1. The sources of the words which are names of places and are names of those things which are in these places, I have written in the preceding book. In the present book I shall speak about the names of times and of those things which in the performance take place or are said with some time-factor, such as sitting, walking, talking: and if there are any words of a different sort attached to these, I shall give heed rather to the kinship of the words than to the rebukes of my listener.
2. In this subject I rely on Chrysippus as an adequate authority, and on Antipater, and on those in whom there was more learning even if not so much insight, among them Aristophanes and Apollodorus: all these write that words are so derived from words, that the words in some instances take on letters, in others lose them, in still others change them, as in the case of turdus ‘thrush’ takes place in turdarium ‘thrush-cote’ and turdelix ‘magpie.’ Thus the Greeks, in adapting our names, make Λευκιηνός of Lucienus and Κοΐντιος of Quinctius, and we make Aristarchus of their Ἀρίσταρχος and Dio of their Δίων. In just this way, I say, our practice has altered many from the old form, as solum ‘soil’ from solu, Liberum ‘God of Wine’ from Loebesom, Lares ‘Hearth-Gods’ from Lases: these words, covered up as they are by lapse of time, I shall try to dig out as best I can.
3. First we shall speak of the time-names, then of those things which take place through them, but in such a way that first we shall speak of their essential nature: for nature was man’s guide to the imposition of names. Time, they say, is an interval in the motion of the world. This is divided into a number of parts, especially from the course of the sun and the moon. Therefore from their temperatus ‘moderated’ career, tempus ‘time’ is named, and from this comes tempestiva ‘timely things’; and from their motus ‘motion,’ the mundus ‘world,’ which is joined with the sky as a whole.
4. There are two motions of the sun: one with the sky, in that the moving is impelled by Jupiter as ruler, who in Greek is called Δία, when it comes from east to west; wherefore this time is from this god called a dies ‘day.’ Meridies ‘noon,’ from the fact that it is the medius ‘middle’ of the dies ‘day.’ The ancients said D in this word, and not R, as I have seen at Praeneste, cut on a sun-dial. Solarium ‘sun-dial’ was the name used for that on which the hours were seen in the sol ‘sunlight’; or also there is the water-clock, which Cornelius set up in the shade in the Basilica of Aemilius and Fulvius. The beginning of the day is mane ‘early morning,’ because then the day manat ‘trickles’ from the east, unless rather because the ancients called the good manum: from a superstitious belief of the same kind as influences the Greeks, who, when a light is brought, make a practice of saying, “Goodly light!”
5. Suprema means the last part of the day; it is from superrimum. This time, the Twelve Tables say, is sunset; but afterwards the Plaetorian Law declares that this time also should be ‘last’ at which the praetor in the Comitium has announced to the people the suprema ‘end of the session.’ In line with this, crepuscudum ‘dusk’ is said from creperum ‘obscure’; this word they took from the Sabines, from whom come those who were named Crepusci, from Amiternum, who had been born at that time of day, just like the Lucii, who were those born at dawn (prima luce) in the Reatine country. Crepusculum means doubtful: from this doubtful matters are called creperae ‘obscure,’ because dusk is a time when to many it is doubtful whether it is even yet day or is already night.
6. Nox ‘night’ is called nox, because, as Pacuvius says, All will be stiff with frost unless the sun break in, because it nocet ‘harms’; unless it is because in Greek night is νύξ. When the first star has come out (the Greeks call it Hesperus, and our people call it Vesperugo, as Plautus does:
The evening star sets not, nor yet the Pleiades), this time is by the Greeks called ἑσπέρα, and vesper ‘evening’ in Latin; just as, because the same star before sunrise is called iubar ‘dawn-star,’ because it is iubata ‘maned,’ Pacuvius’s herdsman says:
When morning-star appears and night has run her course.
And Ennius’s Ajax says:
I see light in the sky — can it be dawn?
7. The time between dusk and dawn is called the nox intempesta ‘dead of night, as in the Brutus of Cassius, in the speech of Lucretia:
By dead of night he came unto our home.
Aelius used to say that intempesta means the period when it is not a time for activity, which others have called the concubium ‘general rest,’ because practically all persons then cubabant ’ere lying down’; others, from the fact that silebatur ‘silence was observed,’ have called it the silentium ‘still’ of the night, the time which Plautus likewise calls the conticinium ‘general silence’: for he writes:
We’ll see, I want it done. At general-silence time come back.
8. There is a second motion of the sun, differing from that of the sky, in that the motion is from bruma ‘winter’s day’ to solstitium ‘solstice.’ Bruma is so named, because then the day is brevissimus ‘shortest’: the solstitium, because on that day the sol ‘sun’ seems sistere ‘to halt,’ on which it is nearest to us. When the sun has arrived midway between the bruma and the solstitium, it is called the aequinoctium ‘equinox,’ because the day becomes aequus ‘equal’ to the nox ‘night.’ The time from the bruma until the sun returns to the bruma, is called an annus ‘year,’ because just as little circles are anuli ‘rings,’ so big circuits were called ani, whence comes annus ‘year.’
9. The first part of this time is the hiems ‘winter,’ so called because then there are many imbres ‘showers’; hence hibernacula ‘winter encampment,’ hibernum ‘winter time’; or because then everybody’s breath which is breathed out is visible, hiems is from hiatus ‘open mouth.’ The second season is the ver ‘spring,’ so called because then the virgulta ‘bushes’ begin virere ‘to become green’ and the time of year begins vertere ‘to turn or change’ itself; unless it is because the Ionians say ἦρ for spring. The third season is the aestas ‘summer,’ from aestus ‘heat’; from this, aestivum ‘summer pasture’; unless perhaps it is from the Greek αἴθεσθαι, ‘to blaze.’ The fourth is the autumnus ‘autumn,’ named from augere ‘to increase’ the possessions of men and the gathered fruits, as if auctumnus.
10. As the year is named from the motion of the sun, so the month is named from the motion of the moon, until after departing from the sun she returns again to him. Because the moon was in Greek formerly called μήνη, whence their μῆνες ‘months’ — from this word we named the menses ‘months.’ From menses is named the intermestris ‘day between the months,’ because they thought that between the last day of the preceding expiring month and the new moon there was a day, which with more care the Athenians called the ‘old and new,’ because on that day the very last of the old moon and the first beginnings of the new moon can both be seen.
11. A five-year period was called a lustrum, from luere ‘to set free,’ that is, solvere ‘to release,’ because in every fifth year the taxes and the voluntary tribute payments were completely discharged, through the activity of the censors. A seclum ‘century’ was what they called the space of one hundred years, named from senex ‘old man,’ because they thought this the longest stretch of life for senescendi ‘aging’ men. Aevum ‘eternity,’ from an aetas ‘period’ of all the years (from this comes aeviternum, which has become aeternum ‘eternal’): which the Greeks call an αἰών — Chrysippus says that this is <ἀ>ε<ὶ> ὄν ‘always existing.’ From this Plautus says:
All time is not enough for thorough learning, and from this the poets say:
The everlasting temples of the sky.
12. To the division made by nature there have been added the civic names for the days. First I shall give those which have been instituted for the sake of the gods, then those instituted for the sake of men. The dies Agonales ‘days of the Agonia,’on which the high-priest sacrifices a ram in the Regia, were named from agon for this reason, because the helper at the sacrifice asks “agone?” ‘Shall I do my work?’: unless it is from the Greek, where ay ἄγων means princeps ‘leader,’ from the fact that the sacrificing is done by a leader of the state and the leader of the flock is sacrificed. The Carmentalia are so named because at that time there are sacrifices and a festival of Carmentis.
13. The Lupercalia was so named because the Luperci make sacrifice in the Lupercal. When the High-priest announces the monthly festivals on the Nones of February, he calls the day of the Lupercalia februatus: for februm is the name which the Sabines give to a purification, and this word is not unknown in our sacrifices; for a goat hide, with a thong of which the young women are flogged at the Lupercalia, the ancients called a februs, and the Lupercalia was called also Februatio ‘Festival of Purification,’ as I have shown in the Books of the Antiquities. Quirinalia ‘Festival of Quirinus,’ from Quirinus, because it is a festival to that god and also of those men who did not get a holiday on their own Furnacalia ‘Bakers’ Festival.’ The Feralia ‘Festival of the Dead,’ from inferi ‘the dead below’ and ferre ‘to bear,’ because at that time they ferunt ‘bear’ viands to the tomb of those to whom it is a duty to offer ancestor-worship there. The Terminalia ‘Festival of Terminus,’ because this day is set as the last day of the year; for the twelfth month was February, and when the extra month is inserted the last five days are taken off the twelfth month. The Ecurria ‘Horse-Race,’ from the equorum cursus ‘running of horses’; for on that day they currunt ‘run’ races in the sports on the Campus Martius.
14. The Liber alia ‘Festival of Liber,’ because on that day old women wearing ivy-wreaths on their heads sit in all parts of the town, as priestesses of Liber, with cakes and a brazier, on which they offer up the cakes on behalf of any purchaser. In the books of the Salii who have the added name Agonenses, this day is for this reason, perhaps, called rather the Agonia. The Quinquatrus: this day, though one only, is from a misunderstanding of the name observed as if there were five days in it. Just as the sixth day after the Ides is in similar fashion called the Sexatrus by the people of Tusculum, and the seventh day after is the Septimatrus, so this day was named here, in that the fifth day after the Ides was the Quinquatrus. The Tubulustrium ‘Purification of the Trumpets’ is named from the fact that on this day the tubae ‘trumpets’ used in the ceremonies lustrantur ‘are purified’ in Shoemakers’ Hall.
15. The Megalesia ‘Festival of the Great Mother’ is so called from the Greeks, because by direction of the Sibylline Books the Great Mother was brought from King Attalus, from Pergama; there near the city-wall was the Megalesion, that is, the temple of this goddess, whence she was brought to Rome. The Fordicidia was named from fordae cows: a forda cow is one that is carrying an unborn calf; because on this day several pregnant cows are officially and publicly sacrificed in the curiae, the festival was called the Fordicidia from fordae caedendae ‘the pregnant (cows) which were to be slaughtered.’ The Palilia ‘Festival of Pales’ was named from Pales, because it is a holiday in her honour, like the Cerialia, named from Ceres.
16. The Vinalia ‘Festival of the Wine,’ from vinum ‘wine’; this is a day sacred to Jupiter, not to Venus. This feast receives no slight attention in Latium: for in some places the vintages were started by the priests, on behalf of the state, as at Rome they are even now: for the special priest of Jupiter makes an official commencement of the vintage, and when he has given orders to gather the grapes, he sacrifices a lamb to Jupiter, and between the cutting out of the victim’s vitals and the offering of them to the god he himself first plucks a bunch of grapes. On the gates of Tusculum there is the inscription:
The new wine shall not be carried into the city until the Vinalia has been proclaimed. The Robigalia ‘Festival of Robigus’ was named from Robigus ‘God of Rust’; to this god sacrifice is made along the cornfields, that rust may not seize upon the standing com.
17. The Vestalia ‘Festival of Vesta,’ like the Vestal Virgins, from Vesta. The Ides of June are called the Lesser Quinquatrus, from the likeness to the Greater Quinquatrus, because the pipes-players take a holiday, and after roaming through the City, assemble at the Temple of Minerva. The day of Fors Fortuna ‘Chance Luck’ was named by King Servius Tullius, because he dedicated a sanctuary to Fors Fortuna beside the Tiber, outside the city Rome, in the month of June.
18. The Poplifugia ‘People’s Flight’ seems to have been named from the fact that on this day the people suddenly fled in noisy confusion: for this day is not much after the departure of the Gauls from the City, and the peoples who were then near the City, such as the Ficuleans and Fidenians and other neighbours, united against us. Several traces of this day’s flight appear in the sacrifices, of which the Books of the Antiquities give more information. The Nones of July are called the Caprotine Nones, because on this day, in Latium, the women offer sacrifice to Juno Caprotina, which they do under a caprificus ‘wild fig-tree’; they use a branch from the fig-tree. Why this was done, the bordered toga presented to them at the Games of Apollo enlightened the people.
19. The Neptunalia ‘Festival of Neptune,’ from Neptune; for it is the holiday of this god. The Furrinalia ‘Festival of Furrina,’ from Furrina, for this day is a state holiday for this goddess; honour was paid to her among the ancients, who instituted an annual sacrifice for her, and assigned to her a special priest, but now her name is barely known, and even that to only a few. The Portunalia ‘Festival of Portunus’ was named from Portunus, to whom, on this day, a temple was built at the portus ‘port’ on the Tiber, and a holiday instituted.
20. The nineteenth of August was called the Country Vinalia ‘Wine-Festival,’ because at that time a temple was dedicated to Venus and gardens were set apart for her, and then the kitchen-gardeners went on holiday. The Consualia ‘Festival of Consus’ was called from Consus, because then there was the state festival to that god, and in the Circus at his altar those games were enacted by the priests in which the Sabine maidens were carried off. The Volcanalia ‘Festival of Vulcan,’ from Vulcan, because then was his festival and because on that day the people, acting for themselves, drive their animals over a fire.
21. The day named Opeconsiva is called from Ops Consiva ‘Lady Bountiful the Planter,’ whose shrine is in the Regia; it is so restricted in size that no one may enter it except the Vestal Virgins and the state priest. “When he goes there, let him wear a white veil,” is the direction; this suffibulum ‘white veil’ is named as if sub-figabulum from suffigere ‘to fasten down.’ The Volturnalia ‘Festival of Volturnus,’ from the god Volturnus, whose feast takes place then. In the month of October, the Meditrinalia ‘Festival of Meditrina’ was named from mederi ‘to be healed,’ because Flaccus the special priest of Mars used to say that on this day it was the practice to pour an offering of new and old wine to the god, and to taste of the same, for the purpose of being healed; which many are accustomed to do even now, when they say:
Wine new and old I drink, of illness new and old I’m cured.
22. The Fontanalia ‘Festival of the Springs,’ from Fons ‘God of Springs,’ because that day is his holiday; on his account they then throw garlands into the springs and place them on the well-tops. The Armilustrium ‘Purification of the Arms,’ from the fact that armed men perform the ceremony in the Armilustrium, unless the place is rather named from the men; but as I said of them previously, this word comes from ludere ‘to play’ or from lustrum ‘purification,’ that is, because armed men went around ludentes ‘making sport’ with the sacred shields. The Saturnalia ‘Festival of Saturn’ was named from Saturn, because on this day was his festival, as on the second day thereafter the Opalia, the festival of Ops.
23. The Angeronalia, from Angerona, to whom a sacrifice is made in the Acculeian Curia and of whom this day is a state festival. The Larentine Festival, which certain writers call the Larentalia, was named from Acca Larentia, to whom our priests officially perform ancestor-worship on the sixth day after the Saturnalia, which day is from her called the Day of the Parentalia of Larentine Acca.
24. This sacrifice is made in the Velabrum, where it ends in New Street, as certain authorities say, at the tomb of Acca, because near there the priests make offering to the departed spirits of the slaves: both these places were outside the ancient city, not far from the Little Roman Gate, of which I spoke in the preceding book. Septimontium Day was named from these septem montes ‘seven hills,’ on which the City is set; it is a holiday not of the people generally, but only of those who live on the hills, as only those who are of some pagus ‘country district’ have a holiday at the Paganalia ‘Festival of the Country Districts.’
25. The fixed days are those of which I have spoken; now I shall speak of the annual festivals which are not fixed on a special day. The Compitalia is a day assigned to the Lares of the highways; therefore where the highways competunt ‘meet,’ sacrifice is then made at the compita ‘crossroads.’ This day is appointed every year. Likewise the Latinae Feriae ‘Latin Holiday’ is an appointed day, named from the peoples of Latium, who had equal right with the Romans to get a share of the meat at the sacrifices on the Alban Mount: from these Latin peoples it was called the Latin Holiday.
26. The Sementivae Feriae ‘Seed-time Holiday’ is that day which is set by the pontiffs; it was named from the sementis ‘seeding,’ because it is entered upon for the sake of the sowing. The Paganicae ‘Country-District Holiday’ was entered upon for the sake of this same agriculture, that the whole pagus ‘country-district’ might hold it in the fields, whence it was called Paganicae. There are also appointive holidays which are not annual, such as those which are set without a special name of their own, or with an obvious one, such as is the Novendialis ‘Ceremony of the Ninth Day.’
27. About these days this is enough; now let us see to the days which are instituted for the interests of men. The first days of the months are named the Kalendae, because on these days the Nones of this month calantur ‘are announced’ by the pontiffs on the Capitoline in Announcement Hall, whether they will be on the fifth or on the seventh, in this way: “Juno Covella, I announce thee on the fifth day” or “Juno Covella, I announce thee on the seventh day.”
28. The Nones are so called either because they are always the nonus ‘ninth’ day before the Ides, or because the Nones are called the novus ‘new’ month from the new moon, just as the Kalends of January are called the new year from the new sun; on the same day the people who were in the fields used to flock into the City to the King. Traces of this status are seen in the ceremonies held on the Nones, on the Citadel, because at that time the high-priest announces to the people the first monthly holidays which are to take place in that month. The Idus ‘Ides,’ from the fact that the Etruscans called them the Itus, or rather because the Sabines call them the Idus.
29. The days next after the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides, were called atri ‘black,’ because on these days they might not start anything new. Dies fasti ‘righteous days, court days,’ on which the praetors are permitted fari ‘to say’ any and all words without sin. Comitiales ‘assembly days’ are so called because then it is the established law that the people should be in the Comitium to cast their votes — unless some holidays should have been proclaimed on account of which this is not permissible, such as the Compitalia and the Latin Holiday.
30. The opposite of these are called dies nefasti ‘unrighteous days,’ on which it is nefas ‘unrighteousness’ for the praetor to say do ‘I give,’ dico ‘I pronounce,’ addico ‘I assign’; therefore no action can be taken, for it is necessary to use some one of these words, when anything is settled in due legal form. But if at that time he has inadvertently uttered such a word and set somebody free, the person is none the less free, but with a bad omen in the proceeding, just as a magistrate elected in spite of an unfavourable omen is a magistrate just the same. The praetor who has made a legal decision at such a time, is freed of his sin by the sacrifice of an atonement victim, if he did it unintentionally; but if he made the pronouncement with a realization of what he was doing, Quintus Mucius said that he could not in any way atone for his sin, as one who had failed in his duty to God and country.
31. The intercisi dies ‘divided days’ are those on which legal business is wrong in the morning and in the evening, but right in the time between the slaying of the sacrificial victim and the offering of the vital organs; whence they are intercisi because the fas ‘right’ intercedit ‘comes in between’ at that time, or because the nefas ‘wrong’ is intercisum ‘cut into’ by the fas. The day which is called thus: “When the high-priest has officiated in the Comitium, Right,” is named from the fact that on this day the high-priest pronounces the proper formulas for the sacrifice in the presence of the assembly, up to which time legal business is wrong, and from that time on it is right: therefore after this time of day actions are often taken under the law.
32. The day which is called “When the dung has been carried out, Right,” is named from this, that on this day the dung is swept out of the Temple of Vesta and is carried away along the Capitoline Incline to a certain spot. The Dies Alliensis ‘Day of the Allia’ is called from the Allia River; for there our army was put to flight by the Gauls just before they besieged Rome.
33. With this I have finished my account of what pertains to the names of individual days. The names of the months are in general obvious, if you count from March, as the ancients arranged them; for the first month, Martius, is from Mars. The second, Aprilis, as Fulvius writes and Junius also, is from Venus, because she is Aphrodite; but I have nowhere found her name in the old writings about the month, and so think that it was called April rather because spring aperit ‘opens’ everything. The third was called Mains ‘May’ from the maiores ‘elders,’ the fourth Iunius ‘June’ from the iuniores ‘younger men.’
34. Thence the fifth is Quintilis ‘July’ and so in succession to December, named from the numeral. Of those which were added to these, the prior was called Ianuarius ‘January’ from the god who is first in order; the latter, as the same writers say, was called Februarius ‘February’ from the di inferi ‘gods of the Lower World,’ because at that time expiatory sacrifices are made to them; but I think that it was called February rather from the dies februatus ‘Purification Day,’ because then the people februatur ’is purified,’ that is, the old Palatine town girt with flocks of people is passed around by the naked Luperci.
35. As to what pertains to Latin names of time ideas, let that which has been said up to this point be enough. Now I shall speak of what concerns those things which might be observed as taking place at some special time — such as the following: legisti ‘thou didst read,’ cursus ‘act of running,’ ludens ‘playing.’ With regard to these there are two things which I wish to say in advance: how great their number is, and what features are less perspicuous than others.
36. The inflections of words are of four kinds: one which indicates the time and does not have leges ‘thou wilt gather or read,’ lege ‘read thou,’ from lego ‘I gather or read’; a second, which has case and does not indicate time, as from lego lectio ‘collection, act of reading,’ lector ‘reader’; the third, which has both, time and case, as from lego legens ‘reading,’ lecturus ‘being about to read’; the third, which has neither, as from lego lecte ‘choicely,’ lectissime ‘most choicely.’ Therefore if the primitives of these words amount to one thousand, as Cosconius writes, then from the inflections of these words the different forms can be five hundred thousand in number for the reason that from each and every primitive word about five hundred forms are made by derivation and inflection.
37. Primitive is the name applied to words like lego ‘I gather,’ scribo ‘I write,’ sto ‘I stand,’ sedeo ‘I sit,’ and the rest which are not from some other word, but have their own roots. On the other hand derivative words are those which do develop from some other word, as from lego come legis ‘thou gatherest,’ legit ‘he gathers,’ legam ‘I shall gather,’ and in this fashion from this same word come a great number of words. Therefore, if one has shown the origins of the primitive words, and if these are one thousand in number, he will have revealed at the same time the sources of five hundred thousand separate words; but if without showing the origin of a single primitive word he has shown how the rest have developed from the primitives, he will have said quite enough about the origins of words, since the original elements from which the words are sprung are few and the words which have sprung from them are countless.
38. There are besides an enormous number of words derived from these same original elements by the addition of a few prefixes, because by the addition of prefixes with or without change a word is repeatedly transformed; for as there is processit ‘he marched forward’ and recessit ‘drew back,’ so there is accessit ‘approached’ and abscessit ‘went off,’ likewise incessit ‘advanced’ and excessit ‘withdrew,’ so also successit ‘went up’ and decessit ‘went away,’ discessit ‘departed’ and concessit ‘gave way.’ But if there were only these ten prefixes, from the thousand primitives five million different forms can be made inasmuch as from one word there are five hundred derivational forms and when these are multiplied by ten through union with a prefix five thousand different forms are produced out of one primitive.
39. Democritus, Epicurus, and likewise others who have pronounced the original elements to be unlimited in number, though they do not tell us whence the elements are, but only of what sort they are, still perform a great service: they show us the things which in the world consist of these elements. Therefore if the etymologist should postulate one thousand original elements of words, about which an interpretation is not to be asked of him, and show the nature of the rest, about which he does not make the postulation, the number of words which he would explain would still be enormous.
40. Since I have given a sufficient reminder of the number of existing words, I shall speak briefly about their obscurity. Of the words which also indicate time the most difficult feature is their radicals, for the reason that these have in general no communion with the Greek language, and those to whose birth our memory reaches are not native Latin; yet of these, as I have said, we shall say what we can.
41. I shall start first from the word ago ‘I drive, effect, do.’ Actio ‘action’ is made from agitalus ‘motion.’ From this we say “The tragic actor agit ‘makes’ a gesture,” and “The chariot-team agitantur ’is driven’”; from this, “The flock agitur ’is driven’ to pasture.” Where it is hardly possible for anything agi ‘to be driven,’ from this it is called an angiportum ‘alley’; where nothing can agi ‘be driven,’ from this it is an angulus ‘corner,’ or else because in it is a very narrow (angustus) place to which this corner belongs.
42. There are three actiones ‘actions,’ and of these the first is the agitatus ‘motion’ of the mind, because we must first cogitare ‘consider’ those things which we are acturi ‘going to do,’ and then thereafter say them and do them. Of these three, the common folk practically never thinks that cogitatio ‘consideration’ is an action; but it thinks that the third, in which we do something, is the most important. But also when we cogitamus ‘consider’ something and agitamus ‘turn it over’ in mind, we agimus ‘are acting,’ and when we make an utterance, we agimus ‘are acting.’ Therefore from this the orator is said agere ‘to plead’ the case, and the augurs are said agere ‘to practice’ augury, although in it there is more saying than doing.
43. Cogitare ‘to consider’ is said from cogere ‘to bring together’: the mind cogit ‘brings together’ several things into one place, from which it can choose. Thus from milk that is coactum ‘pressed,’ caseus ‘cheese’ was named; thus from men brought together was the contio ‘mass meeting’ called, thus coemptio ‘marriage by mutual sale,’ thus compitum ‘cross-roads.’ From cogitatio consideration’ came concilium ‘council,’ and from that came consilium ‘counsel’; and the concilium is said conciliari ‘to be brought into unity’ like a garment when it cogitur ’is pressed’ at the cleaner’s.
44. Thus reminisci ‘to recall,’ when those things which have been held by mind and memory are fetched back again by considering (cogitando). From this also comminisci ‘to fabricate a story’ is said, from con ‘together’ and mens ‘mind,’ when things which are not, are devised in the mind; and from that comes the word eminisci ‘to use the imagination,’ when the commentum ‘fabrication’ is uttered. From the same word mens ‘mind’ come meminisse ‘to remember’ and amens ‘mad,’ said of one who has departed a mente ‘from his mind.’
45. From this moreover metus ‘fear,’ from the mens ‘mind’ somehow mota ‘moved,’ as metuisti ‘you feared,’ equal to te amovisti ‘you removed yourself.’ So, because timor ‘fear’ is cold, tremuisti ‘you shivered’ is equal to timuisti ‘you feared.’ Tremo ‘I shiver’ is said from the similarity to the behaviour of the voice, which is evident then when people shiver very much, when even the hairs on the body bristle up like the beard on an ear of barley.
46. Curare ‘to care for, look after’ is said from cura ‘care, attention.’ Cura, because it cor urat ‘burns the heart’; curiosus ‘inquisitive,’ because such a person indulges in cura beyond the proper measure. Recordari ‘to recall to mind,’ is revocare ‘to call back’ again into the cor ‘heart.’ The curiae ‘halls,’ where the senate curat ‘looks after’ the interests of the state, and also there where there is the cura ‘care’ of the state sacrifices; from these, the curiones ‘priests of the curiae.’
47. Volo ‘I wish’ is said from voluntas ‘free-will’ and from volatus ‘flight,’ because the spirit is such that in an instant it pervolat ‘flies through’ to any place whither it volt ‘wishes.’ Lubere ‘o be pleasing’ is said from labi ‘to slip,’ because the mind is lubrica ‘slippery’ and prolabitur ‘slips forward,’ as of old they used to say. From lubere ‘to be pleasing’ come libido ‘lust,’ libidinosus ‘lustful,’ and Venus Libentina ‘goddess of sensual pleasure’ and Libitina ‘goddess of the funeral equipment,’ so also other words.
48. Metuere ‘to fear,’ from a certain motus emotion’ of the spirit, when the mind shrinks back from that misfortune which it thinks will fall upon it. When from excessive violence of the emotion it is borne foras ‘forth’ so as to go out of itself, there is formido ‘terror’; when parum movetur’ the emotion is not very strong,’ it pavet ‘dreads,’ and from this comes pavor ‘dread.’
49. Meminisse ‘to remember,’ from memoria ‘memory,’ when there is again a motion toward that which remansit ‘has remained’ in the mens ‘mind’: and this may have been said from manere ‘to remain,’ as though manimoria. Therefore the Salii, when they sing Mamurius Veturius, indicate a memoria vetus ‘memory of olden times.’ From the same is monere ‘to remind,’ because he who monet ‘reminds,’ is just like a memory. So also the monimenta ‘memorials’ which are on tombs, and in fact alongside the highway, that they may admonere ‘admonish’ the passers-by that they themselves were mortal and that the readers are too. From this, the other things that are written and done to preserve their memoria ‘memory’ are called monimenta ‘monuments.’
50. Maerere ‘to grieve,’ was named from marcere ‘to wither away,’ because the body too would marcescere ‘waste away’; from this moreover the macri ‘lean’ were named. Laetari ‘to be happy,’ from this, that joy is spread latins ‘more widely’ because of the idea that it is a great blessing. Therefore Juventius says:
Should all men bring their joys into a single spot, My happiness would yet surpass the total lot.
When things are of this nature, they are said to be laeta ‘happy.’
51. Narro ‘I narrate,’ when I make a second person narus ‘acquainted with’ something; from which comes narratio ‘narration,’ by which we make acquaintance with an occurrence. This part of acting is in the section of saying, and the words are united with time-ideas or are from them: those of this sort seem to be radicals.
52. That man fatur ‘speaks’ who first emits from his mouth an utterance which may convey a meaning. From this, before they can do so, children are called infantes ‘non-speakers, infants’; when they do this, they are said now fari ‘to speak’; not only this word, but also, from likeness to the utterance of a child, fariolus ‘soothsayer’ and fatuus’ prophetic speaker’ are said. From the fact that the Birth-Goddesses by fando ‘speaking’ then set the life-periods for the children, fatum ‘fate’ is named, and the things that are fatales ‘fateful.’ From this same word, those who fantur ‘speak’ easily are called facundi ‘eloquent,’ and those who are accustomed fari ‘to speak’ the future through presentiment, are called fatidici ‘sayers of the fates’; they likewise are said vaticinari ‘to prophesy,’ because they do this with frenzied mind: but this will have to be taken up later, when we speak about the poets.
53. From this the dies fasti ‘righteous days, court days,’ on which the praetors are permitted fari ‘to speak’ without sin certain words of legal force; from this the nefasti ‘unrighteous days,’ on which it is not right for them to speak them, and if they have spoken these words, they must make atonement. From this those words are called effata ‘pronounced,’ by which the augurs have effati ‘pronounced’ the limit that the fields outside the city are to have, for the observance of signs in the sky; from this, the areas of observation are said effari ‘to be pronounced’; by the augurs, the boundaries effantur ‘are pronounced’ which are attached to them.
54. From this the fana ‘sanctuaries’ are named, because the pontiffs in consecrating them have fati ‘spoken’ their boundary; from this, profanum ‘being before the sanctuary,’ which applies to something that is in front of the sanctuary and joined to it; from this, anything in the sacrifice, and especially Hercules’s tithe, is called profanatum ‘brought before the sanctuary, dedicated,’ from this fact that it fanatur ’is consecrated’ by some sacrifice, that is, that it becomes by law the property of the sanctuary. This is called polluctum ‘offered up,’ a term which is shaped from porricere ‘to lay before’: for when from articles of commerce first fruits are laid before Hercules, on his altar, then there is a polluctum ‘offering-up,’ just as, when profanatum is said, it is as if the thing had become the sanctuary’s property. So formerly all that was profanatum ‘dedicated’ used to be consumed in the sanctuary, as even now is done with that which the City Praetor offers every year, when on behalf of the state he sacrifices a heifer to Hercules.
55. From the same word fari ‘to speak,’ the fabulae ‘plays,’ such as tragedies and comedies, were named. From this word, those persons have fassi ‘admitted’ and confessi ‘confessed,’ who have fati ‘spoken’ that which was asked of them. From this, professi ‘openly declared’; from this, fama ‘talk, rumour,’ and famosi ‘much talked of, notorious.’ From the same, falli ‘to be deceived,’ but also falsum ‘false’ and fallacia ‘deceit,’ which are so named on this account, that by fando ‘speaking’ one misleads someone and then does the opposite of what he has said. Therefore if one fallit ‘deceives’ by an act, in this there is not fallacia ‘deceit’ in its own proper meaning, but in a transferred sense, as from our pes ‘foot’ the pes ‘foot’ of a bed and of a beet are spoken of. From this, moreover, famigerabile ‘worth being talked about,’ and in this fashion other compounded words, just as there are many derived words, among which are Fatuus ‘god of prophetic speaking’ and the Fatuae ‘women of prophecy.’
56. Loqui ‘to talk,’ is said from locus ‘place.’ Because he who is said to speak now for the first time, utters the names and other words before he can say them each in its own locus ‘place,’ such a person Chrysippus says does not loqui ‘talk,’ but quasi-talks; and that therefore, as a man’s sculptured bust is not the real man, so in the case of ravens, crows, and children making their first attempts to speak, their words are not real words, because they are not talking. Therefore he loquitur ‘talks,’ who with understanding puts each word in its own place, and he has then prolocutus ‘spoken forth,’ when he has by loquendo ‘talking’ expressed what he had in his spirit.
57. From this, they are said eloqui ‘to speak forth’ and reloqui ‘to speak in reply’ in the Sabine sanctuaries, who loquuntur ‘speak’ from the chamber of the God. From this he was called loquax ‘talkative,’ who talked too much; from this, eloquens ‘eloquent,’ who talks profusely; from this, colloquium ‘conference,’ when persons come into one place for the purpose of talking; from this, they say that women go adlocutum ‘to talk to her,’ when they go to someone, to talk for purposes of consolation; from this, a word which we utter in talking has been by some called a loquela ‘talk-unit.’ To talk concinne ‘neatly’ is said from concinere ‘to harmonize,’ where the parts agree with each other in such a way that they mutually concinunt ‘harmonize’ one with another.
58. Pronuntiare ‘to make known publicly’ is said from pro and nuntiare ‘to announce’; pro means the same as ante ‘before,’ as in proludit ‘he plays beforehand.’ Therefore actors are said pronuntiare ‘to declaim,’ because they enuntiant ‘make known’ on the proscaenium ‘stage’ the poet’s thoughts; and the word is used with the most literal meaning, when they act a new play. For a nuntius ‘messenger’ was named from novae res ‘new things,’ which is perhaps derived from a Greek word; from this, accordingly, their Neapolis ‘New City’ was called Nova-polis ‘New-polis’ by the old-time Romans.
59. From this, moreover, novissimum ‘newest’ also began to be used popularly for extremum ‘last,’ a use which within my memory both Aelius and some elderly men avoided, on the ground that this superlative of the word was too new a formation; its origin is just like vetustius ‘older’ and veterrimum ‘oldest’ from vetus ‘old,’ thus from novum were derived novius ‘newer’ and novissimum, which means ‘last.’ So, from the same origin, novitas ‘newness’ and novicius ‘novice’ and novalis ‘ploughed anew’ in the case of a field, and a part of the buildings in the Forum was called sub Novis ‘by the New Shops’; though it has had the name for a very long time, as has the Nova Via ‘New Street,’ which has been an old street this long while.
60. From this can be said also nominare ‘to call by name,’ because when novae ‘new’ things were brought into use, they set nomina ‘names’ on them, by which they novissent ‘might know’ them. From this, nuncupare ‘to pronounce vows publicly,’ because then nova ‘new’ vows are undertaken for the state. That nuncupare is the same as nominare, is evident in the laws, where sums of money are written down as nuncupatae ‘bequeathed by name’; likewise in the Chorus, in which there is:
Aeneas! — Who is this who calls me by my name? And likewise in the Medus:
Who are you, woman, who have called me by an unaccustomed name?
61. Dico ‘I say’ has a Greek origin, that which the Greeks call δεικνύω ‘I show.’ From this moreover comes dicare ‘to show, dedicate,’ as Ennius says:
I say this circus shows six little turning-posts.
From this, iudicare ‘to judge,’ because then ius ‘right’ dicitur ’is spoken’; from this, index ‘judge,’ because he ius dicat ‘speaks the decision’ after receiving the power to do so; from this, dedicat ‘he dedicates,’ that is, he finishes the matter by dicendo ‘saying’ certain fixed words: for thus a temple of a god dedicatur ’is dedicated’ by the magistrate, by dicendo ‘saying’ the formulas after the pontiff. From this, that is from dicere, comes indicium ‘information’; from this, the following: indicit ‘he declares’ war, indixit ‘he has invited to’ a funeral, prodixit ‘he has postponed’ the day, addixit ‘he has awarded’ the decision; from this was named a dictum ‘bon mot’ in a farce, and dictiosus ‘witty person’; from this, in the companies of soldiers in camp, the dicta ‘orders’ of the leaders; from this, the dictata ‘dictation exercises’ in the school; from this, the dictator ‘dictator,’ as master of the people, because he must dici ‘be appointed’ by the consul; from this, those old phrases addici nummo ‘to be made over to somebody for a shilling,’ and dicis causa ‘for the sake of judicial form,’ and addictus ‘bound over’ to somebody.
62. If I dico ‘say’ something that I know to one who does not know it, because I trado ‘hand over’ to him what he was ignorant of, from this is derived doceo ‘I teach,’ or else because when we docemus ‘teach’ we dicimus ‘say,’ or else because those who docentur ‘are taught’ inducuntur ‘are led on’ to that which they docentur ‘are taught.’ From this fact, that he knows how ducere ‘to lead,’ is named the one who is dux ‘guide’ or ductor ‘leader’; from this, doctor ‘teacher,’ who so inducit ‘leads on’ that he docet ‘teaches.’ From ducere ‘to lead,’ come docere ‘to teach,’ disciplina ‘instruction,’ discere ‘to learn,’ by the change of a few letters. From the same original element comes documenta ‘instructive examples,’ which are said as models for the purpose of teaching.
63. Disputatio ‘discussion’ and computatio ‘reckoning,’ from the general idea of putare, which means to make purum ‘clean’; for the ancients used putum to mean purum. Therefore putator ‘trimmer’, because he makes trees clean; therefore a business account is said putari ‘to be adjusted,’ in which the sum is pura ‘net.’ So also that discourse in which the words are arranged pure ‘neatly,’ that it may not be confused and that it may be transparent of meaning, is said disputare ‘to discuss’ a problem or question.
64. Our word disserit is used in a figurative meaning as well as in relation to the fields: for as the kitchen-gardener disserit ‘distributes’ the things of each kind upon his garden plots, so he who does the like in speaking is disertus ‘skilful.’ Sermo ‘conversation,’ I think, is from series ‘succession,’ whence serta ‘garlands’; and moreover in the case of a garment sartum ‘patched,’ because it is held together: for sermo ‘conversation’ cannot be where one man is alone, but where his speech is joined with another’s. So we are said conserere manum ‘to join hand-to-hand fight’ with an enemy; so to call for manum consertum ‘a laying on of hands’ according to law; from this, adserere manu in libertatem ‘to claim that so-and-so is free,’ when we lay hold of him. So the augurs say:
If you authorize me to take in my hand the sacred bough, then name my colleagues (consortes).
65. From this, moreover, sors ‘lot,’ from which the consortes ‘colleagues’ themselves are named; from this, further, sortes ‘lots,’ because in them time-ideas are joined with men and things; from these, the sortilegi ‘lot-pickers, fortune-tellers’; from this, the money which is at interest is the sors ‘principal, because it joins one expense to another.
66. Legere ‘to pick or read,’ because the letters leguntur ‘are picked’ with the eyes; therefore also legati ‘envoys,’ because they leguntur ‘are chosen’ to be sent on behalf of the state. Likewise, from legere ‘to pick,’ the leguli ‘pickers,’ who legunt ‘gather’ the olives or the grapes; from this, the legumina ‘beans’ of various kinds; moreover, the leges ‘laws,’ which are lectae ‘chosen’ and brought before the people for them to observe. From this, legitima ‘lawful things’; and collegae ‘colleagues,’ who have been lecti ‘chosen’ together, and those who have been put into their places, are sublecti ‘substitutes’; those added are allecti ‘chosen in addition,’ and things which have been lecta ‘gathered’ from several places into one, are collecta ‘collected.’ Prom legere ‘to gather’ comes also ligna ‘firewood,’ because the wood that had fallen was gathered in the field, to be used on the fireplace. From the same source, legere ‘to gather,’ came legio ‘legion,’ and diligens ‘careful,’ and dilectus ‘military levy.’
67. From likeness to the sound, he is said murmurari ‘to murmur,’ who speaks so softly that he seems more as the result of the sound to be doing it, than to be doing it for the purpose of being understood. From this, moreover, the poets say Murmuring sea-shore.
Likewise, fremere ‘to roar,’ gemere ‘to groan,’ clamare ‘to shout,’ crepare ‘to rattle’ are said from the likeness of the sound of the word to that which it denotes. From this, that passage:
Arms are resounding, a roar doth arise.
From this, also, By your rebuking you alarm me not.
68. Close to these are quiritare ‘to shriek,’ iubilare ‘to call joyfully.’ He is said quiritare, who shouts and implores the protection of the Quirites. The Quirites were named from the Curenses ‘men of Cures’; from that place they came with King Tatius to receive a share in the Roman state. As quiritare is a word of city people, so iubilare is a word of the countrymen; thus in imitation of them Aprissius says:
Oho, Fat-Face! — Who is calling me? — Your neighbour of long standing.
So triumphare ‘to triumph’ was said, because the soldiers shout “Oho, triumph!” as they come back with the general through the City and he is going up to the Capitol; this is perhaps derived from θρίαμβος, as a Greek surname of Liber.
69. Spondere is to say spondeo ‘I solemnly promise,’ from sponte ‘of one’s own inclination’: for this has the same meaning as from voluntas ‘personal desire.’ Therefore Lucilius writes of the Cretan woman, that when she had come of her own desire to his house to lie with him, she was of her own sponte ‘inclination’ led to throw back her tunic and other garments. The same voluntas ‘personal desire’ is what Terence means when he says that it is better Of one’s own inclination right to do, Than merely by the fear of other folk.
From the same sponte from which spondere is said, are derived despondet ‘he pledges’ and respondet ‘he promises in return, answers,’ and desponsor ‘promiser’ and sponsa ‘promised bride,’ and likewise others in the same fashion. For he spondet ‘solemnly promises’ who says of his own sponte ‘inclination’ spondeo ‘I promise’; he who spopondit ‘has promised’ is a sponsor ‘surety’; he who is by sponsus ‘formal promise’ bound to do the same thing as the other party, is a consponsus ‘co-surety.’
70. This is what Naevius means when he says consponsi. If money or a daughter spondebatur ‘was promised’ in connexion with a marriage, both the money and the girl who had been desponsa ‘pledged’ were called sponsa ‘promised, pledged’; the money which had been asked under the sponsus ‘engagement’ for their mutual protection against the breaking of the agreement, was called a sponsio ‘guarantee deposit’; the man to whom the money or the girl was desponsa ‘pledged,’ was called sponsus ‘betrothed’; the day on which the engagement was made, was called sponsalis ‘betrothal day.’
71. He who spoponderat ‘had promised’ his daughter, they said, despondisse ‘had promised her away,’ because she had gone out of the power of his sponte ‘inclination,’ that is, from the control of his voluntas ‘desire’: for even if he wished not to give her, still he gave her, because he was bound by his sponsus ‘formal promise’: for you see it said, as in comedies:
Do you now promise your daughter to my son as wife?
This was at that time considered a principle established by the praetors to supplement the statutes, and a decision of the censors for the sake of fairness. So a person is said despondisse animum ‘to have promised his spirit away, to have become despondent,’ just as he is said despondisse filiam ‘to have promised his daughter away,’ because he had fixed an end of the power of his sponte ‘inclination.’
72. Since spondere was said from sua sponte dicere ‘to say of one’s own inclination,’ they said also respondere ‘to answer,’ when they responderunt ‘promised in return’ to the other party’s spontem, ‘inclination,’ that is, to the desire of the asker. Therefore he who says “no” to that which is asked, does not respondere, just as he does not spondere who has immediately said spondeo, if he said it for a joke, nor can legal action be taken against him as a result of such a sponsus ‘promise.’ Thus he to whom someone says in a comedy, Do you recall you pledged your daughter unto me?
which he had said without his sponte ‘inclination,’ cannot be proceeded against under his sponsus.
73. Spes ‘hope’ is perhaps also derived from sponte ‘inclination,’ because a person then sperat ‘hopes,’ when he thinks that what he wishes is coming true; for if he thinks that what he does not wish is coming true, he fears, not hopes. Therefore these also who speak in the Astraba of Plautus:
Follow now closely, Polybadiscus, I wish to overtake my hope. — Heavens I surely do: I’m glad to overtake her whom I hope:
because they speak without sponte ‘feeling of success,’ the youth who speaks does not truly ‘hope,’ nor does the girl who is ‘hoped for.’
74. Sponsor and praes and vas are not the same thing, nor are the matters identical from which these terms come; but they develop out of similar situations. Thus a praes is one who is asked by the magistrate that he praestat ‘make a guarantee’ to the state; from which, also when he answers, he says, “I am your praes.” He was called a vas ‘bondsman’ who promised bond for another. It was the custom, that when a party in a suit was not considered capable of fulfilling his engagements, he should give another as bondsman for him; from which they later began to provide by law against those who should sell their real estate, that they should not offer themselves as bondsmen. From this, they began to add the provision in the law about the transfer of properties, that “they should not demand a bondsman, nor will a bondsman be given.”
75. Canere ‘to sing,’ accanit ‘he sings to’ something, and succanit ‘he sings a second part,’ like canto ‘I sing’ and cantatio ‘song,’ from Camena ‘Muse,’ with N substituted for M. From the fact that a person sings once, he canit; if he sings more often, he cantat. From this, cantitat ‘he sings repeatedly,’ and likewise other words; nor without canere ‘singing, playing’ are the tubicines ‘trumpeters,’ named, and the liticines ‘cornetists,’ cornicines ‘horn-blowers,’ tibicines ‘pipes-players’: for canere ‘playing’ on some special instrument belongs to all these. The bucinator ‘trumpeter’ also was named from the likeness of the sound and the cantus ‘playing.’
76. Oro ‘I beseech’ was so called from os ‘mouth,’ and so were perorat ‘he ends his speech’ and exorat ‘he gains by pleading,’ and oralio ‘speech’ and orator ‘speaker’ and osculum ‘kiss.’ From the same, omen ‘presage’ and ornamentum ‘ornament’: because the former was first uttered from the os ‘mouth,’ it was called osmen; the latter is now commonly used in the singular with the general idea of ornament, but as formerly most of the scenic poets use it in the plural. From this, oscines ‘singing birds’ are spoken of among the augurs, which indicate their premonitions by the os ‘mouth.’
77. The third stage of action is, they say, that in which they faciunt ‘make’ something: in this, on account of the likeness among agere ‘to act’ and facere ‘to make’ and gerere ‘to carry or carry on,’ a certain error is committed by those who think that it is only one thing. For a person can facere something and not agere it, as a poet facit ‘makes’ a play and does not act it, and on the other hand the actor agit ‘acts’ it and does not make it, and so a play fit ’is made’ by the poet, not acted, and agitur ’is acted’ by the actor, not made. On the other hand, the general, in that he is said to gerere ‘carry on’ affairs, in this neither facit ‘makes’ nor agit ‘acts,’ but gerit ‘carries on,’ that is, supports, a meaning transferred from those who gerunt ‘carry’ burdens, because they support them.
78. In its literal sense facere ‘to make’ is from facies ‘external appearance’: he is said facere ‘to make’ a thing, who puts a facies ‘external appearance’ on the thing which he facit ‘makes.’ As the fictor ‘image-maker,’ when he says “Fingo ‘I shape,’” puts a figura ‘shape’ on the object, and when he says “Formo ‘I form,’” puts a forma ‘form’ on it, so when he says “Facio ‘I make,’” he puts a, facies ‘external appearance’ on it; by this external appearance there comes a distinction, so that one thing can be said to be a garment, another a dish, and likewise the various things that are made by the carpenters, the image-makers, and other workers. He who furnishes a service, whose work does not stand out in concrete form so as to come under the observation of our physical senses, is, from his agitatus ‘action, motion,’ as I have said, thought rather agere ‘to act’ than facere ‘to make’ something; but because general practice has used these words indiscriminately rather than with care, we use them in transferred meanings; for he who dicit ‘says’ something, we say facere ‘makes’ words, and he who agit ‘acts’ something, we say is not inficiens ‘failing to do’ something.
79. And he who lights a faculam ‘torch,’ is said to facere ‘make’ a light. Lucere ‘to shine,’ from luere ‘to loose,’ because it is also by the light that the shades of night dissolvuntur ‘are loosed apart’; from lux ‘light’ comes Noctiluca ‘Shiner of the Night,’ because this worship was instituted on account of the loss of the daylight. Acquirere ‘to acquire’ is ad ‘in addition’ and quaerere ‘to seek’; quaerere itself is from this, that attention is given to quae res ‘what thing’ is to be got back; from quaerere comes quaestio ‘question’; then from these, quaestor ‘investigator, treasurer.’
80. Video ‘I see,’ from visus ‘sight,’ this from vis ‘strength’; for the greatest of the five senses is in the eyes. For while no one of the senses can feel that which is a mile away, the strength of the sense of the eyes reaches even to the stars. From this:
They watch for what is to be seen, but hate to stay awake.
Also the verse of Accius: When that he violated with his eyes, Who looked upon what ought not to be seen From which moreover they used to say violavit ‘he did violence to’ a girl instead of vitiavit ‘ruined’ her; and similarly, with the same modesty, they used to say rather that a man fuit ‘was’ with a woman, than that he concubuit ‘lay’ with her.
81. Cerno has the same meaning; therefore Ennius uses it for video:
I see light in the sky — can it be dawn?
Cassius says:
I see that in her limbs there’s feeling still and motion.
Cerno ‘I see’ is said from cereo, that is, creo ‘I create’; it is said from this fact, that when something has been created, then finally it is seen. From this, the boundary-lines of the parted hair, because a boundary-line is seen, got the name discrimen ‘separation’; and the cernito ‘let him decide,’ which is in a will, that is, make them see that you are heir: therefore in the cretio ‘decision’ they direct that the heir bring witnesses. From the same is that which Medea says:
I’d rather thrice decide, in battle wild, My life or death, than bear but once a child.
Because, when they decernunt ‘decide’ about life at that time, the end of many persons’ lives is seen.
82. Spectare ‘to see’ is said from the old word specere, which in fact Ennius used:
After Epulo saw them, and because in the taking of the auspices there is a division into those who have the spectio ‘watch-duty’ and those who have not; and because in the taking of the auguries even now the augurs say specere ‘to watch’ a bird. Common practice even now keeps the compounds made with prefixes, as aspicio ‘I look at,’ conspicio ‘I observe,’ respicio ‘I look back at,’ suspicio ‘I look up at,’ despicio ‘I look down upon,’ and similarly others; in which group is also expecto ‘I look for, expect’ that which I wish spectare ‘to see.’ From this, speculor ‘I watch’; from this, speculum ‘mirror,’ because in it we specimus ‘see’ our image. Specula ‘look-out,’ that from which we prospicimus ‘look forth.’ Speculator ‘scout,’ whom we send ahead, that he respiciat ‘may look attentively’ at what we wish. From this, the instrument with which we anoint our eyes by which we specimus ‘see,’ is called a specillum ‘eye-spatula.’
83. From the aures ‘ears’ seem to have been said the words audio ‘I hear’ and ausculto ‘I listen, heed’; aures ‘ears’ from aveo ‘I am eager,’ because with these we are ever eager to learn, which Ennius seems to wish to show as the radical in his Alexander, when he says:
A long time eager have been my spirit and my ears, Awaiting eagerly some message from the games.
It is on account of this eagerness of the ears that the theatres are filled. From audire ‘to hear’ is derived also auscultare ‘to listen, heed,’ because they are said auscultare who obey what they have heard; from which comes the poet’s saying:
I hear, but do not heed.
With the change of a letter are formed odor or olor ‘smell’; from this, olet’it emits an odour,’ and odorari ‘to detect by the odour,’ and odoratus ‘perfumed,’ and an odora ‘fragrant’ thing, and similarly other words.
84. With the mouth edo ‘I eat,’ sorbeo ‘I suck in,’ bibo ‘I drink,’ poto ‘I drink.’ Edo from Greek ἔδω ‘I eat’; from this, esculentum ‘edible’ and esca ‘food’ and edulia ‘eatables’; and because in Greek it is γεύεται ‘he tastes,’ in Latin it is gustat. Sorbere ‘to suck in,’ and likewise bibere ‘to drink,’ from the sound of the word, as for water fervere ‘to boil’ is from the sound like the action. From the same language, because there it is πότον ‘drink,’ is potio ‘drink,’ whence poculum ‘cup,’ potatio ‘drinking-bout,’ repotia ‘next day’s drinking.’ From the same comes puteus ‘well,’ because the old Greek word was like this, and not φρέαρ as it is now.
85. From manus ‘hand’ comes manupretium ‘workman’s wages’; mancipium ‘possession of property,’ because it capitur ’is taken’ manu ‘in hand’; manipulus ‘maniple,’ because it unites several manus ‘hands’; manipularis ‘soldier of a maniple,’ manica ‘sleeve.’ Manubrium ‘handle,’ because it is grasped by the manus ‘hand.’ Mantelium ‘towel,’ on which the manus ‘hands’ terguntur ‘are wiped.’...
86. Now first I shall put down some extracts from the Censors’ Records:
When by night the censor has gone into the sacred precinct to take the auspices, and a message has come from the sky, he shall thus command the herald to call the men: “May this be good, fortunate, happy, and salutary to the Roman people — the Quirites — and to the government of the Roman people — the Quirites — and to me and my colleague, to our honesty and our office: All the citizen soldiers under arms and private citizens as spokesmen of all the tribes, call hither to me with an inlicium ‘invitation,’ in case any one for himself or for another wishes a reckoning to be given.”
87. The herald calls them first in the sacred precinct, afterwards he calls them likewise from the walls. When it is dawn, the censors, the clerks, and the magistrates are anointed with myrrh and ointments. When the praetors and the tribunes of the people and those who have been called to the invitation meeting have come, the censors cast lots with each other, as to which one of them shall conduct the ceremony of purification. When the sacred precinct has been determined, then after that he who is to perform the purification conducts the assembly.
88. In the Consular Commentaries I have found the following account:
He who is about to summon the citizen-army, shall say to his assistant, “Gaius Calpurnius, call all the citizens hither to me, with an inlicium ‘invitation.’” The assistant speaks thus: “All citizens, come ye hither to the judges, to an invitation meeting.” “Gaius Calpurnius,” says the consul, “call all the citizens hither to me, to a gathering.” The assistant speaks thus: “All citizens, come hither to the judges, to a gathering.” Then the consul makes declaration to the army: “I order you to go by the proper way to the centuriate assembly.”
89. Why the latter speaks to the accensus ‘assistant’ and the former to the herald — this is the reason: in some affairs the accensus ‘assistant’ acciebat ‘gave the call’ just like a herald, from which the accensus also got his name. That the accensus was accustomed ciere ‘to give the call,’ is shown by the Boeotia, a comedy which some say is a work of Plautus, and others say is a work of Aquilius, in this verse:
Soon as the aide had called that’ twas the hour of noon.
Cosconius records the same in his work on Civil Cases, that the praetor had the habit of ordering his accensus, at the time when he thought that it is the third hour, to call out that it is the third hour, and likewise midday and the ninth hour.
90. That someone was regularly sent around the walls, inlicere ‘to entice’ the people to that place from which he might call them to the gathering, not only before the consuls and the censors, but also before the quaestors, is shown by an old Commentary on the Indictment which the quaestor Manius Sergius son of Manius brought against Trogus, accusing him of a capital offence; in which there is the following:
91. You shall give your attention to the auspices, and take the auspices in the sacred precinct; then you shall send to the praetor or to the consul the favourable presage which has been sought. The praetor shall call the accused to appear in the assembly before you, and the herald shall call him from the walls: it is proper to give this command. A horn-blower you shall send to the doorway of the private individual and to the Citadel, where the signal is to sound. Your colleague you shall request that from the speaker’s stand he proclaim an assembly, and that the bankers shut up their shops. You shall seek that the senators express their opinion, and bid them be present; you shall seek that the magistrates express their opinion, the consuls, the praetors, the tribunes of the people, and your colleagues, and you shall bid them all be present in the temple; and when you send the request, you shall summon the gathering.
92. In the same Commentary on the Indictment, this is the summing up of the edict written at the end:
Likewise in what pertains to those who have received from the censors the contract for the trumpeter who gives the summons to the centuriate assembly, they shall see to it that on that day, on which the assembly shall take place, the trumpeter shall sound the trumpet on the Citadel and around the walls, and shall sound it before the house-entrance of this accursed Titus Quintius Trogus, and that he be present in the Campus Martius at daybreak.
93. That between the sending around the walls and the calling of the gathering some time elapses, is clear from those things the doing of which in the meantime is written down as the inlicium ‘invitation’; but the people is called to appear in the assembly because for any other reason this magistrate cannot call together the citizen-army of the City. The censor, the consul, the dictator, the interrex can, because the censor arranges in centuries the citizen-army for a period of five years, when he must ceremonially purify it and lead it to the city under its standards; the dictator and the consul do so every year, because the latter can order the citizen-army where it is to go, a thing which they are accustomed to order on account of the centuriate assembly.
94. Therefore there is no doubt that this is the inlicium, when they go around the walls that the people may inlici ‘be enticed’ before the eyes of the magistrate who has the authority to call the men into that place from which the voice of the one who is calling them to the gathering can be heard. Therefore there come from the same source also illici ‘to be enticed’ and inlicis ‘thou enticest,’ which are in the Chorus of Proserpina, and pellexit ‘lured,’ which is in the Hermiona, when Pacuvius says:
Desire for another’s kingdom lured him on.
So also the altar of Jupiter Elicius ‘the Elicited’ on the Aventine, from elicere ‘to lure forth.’
95. This is now done otherwise than it was of old, because the augur is present with the consul when the citizen-army is summoned, and says in advance the formulas which he is to say. The consul regularly gives order to the augur, not to the assistant nor to the herald, that he shall call the inlicium ‘invitation.’ I believe that this was begun on an occasion when the assistant was not present; it really made no difference to whom he gave the order, and it was for form’s sake only that certain things were done, but they were not always said or done in just the same way. This very word inlicium I have found written in the Commentaries of Marcus Junius; that however inlex in Plautus’s Versa is a person who does not obey the lex ‘law,’ and in the same work illex is also that which illicit ‘entices,’ is the result of the fact that I has much in common with E and C with G.
96. But since in this connexion I have spoken at length on a few matters, I shall speak briefly on a number of topics, and especially on the Latin words whose origin they think to be in the Greek tongue: as scalpere ‘to engrave’ from σκαλεύειν ‘to scratch,’ sternere ‘to spread out’ from στρωννύειν, lingere ‘to lick up’ from λιχμᾶσθαι, i ‘go thou’ from ἴθι, ite ‘go ye’ from ἴτε, gignitur ‘he is born’ from γίγνεται, ferte ‘bear ye’ from φέρετε, providere ‘to act with foresight’ from προιδεῖν ‘to see ahead, foresee,’ errare ‘to stray’ from ἔρρειν ‘to go away’; strangu-lare ‘to strangle’ from the word σταραγγαλᾶν, tinguere ‘to dip, dye’ from τέγγειν. Besides, there is depsere ‘to knead’ from δεψῆσαι; from the word which they call μαλάσσειν, we say malaxare ‘to soften,’ as gargarissare ‘to gargle’ from ἀναγαργαρίζεσθαι, putere ‘to stink’ from πύθεσθαι ‘to decay,’ domare ‘to subdue’ from δαμάζειν, mulgere ‘to milk’ from ἀμέλγειν, pectere ‘to comb’ from πέκειν, stringere ‘to scrape’ from στλεγγίζειν: for this is from σταλεγγίς ‘scraper,’ as runcinare ‘to plane’ from runcina ‘plane,’ of which ῥυκάνη is the Greek source.
97. As to what concerns the sources of the words which belong to this book, sufficiently numerous examples of this kind have, I think, been set down; I shall stop, and since I have undertaken to send you three books on these topics, two about prose composition and one about poetical, and I have sent you the two about prose, the former about places and the things that are in them, the latter about time-ideas and those things which are associated with them, I shall at last, in the next book, begin to write of the sources of words used in poetry.