston,1929), p.50.
31. Ibid., p.54; von Le Coq,Buried Treasures,p.66.
32. Von Le Coq,Buried Treasures,pp.25–26.
33. Stein,Ruins of Desert Cathay,vol.2, p.23.
34. Ibid., p.172.
35. V. H. Mair, “Dunhuang as a Funnel for Central Asian Nomads into China,” in G. Seaman, ed.,Ecology and Empire: Nomads in the Cultural Evolution of the Old World(Los Angeles,1989), pp.143–63.
36. Lattimore,Desert Road,p.91.
37. Ibid., p.88.
38. Ibid., p.183.
39. Ibid., p.219.
40. R. Grousset,The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia(New Brunswick, N.J.,1970), pp.538–39; F. Fernandez-Armesto,Millennium: A History of Our Last Thousand Years(New York,1995), p.261.
41. Lattimore,Desert Road,p.274.
42. Yule,Cathay,vol.3.
43. L. Marshall,The !Kung of Nyae Nyae(Cambridge, Mass.,1976), p.39.
44. E. Lucas Bridges,Uttermost Part of the Earth(New York,1949), suggested to me by implication the comparison with Tierra del Fuego.
45. R. J. Gordon,Picturing Bushmen: The Denver Expedition of1925(Athens, Ohio,1997), pp.16,29,84.
46. G. A. Farini,Through the Kalahari Desert: A Narrative of a Journey with Gun, Camera and Note-Book to Lake N’Gami and Back(New York,1886), p.269.
47. E. N. Wilmsen,Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari(Chicago,1989), p.31.
48. L. van der Post,The Lost World of the Kalahari(New York,1958), p.33.
49. Marshall,The !Kung,p.13.
50. Van der Post,Lost World,p.226.
51. Ibid., p.215.
52. Marshall,The !Kung,p.19.
53. R. B. Lee and I. De Vore, eds.,Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers(Cambridge, Mass.,1976), pp.28–43.
54. Ibid., p.102.
55. Ibid., p.94.
56. Van der Post,Lost World,p.240.
57. Ibid., p.9.
58. Ibid., pp.252–61.
59. Lee and De Vore, eds.,Hunter-Gatherers,pp.42,112.
Chapter Three: THE SWEEPINGS OF THE WIND
1. J. Fenimore Cooper,The Prairie(New York, n.d.), p.6.
2. See W. Cronon,Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West(New York,1991). I am grateful to Sarah Newman for introducing me to M. Pollan,A Place of My Own: The Education of an Amateur Builder(London,1997), a wonderful book which supplied me with this reference.
3. W. Brandon,Quivira: Europeans in the Region of the Santa Fe Trail,1540–1820(Athens, Ohio,1990), p.27.
4. J. Ibañez Cerda, ed.,Atlas de Joan Martines1587(Madrid,1973).
5. Brandon,Quivira,p.31.
6. G. Parker Winship, ed.,The Journey of Coronado(Golden, Colo.,1990), p.117.
7. Ibid., p.129.
8. Ibid., p.119.
9. Brandon,Quivira,p.36.
10. Winship, ed.,Journey of Coronado,pp.151–52.
11. R. White, “The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,”Journal of American History,vol.65(1978), pp.319–43.
12. R. B. Hassrick,The Sioux: Life and Customs of a Warrior Society(Norman, Okla.,1964),p.68.
13. E. A. Thompson,A History of Attila and the Huns(Oxford,1948).
14. T. Falkner,A Description of Patagonia and the Adjoining Parts of South America(London,1774), pp.103,121. I am grateful to Professor Raul Mandrini for this reference. See R. Mandrini, “Indios y fronteras en el area pampeana (siglos xvi–xix): Balance y perspectivas,”Anuario del IHES,vol.7(1992), pp.59–73; “Las fronteras y la sociedad indígena en el ambito pampeano,”Anuario del IHES,vol.12(1997), pp.23–34. On Falkner, see R. F. Doublet, “An Englishman in Rio de la Plata,”Month,vol.23(1960), pp.216–26; G. Furlong Cardiff,La personalidad de Tomas Falkner(Buenos Aires,1929).
15. J. Pimentel,La física de la monarquía: Ciencia y política en el pensamiento de Alejandro Malaspina (1754–1810)(Madrid,1998), pp.194–95,205.
16. S. P. Blier,The Anatomy of Architecture: Ontology and Metaphor in Batammalibe Architectural Expression(Cambridge,1987), p.2.
17. Ibid., pp.46,51.
18. S. F. Nadel,A Black Byzantium: The Kingdom of Nupe in Nigeria(Oxford,1942), p.76.
19. J. Diamond,Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies(London,1997), especially pp.176–91.
20. M. El Fasi, ed.,UNESCO General History of Africa,vol.3(London,1988), pp.445–50.
21. Ibid., p.555.
22. J.-L. Bourgeois,Spectacular Vernacular: The Adobe Tradition(New York,1989).
23. S. K. and R. J. McIntosh,Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali: A Study in the Development of Urbanism in the Sahel,2vols. (Oxford,1980); D. T. Niane, ed.,UNESCO General History of Africa,vol.4(London,1984), p.118.
24. Niane, ed.,UNESCO General History,pp.22–28.
25. H. T. Norris,Saharan Myth and Legend(1972), pp.108–9.
26. N. Levtzion,Ancient Ghana and Mali(London,1973), p.42.
27. Norris,Saharan Myth,pp.107–8.
28. Al-Idrisi,Opus Geographicum,ed. A. Bombaci et al., vol.1(Paris,1970), pp.22–26; Levtzion,Ancient Ghana,pp.10–34.
29. N. Levtzion and J.F.P. Hopkins, eds.,Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History(Cambridge,1981), p.32.
30. Ibid., pp.58,276; P. D. Curtin, “The Lure of Bambuk Gold,”Journal of African History,vol.14(1973), pp.623–31; R. Mauny,Tableau geographique de l’ouest africain au moyen ‚ge d’apres les sources ecrites, la tradition et l’archeologie(Dakar,1961).
31. Niane, ed.,UNESCO General History,vol.4, pp.149–50.
32. H.A.R. Gibb and C. F. Beckingham, eds.,The Travels of Ibn Battuta,A.D.1325–54,vol.4(London,1994), p.968.
33. Ibid., pp.957–66; Levtzion,Ancient Ghana,pp.105–14.
34. F. Fernandez-Armesto,Millennium: A History of the Last Thousand Years(New York,1995), pp.185–224.
35. E. W. R. Bovill,The Golden Trade of the Moors(Oxford,1970), p.91.
36. M. Hiskett,The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman dan Fodio(New York,1973), p.128.
37. F. Fernandez-Armesto, “O mundo dos1490,” in D. Curto, ed.,O Tempo de Vasco da Gama(Lisbon,1998), pp.43–67.
38. L. Kaba, “Power, Prosperity and Social Inequality in Songhay (1464–1591),” in E. P. Scott, ed.,Life Before the Drought(Boston,1984), pp.29–48.
39. A. C. Hess,The Forgotten Frontier: A History of the Sixteenth-century Ibero-African Frontier(Chicago,1978), pp.115–18.
40. C. Hibbert,Africa Explored: Europeans in the Dark Continent(New York,1982), pp.188–89.
41. Hiskett,Sword of Truth,p.58.
42. Ibid., pp.41,120.
43. Ibid., p.66.
44. H.A.S. Johnston,The Fulani Empire of Sokoto(London,1967), p.94.
45. Ibid., p.101.
46. Ibid., p.105.
47. Ibid., pp.22–23.
48. Ibid., p.258.
49. Ibid., pp.156–57.
50. M. J. Watts, “The Demise of the Moral Economy: Food and Famine in a Sudano-Sahelian Region in Historical Perspective,” in Scott, ed.,Life Before Drought,p.127.
51. Johnston,Fulani Empire,p.240.
Chapter Four: THE HIGHWAY OF CIVILIZATIONS
1. P. P. Semonov,Travels in the Tian’-Shan’,ed. C. Thomas (London,1998), pp.49–51.
2. J. Bisch,Mongolia, Unknown Land(New York,1963), pp. xv,38–39.
3. E. D. Clark,Travels in Russia, Tartary and Turkey(Edinburgh,1839), p.47, quoted in D. Christian,A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia,vol.1,Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire(Oxford,1998), p.15.
4. G. A. Geyer,Waiting for Winter to End: An Extraordinary Journey through Soviet CentralAsia(Washington, D.C.,1994), pp.49–50. I am grateful to the author for a copy of this intriguing book.
5. M. Gimbutas,Bronze-Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe(The Hague,1965); S. Piggott,The Earliest Wheeled Transport from the Atlantic Coast to the Caspian Sea(London,1983).
6. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, “The Oxus Civilization: The Bronze Age of Central Asia,”Antiquity,vol.68(1994), pp.398–405.
7. Herodotus, bk.4, sections13–14.
8. T. Talbot-Rice,The Scythians(London,1958), pp.92–123; R. Rolle,Die Welt der Skythen(Luzern and Frankfurt,1980), pp.19–37,57–77.
9. E. D. Phillips,The Royal Hordes(London,1965); T. Sulimirski,The Sarmatians(London,1970).
10. H. Baudet,Het Paradijs op Aarde(Amsterdam,1959), p.5.
11. C. Mackerras, ed.,The Uighur Empire According to the T’ang Dynasty Histories: A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations,744–840(Columbia, S.C.,1972), pp.13,66.
12. R. C. Egan,The Literary Works of Ou-yang Hsiu (1007–72)(Cambridge, Mass.,1984), p.14.
13. Ibid., p.15.
14. Ibid., p.38.
15. Ibid., p.113.
16. Ibid., p.34.
17. Quoted in R. L. Davis,Wind Against the Mountain: The Crisis of Politics and Culture in Thirteenth-Century China(1996), p.18.
18. J.T.C. Liu,Reform in Sung China: Wang An-Shih (1021–86) and His New Policies(Cambridge, Mass.,1959), pp.37,45,55.
19. Egan,Works of Ou-yang,p.10.
20. Liu,Reform in Sung China,p.54.
21. Egan,Works of Ou-yang,pp.115–16.
22. Bisch,Mongolia,p.33.
23. J. Mirsky,Chinese Travellers in the Middle Ages(London,1968), pp.34–82.
24. R. Grousset,The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia(New Brunswick, N.J.,1970), p.249.
25. Davis,Wind Against the Mountain,p.62.
26. Ibid., p.101.
27. Ibid., p.109.
28. Ibid., p.115.
29. Ibid., p.118.
30. F. Fernandez-Armesto, “Medieval Ethnography,”Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford,vol.13(1982), pp.283–84; G. A. Bezzola,Die Mongolen in abendl‰ndische Sicht(Bern,1974), pp.134–44.
31. C. D’Ohsson,Histoire des Mongols depuis Tchinguiz-jhan jusqu’‡ Timour Bey ou Tamerlan,4vols. (The Hague,1834–35), vol.1, p.404; cf. Grousset,Empire of the Steppes,p.249.
32. P. Jackson, ed.,The Travels of Friar William of Rubruck(London,1981), pp.71,97–171; E. Phillips,The Mongols(London,1968), p.101.
33. Jackson, ed.,Travels of Friar William,p.72.
34. See the description of the modern yurt in N. Z. Shakhanova, “The Yurt in the Traditional Worldview of Central Asian Nomads,” in G. Seaman, ed.,Foundations of Empire: Archaeology and Art of the Eurasian Steppes(Los Angeles,1989), pp.157–83.
35. Jackson, ed.,Travels of Friar William,pp.72–73.
36. Ibid., p.74.
37. Ibid., p.75.
38. Ibid., pp.75–78.
39. Ibid., pp.113–14.
40. R. Latham, ed.,The Travels of Marco Polo(Harmondsworth,1972), p.113.
41. A.-A. Khowaiter,Baibars the First: His Endeavours and Achievements(London,1978), pp.42–43.
42. Phillips,Mongols,pp.22–25.
43. Amir Khusrau, quoted in A. H. Hamadani,The Frontier Policy of the Delhi Sultans(Islamabad,1986), p.124.
44. Jackson, ed.,Travels of Friar William,pp.183,208.45.M. Rossabi,Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the First Journey from China to the West(New York,1992).46.F. Fernandez-Armesto,Millennium: A History of Our Last Thousand Years(New York,1995), p.306.47.J. Needham,Science and Civilisation in China(Cambridge,1954–), vol.5, pt.1(by Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin) (Cambridge,1985), pp.293–319.48.J. Evans, ed.,The Flowering of the Middle Ages(London,1967), p.83.49.C. H. Haskins,The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century(Cambridge, Mass.,1927), pp.310,332–34.50.F. Fernandez-Armesto,Truth: A History(London,1997), pp.137–41; J. Needham,The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West(London,1969), pp.86–115. On the rational—rather than the strictly empirical—traditions of ancient China and India, the best work is now J. Goody,The East in the West(Cambridge,1996).
51. Needham,Science and Civilisation,vol.2(Cambridge,1956), pp.56–170.
52. H. Maspero,China in Antiquity(n. p.,1978), p.22.
53. Needham,Science and Civilisation,vol.4, pt.1(Cambridge,1962), pp.330–32, pt.3(Cambridge,1971), pp.651–56; vol.5, pt.7(Cambridge,1986), pp.568–700; W. H. McNeill,The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force and Society sinceAD1000(Chicago,1982), pp.24–62.
Chapter Five: THE WILD WOODS
1. P. Matarasso, ed.,The Cistercian World: Monastic Writing of the Twelfth Century(London,1993), pp.5–6.
2. C. Kingsley,The Roman and the Teuton(London,1891), pp.226–27.
3. R. Fletcher,The Barbarian Conversion(New York,1998), pp.45,206,213.
4. P. Marrasini, ed.,Il Gadla Yemrehane Krestos: Introduzione, testo critico, traduzione(Naples,1995), pp.85–86.
5. M. Letts, ed.,Mandeville’s Travels,2vols. (London,1953), vol.1, chap.22; M. Seymour, ed.,Mandeville’s Travels(London,1968), p.156.
6. J. D. Hughes,Ecology in Ancient Civilizations(Albuquerque,1975), p.33.
7. R. Bernheimer,The Wild Man in the Middle Ages(New York,1967); T. Husband, ed.,The Medieval Wild Man(New York,1980), pp.70,87.
8. H. Soly and J. Van de Wiele, eds.,Carolus: Charles Quint1500–58(Ghent,1999), p.221.
9. R. Morris, ed.,Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight(London,1864), pp.23–25,29,67,70,77.
10. B. Hell,Le Sang noir: Chasse et mythe du sauvage en Europe(Paris,1994).
11. R. M. Eaton,Islam and the Bengal Frontier,1200–1760(Cambridge, Mass.,1993).
12. J. Needham,Science and Civilisation in China(Cambridge,1954–), vol.6(Cambridge,1996), chap.42b, “Forestry” by N. K. Menzies, pp.539–689, at p.635.
13. R. C. Egan,The Literary Works of Ou-yang Hsiu (1007–72)(Cambridge, Mass.,1984), p.100.
14. Needham,Science and Civilisation,vol.6, p.636.
15. Plato,Critias,111B.
16. R. Grove,Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism,1600–1860(Cambridge,1995), p.20.
17. J. Frazer,The Golden Bough: The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings,2vols. (New York,1935), vol.1, p.8.
18. Ibid., p.2.
19. Ibid., p.376.
20. Ibid., vol.2, pp.12–19.
21. J. D. Hughes, “Early Greek and Roman Environmentalists,” in L. J. Bilsky, ed.,Historical Ecology: Essays on Environment and Social Change(Port Washington, N.Y.,1980), pp.45–59, at p.48.
22. Needham,Science and Civilisation,vol.6, p.631.
23. S. Daniels, “The Political Iconography of Woodland,” in D. Cosgrove and S. Daniels,The Iconography of Landscape(Cambridge,1988), pp.43–82, at pp.52–57.
24. S. Schama,Landscape and Memory(New York,1995), p.61.
25. V. Scully,Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade(New York,1991), pp.65–104.
26. Vitruvius,De Architectura,bk.2, chap.1, lines1–3.
27. Schama,Landscape and Memory,pp.230–38.
28. F. Fernandez-Armesto,Barcelona: A Thousand Years of the City’s Past(Oxford,1992), pp.203–12.
29. D. Brading,The First America(Cambridge,1991), pp.428–62; A. Gerbi,La disputa del nuevo mundo: Historia de una polemica(Mexico,1982).
30. On the context of these discoveries, see B. Keen,La imagen azteca en el pensamiento occidental(Mexico,1984); the best account remains one of the earliest, first written in1792: A. de Leon y Gama,Descripcion historica y cronologica de las dos piedras que con ocasion del nuevo empedrado que se esta formando en la plaza principal de Mexico se hallaron en ella en el año de1790,ed. C. M. de Bustamante,2vols. (Mexico,1832), vol.1, pp.8–13; vol.2, pp.73–79.
31. No satisfactory account is yet in print. Pending the publication of a forthcoming study by Professor Jorge Cañizares Esguerra, see P. Cabello Carro,Política investigadora de la epoca de Carlos III en el area maya(Madrid,1992).
32. B. D. Smith, “The Origins of Agriculture in Eastern North America,”Science,vol.246(1989), pp.1566–71.
33. B. G. Trigger and W. E. Washburn, eds.,The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: North America,vol.1(Cambridge,1996), p.162; S. Johannesen and L. A.Whalley, “Floral Analysis,” in C. Bentz et al.,Late Woodland Sites in the American Bottom Uplands(Urbana,1988), pp.265–88.
34. N. Lopinot, “Food Production Reconsidered,” in T. R. Pauketat and T. E. Emerson,Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World(Lincoln, Neb.,1997), p.57; G. J. Armelagos and M. C. Hill, “An Evaluation of the Biocultural Consequences of theMississippian Transformation,” in D. H. Dye and C. A. Cox, eds.,Towns and Temples Along theMississippi(Tuscaloosa,1990), pp.16–37.
35. Trigger and Washburn, eds.,Native Peoples: North America,vol.1, p.284.
36. Ibid., p.286; P. Phillips and J. Brown,Pre-Columbian Shell Engravings from the Craig Mound at Spiro, Oklahoma(Cambridge,1984), p.126; D. S. Brose et al.,Ancient Art of the American Woodland Indians(New York,1985), pp.115(fig.19),182(pl.133),186(pl.134).
37. Brose et al.,Ancient Art,p.96.
38. J. E. Kelly, “Cahokia as a Gateway Center,” in T. E. Emerson and R. B. Lewis, eds.,Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest(Urbana,1991), pp.61–80.
39. Henry M. Brackenridge, quoted in Pauketat and Emerson, eds.,Cahokia,p.11.
40. Ibid., p.121.
41. T. R. Pauketat,The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America(Tuscaloosa,1994), p.73.
42. Pauketat and Emerson,Cahokia,p.199; Brose et al.,Ancient Art,pp.158–59, pls.113,114.
43. G. Sagard,The Long Journey to the Country of the Hurons,ed. G. M. Wrong (Toronto,1939), pp.52,91.
44. Baron de Lahontan,Dialogues curieux entre l’auteur et un sauvage, et Memoire de l’Amerique septentrionale,ed. G. Chinard (Baltimore,1931), p.205.
45. Baron de Lahontan,Nouveaux Voyages de M. le Baron de Lahontan dans l’Amerique septentrionale,2vols. (The Hague,1703), vol.1, p.42.
46. Ibid., pp.153–55.
47.Le Huron: Comedie(Paris,1768), pp.13,23,51–54.
48. H. Hornbeck Tanner, ed.,Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History(Norman, Okla.,1986), p.5.
49. Sagard,Long Journey,p.103.
50. W. N. Fenton,The False Faces of the Iroquois(Norman, Okla.,1987), p.383.
51. Ibid., p.27.
52. L. Davies,The Iron Hand of Mars(New York,1992), pp.220–24.
53. Tacitus,The Agricola and the Germania,trans. H. Mattingly and S. A. Handford (London,1970), pp.104–5.
54. Ibid., pp.114–15.
55. Ibid., p.121.
56. D. J. Herlihy, “Attitudes Towards Environment in Medieval Society,” in Bilsky, ed.,Historical Ecology,pp.100–116, at p.103.
57.Verona in et‡ gotica e langobarda(Verona,1982).
58. Needham,Science and Civilisation,p.562.
59. E. Panofsky, ed.,Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St-Denis and its Art Treasures(Princeton, 1979), p.67.
60. R. Bechmann,Les Racines des cathedrales: L’Architecture gothique, expression des conditions du milieu(Paris,1981), pp.141–42.
61. G. H. Pertz and R. Kopke, eds.,Herbordi Dialogus de Vita Ottonis Episcopi Babergensis(Hanover,1868), pp.59–60.
62. R. Bartlett,Gerald of Wales(Oxford,1982), p.165.
63. J. Veillard,Le Guide du pelerin(M‚con,1950), pp.26,28,32.
64. G. W. Greenaway,Arnold of Brescia(Cambridge,1931); J. D. Anderson and E. T. Kennan, eds.,The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux,vol.13,Five Books on Consideration: Advice to a Pope(Kalamazoo,1976), p.111.
65. S. A. Zenkovsky, ed.,The Nikonian Chronicle from the Year1132to1240,vol.2(Princeton,1984), p.5.
66. M. Tikomirov,The Towns of Ancient Rus(Moscow,1959), pp.220–22; S. Franklin and J. Shepard,The Emergence of Rus,750–1200(London,1996), pp.283,343–45; H. Birnbaum,Lord Novgorod the Great(Columbus, Ohio,1981), pp.45,77; M. W. Thompson,Novgorod the Great: Excavations in the Medieval City(n.p.,1967); S. Franklin, “Literacy and Documentation in Early Medieval Russia,”Speculum,vol.60(1985), pp.1–38.
67. R. Bartlett,The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change,950–1350(Princeton,1993), p.133.
68. Matarasso, ed.,Cistercian World,pp.287–90.
69. J. Diamond,Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies(London,1997), pp.195–210.
70. Schama,Landscape and Memory,p.96.
Chapter Six: HEARTS OF DARKNESS
1. L. M. Serpenti,Cultivators in the Swamps(Amsterdam,1977).
2. Ibid., p.10.
3. Ibid., p.7.
4. Ibid., pp.21–62.
5. W. C. Gallinat, “Domestication and Diffusion of Maize,” in R. I. Ford, ed.,Prehistoric Food Production in North America(Ann Arbor,1985), pp.265–82.
6. L. Schele, “The Olmec Mountains and Tree of Creation in Mesoamerican Cosmology,” inM. D. Coe et al.,The Olmec World: Ritual and Rulership(Princeton,1995), pp.105–17, at p.106.
7. N. Hammond, “Cultura Hermana: Reappraising the Olmec,”Quarterly Review of Archaeology,vol.9(1991), pp.1–4.
8. E. P. Beson and B. de la Fuente, eds.,Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico(Washington, D.C.,1996), cat. no.1, pp.154–55.
9. Ibid., cat. no.42, p.205; cat. nos.60–71, pp.226–29; Coe et al.,Olmec World,pp.170–76;P. T. Furst, “The Olmec Were-Jaguar Motif in the Light of Ethnographic Reality,” in E. P. Benson, ed.,Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec(Washington, D.C.,1968), pp.143–74.
10. F. K. Reilly, “Art, Ritual and Rulership in the Olmec World,” in Coe et al.,Olmec World,pp.27–45, at p.35.
11. E.g., P. T. Furst, “Shamanism, Transformation and Olmec Art,” in ibid., pp.68–81.
12. W. Ralegh,The Discovery of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empire of Guiana with a Relation of the Great and Golden City of Manoa(London,1848), p.11. Spelling modified.
13. J. L. Stephens,Incidents of Travel in Yucatan,2vols. (Norman, Okla.,1962), vol.1, pp.85–86.
14. Quoted in G. Coedes,Angkor: An Introduction(London,1963), p.54.
15. J. Miskic,Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddha(Boston,1990), p.17.
16. For a survey of the problems of rain-forest infertility, see P. W. Richards,The Tropical Rain Forest: An Ecological Study(London,1979).
17. F. Fernandez-Armesto, ed.,The Times Atlas of World Exploration(London,1991), p.133; A. Rossel and R. Herve, eds.,Le Mappemonde de Sebastien Cabot(Paris,1968).
18. G. de Carvajal et al.,La aventura del Amazonas,ed. R. Díaz (Madrid,1986), pp.47–67.
19. The difference between “sweeter” and highly toxic “bitter” forms of the plant is a matter of degree (E. Moran, “Food, Development and Man in the Tropics,” in M. Arnott, ed.,Gastronomy[The Hague,1975], p.173). Manioc pressing today is illustrated in E. Carmichael et al.,The Hidden Peoples of the Amazon(London,1985), p.61.
20. B. J. Meggers,Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise(Chicago,1971),p.30.
21. D. Lathrap,The Upper Amazon(New York,1970), p.44.
22. G. Edmundson, ed.,Journal of the Travels and Labours of Father Samuel Fritz in the River of the Amazons Between1686and1723(London,1922), pp.50–51. In this and the following quotation, the translation has been slightly modified.
23. Ibid., p.61.
24. Meggers,Amazonia,pp.19–21.
25. W. Balee, “The Culture of the Amazonian Forest,” in D. A. Posey and W. Balee, eds.,Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies(New York,1989), pp.1–16.
26. L. Schele and M. Miller,The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art(New York,1986), pp.64–65,157.
27. Ibid., pp.122–25,175–99; W. Fash,Scribes, Warriors and Kings: The City of Copan and the Ancient Maya(London,1991).
28. K. O. Pope and B. H. Dahlin, “Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: New Insights from Ecological and Remote Sensing Research,”Journal of Field Archaeology,vol.16(1989), pp.87–106.
29. M. D. Coe,Breaking the Maya Code(London,1992), pp.179–91.
30. J. Marcus,Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth and History in Four Ancient Civilizations(Princeton,1992).
31. G. Michel,The Rulers of Tikal: A Historical Reconstruction and Field Guide to the Stelae(Guatemala,1989), pp.31–38,77–90.
32. Ibid., pp.53–56,116–22.
33. E. Manikka,Angkor Wat: Time, Space, Kingship(Honolulu,1996), p.159.
34. Ibid., p.23.
35. Ibid., p.51.
36. J. Mirsky,Chinese Travellers in the Middle Ages(London,1968), pp.203–15.
37. Coedes,Angkor,pp.104–5.
38. Ibid., p.96.
39. Ibid., p.86.
40. Ramacandra Kaulacara,Silpa Prakasa,trans. A. Boner and S. Rath Sarma (Leiden,1966),p. xxxiii; quoted in Manikka,Angkor Wat,p.8.
41. Ibid., p.42.
42. Ibid., p.46.
43. G. Coedes,The Indianised States of South-East Asia(London,1968), p.173.
44. A.F.C. Ryder,Benin and the Europeans,1485–1897(New York,1969), pl.2(a).
45. K. Ezra,Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art(New York,1992), pp.9,117.
46. Ryder,Benin and Europeans,p.70.
47. Ezra,Royal Art,p.118.
48. G. Connah,The Archaeology of Benin: Excavations and Other Researches in and Around Benin City, Nigeria(Oxford,1975), p.105.
49. Ryder,Benin and Europeans,pp.12–14,72.
50. P.J.C. Dark,An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology(Oxford,1973), p.102and pl.56,ill.19.
51. Ibid., p.100and pl.46, ill.98.
52. Ryder,Benin and Europeans,pp.31–33,37,84–85,234–35.
53. Ibid., p.206.
54. Ibid., pp.17–18.
55. R. Home,City of Blood Revisited(London,1982), pp.36,43–47.
56. Ibid., pp. ix–x.