BOOK I

I.

Otium si essem consecutus, Fundania, commodius tibi haec scriberem, quae nunc, ut potero, exponam cogitans esse properandum, quod, ut dicitur, si est homo bulla, eo magis senex. Annus enim octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas conligam, antequam proficiscar e vita. Quare, quoniam emisti fundum, quem bene colendo fructuosum cum facere velis, meque ut id mihi habeam curare roges, experiar; et non solum, ut ipse quoad vivam, quid fieri oporteat ut te moneam, sed etiam post mortem. Neque patiar Sibyllam non solum cecinisse quae, dum viveret, prodessent hominibus, sed etiam quae cum perisset ipsa, et id etiam ignotissimis quoque hominibus; ad cuius libros tot annis post publice solemus redire, cum desideramus, quid faciendum sit nobis ex aliquo portento: me, ne dum vivo quidem, necessariis meis quod prosit facere. Quocirca scribam tibi tres libros indices, ad quos revertare, siqua in re quaeres, quem ad modum quidque te in colendo oporteat facere. Et quoniam, ut aiunt, dei facientes adiuvant, prius invocabo eos, nec, ut Homerus et Ennius, Musas, sed duodecim deos Consentis; neque tamen eos urbanos, quorum imagines ad forum auratae stant, sex mares et feminae totidem, sed illos XII deos, qui maxime agricolarum duces sunt. Primum, qui omnis fructos agri culturae caelo et terra continent, Iovem et Tellurem: itaque, quod ii parentes, magni dicuntur, Iuppiter pater appellatur, Tellus terra mater. Secundo Solem et Lunam, quorum tempora observantur, cum quaedam seruntur et conduntur. Tertio Cererem et Liberum, quod horum fructus maxime necessari ad victum: ab his enim cibus et potio venit e fundo. Quarto Robigum ac Floram, quibus propitiis neque robigo frumenta atque arbores corrumpit, neque non tempestive florent. Itaque publice Robigo feriae Robigalia, Florae ludi Floralia instituti.

[1.1] Had I possessed the leisure, Fundania, I should write in a more serviceable form what now I must set forth as I can, reflecting that I must hasten; for if man is a bubble, as the proverb has it, all the more so is an old man. For my eightieth year admonishes me to gather up my pack before I set forth from life. [2] Wherefore, since you have bought an estate and wish to make it profitable by good cultivation, and ask that I concern myself with the matter, I will make the attempt; and in such wise as to advise you with regard to the proper practice not only while I live but even after my death. [3] And I cannot allow the Sibyl to have uttered prophecies which benefited mankind not only while she lived, but even after she had passed away, and that too people whom she never knew — for so many years later we are wont officially to consult her books when we desire to know what we should do after some portent — and not do something, even while I am alive, to help my friends and kinsfolk. [4] Therefore I shall write for you three handbooks to which you may turn whenever you wish to know, in a given case, how you ought to proceed in farming. And since, as told, the gods help those who call upon them, I will first invoke them — not the Muses, as Homer and Ennius do, but the twelve councillor-gods; and I do not mean those urban gods, whose images stand around the forum, bedecked with gold, six male and a like number female, but those twelve gods who are the special patrons of husbandmen. [5] First, then, I invoke Jupiter and Tellus, who, by means of the sky and the earth, embrace all the fruits of agriculture; and hence, as we are told that they are the universal parents, Jupiter is called “the Father,” and Tellus is called “Mother Earth.” And second, Sol and Luna, whose courses are watched in all matters of planting and harvesting. Third, Ceres and Liber, because their fruits are most necessary for life; for it is by their favour that food and drink come from the farm. [6] Fourth, Robigus and Flora; for when they are propitious the rust will not harm the grain and the trees, and they will not fail to bloom in their season; wherefore, in honour of Robigus has been established the solemn feast of the Robigalia, and in honour of Flora the games called the Floralia.

Item adveneror Minervam et Venerem, quarum unius procuratio oliveti, alterius hortorum; quo nomine rustica Vinalia instituta. Nec non etiam precor Lympham ac Bonum Eventum, quoniam sine aqua omnis arida ac misera agri cultura, sine successu ac bono eventu frustratio est, non cultura. Iis igitur deis ad venerationem advocatis ego referam sermones eos quos de agri cultura habuimus nuper, ex quibus quid te facere oporteat animadvertere poteris. in quis quae non inerunt et quaeres, indicabo a quibus scriptoribus repetas et Graecis et nostris.

Qui Graece scripserunt dispersim alius de alia re, sunt plus quinquaginta. Hi sunt, quos tu habere in consilio poteris, cum quid consulere voles, Hieron Siculus et Attalus Philometor: de philosophis Democritus physicus, Xenophon Socraticus, Aristoteles et Theophrastus peripatetici, Archytas Pythagoreus: item Amphilochus Atheniensis, Anaxipolis Thasius, Apollodorus Lemnius, Aristophanes Mallotes, Antigonus Cymaeus, Agathocles Chius, Apollonius Pergamenus, Aristandros Atheniensis, Bacchius Milesius, Bion Soleus, Chaeresteus et Chaereas Athenienses, Diodorus Prieneus, Dion Colophonius, Diophanes Nicaeensis, Epigenes Rhodios, Euagon Thasius, Euphronii duo, unus Atheniensis, alter Amphipolites, Hegesias Maronites, Menandri duo, unus Prieneus, alter Heracleotes, Nicesius Maronites, Pythion Rhodius. De reliquis, quorum quae fuerit patria non accepi, sunt Androtion, Aeschrion, Aristomenes, Athenagoras, Crates, Dadis, Dionysios, Euphiton, Euphorion, Eubulus, Lysimachus, Mnaseas, Menestratus, Plentiphanes, Persis, Theophilus. Hi quos dixi omnes soluta oratione scripserunt; easdem res etiam quidam versibus, ut Hesiodus Ascraeus, Menecrates Ephesius. Hos nobilitate Mago Carthaginiensis praeteriit, poenica lingua qui res dispersas comprendit libris XXIIX, quos Cassius Dionysius Uticensis vertit libris XX ac Graeca lingua Sextilio praetori misit: in quae volumina de Graecis libris eorum quos dixi adiecit non pauca et de Magonis dempsit instar librorum VIII. Hosce ipsos utiliter ad VI libros redegit Diophanes in Bithynia et misit Deiotaro regi. Quo brevius de ea re conor tribus libris exponere, uno de agri cultura, altero de re pecuaria, tertio de villaticis pastionibus, hoc libro circumcisis rebus, quae non arbitror pertinere ad agri culturam. Itaque prius ostendam, quae secerni oporteat ab ea, tum de his rebus dicam sequens naturales divisiones. Ea erunt ex radicibus trinis, et quae ipse in meis fundis colendo animadverti, et quae legi, et quae a peritis audii.

Likewise I beseech Minerva and Venus, of whom the one protects the oliveyard and the other the garden; and in her honour the rustic Vinalia has been established. And I shall not fail to pray also to Lympha and Bonus Eventus, since without moisture all tilling of the ground is parched and barren, and without success and “good issue” it is not tillage but vexation. [7] Having now duly invoked these divinities, I shall relate the conversations which we had recently about agriculture, from which you may learn what you ought to do; and if matters in which you are interested are not treated, I shall indicate the writers, both Greek and Roman, from whom you may learn them.

Those who have written various separate treatises in Greek, one on one subject, another on another, are more than fifty in number. [8] The following are those whom you can call to your aid when you wish to consider any point: Hiero of Sicily and Attalus Philometor; of the philosophers, Democritus the naturalist, Xenophon the Socratic, Aristotle and Theophrastus the Peripatetics, Archytas the Pythagorean, and likewise Amphilochus of Athens, Anaxipolis of Thasos, Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of Mallos, Antigonus of Cyme, Agathocles of Chios, Apollonius of Pergamum, Aristandrus of Athens, Bacchius of Miletus, Bion of Soli, Chaerestus and Chaereas of Athens, Diodorus of Priene, Dion of Colophon, Diophanes of Nicaea, Epigenes of Rhodes, Euagon of Thasos, the two Euphronii, one of Athens and the other of Amphipolis, Hegesias of Maronea, the two Menanders, one of Priene and the other of Heraclea, Nicesius of Maronea, and Pythion of Rhodes. [9] Among other writers, whose birthplace I have not learned, are: Androtion, Aeschrion, Aristomenes, Athenagoras, Crates, Dadis, Dionysius, Euphiton, Euphorion, Eubulus, Lysimachus, Mnaseas, Menestratus, Plentiphanes, Persis, Theophilus. All these whom I have named are prose writers; others have treated the same subjects in verse, as Hesiod of Ascra and Menecrates of Ephesus. [10] All these are surpassed in reputation by Mago of Carthage, who gathered into twenty-eight books, written in the Punic tongue, the subjects they had dealt with separately. These Cassius Dionysius of Utica translated into Greek and published in twenty books, dedicated to the praetor Sextilius. In these volumes he added not a little from the Greek writers whom I have named, taking from Mago’s writings an amount equivalent to eight books. Diophanes, in Bithynia, further abridged these in convenient form into six books, dedicated to King Deiotarus. [11] I shall attempt to be even briefer and treat the subject in three books, one on agriculture proper, the second on animal husbandry, the third on the husbandry of the steading, omitting in this book all subjects which I do not think have a bearing on agriculture. And so, after first showing what matter should be omitted, I shall treat of the subject, following the natural divisions. My remarks will be derived from three sources: what I have myself observed by practice on my own land, what I have read, and what I have heard from experts.

II.

Sementivis feriis in aedem Telluris veneram rogatus ab aeditumo, ut dicere didicimus a patribus nostris, ut corrigimur a recentibus urbanis, ab aedituo. Offendi ibi C. Fundanium, socerum meum, et C. Agrium equitem R. Socraticum et P. Agrasium publicanum spectantes in pariete pictam Italiam. Quid vos hic? inquam, num feriae sementivae otiosos huc adduxerunt, ut patres et avos solebant nostros? Nos vero, inquit Agrius, ut arbitror, eadem causa quae te, rogatio aeditumi. Itaque si ita est, ut annuis, morere oportet nobiscum, dum ille revertatur. Nam accersitus ab aedile, cuius procuratio huius templi est, nondum rediit et nos uti expectaremus se reliquit qui rogaret. Voltis igitur interea vetus proverbium, quod est ‘Romanus sedendo vincit’, usurpemus, dum ille venit?

Sane, inquit Agrius, et simul cogitans portam itineri dici longissimam esse ad subsellia sequentibus nobis procedit.

Cum consedissemus, Agrasius, Vos, qui multas perambulastis terras, ecquam cultiorem Italia vidistis? inquit. Ego vero, Agrius, nullam arbitror esse quae tam tota sit culta. Primum cum orbis terrae divisus sit in duas partes ab Eratosthene maxume secundum naturam, ad meridiem versus et ad septemtriones, et sine dubio quoniam salubrior pars septemtrionalis est quam meridiana, et quae salubriora illa fructuosiora, dicendum utique Italiam magis etiam fuisse opportunam ad colendum quam Asiam, primum quod est in Europa, secundo quod haec temperatior pars quam interior. Nam intus paene sempiternae hiemes, neque mirum, quod sunt regiones inter circulum septemtrionalem et inter cardinem caeli, ubi sol etiam sex mensibus continuis non videtur. Itaque in oceano in ea parte ne navigari quidem posse dicunt propter mare congelatum. Fundanius, Em ubi tu quicquam nasci putes posse aut coli natum. Verum enim est illud Pacuvi, sol si perpetuo sit aut nox, flammeo vapore aut frigore terrae fructos omnis interire. Ego hic, ubi nox et dies modice redit et abit, tamen aestivo die, si non diffinderem meo insiticio somno meridie, vivere non possum. Illic in semenstri die aut nocte quem ad modum quicquam seri aut alescere aut meti possit? Contra quid in Italia utensile non modo non nascitur, sed etiam non egregium fit? Quod far conferam Campano? Quod triticum Apulo? Quod vinum Falerno? Quod oleum Venafro? Non arboribus consita Italia, ut tota pomarium videatur?

[2.1] On the festival of the Sementivae I had gone to the temple of Tellus at the invitation of the aeditumnus (sacristan), as we have been taught by our fathers to call him, or of the aedituus, as we are being set right on the word by our modern purists. I found there Gaius Fundanius, my father-in-law, Gaius Agrius, a Roman knight of the Socratic school, and Publius Agrasius, the tax-farmer, examining a map of Italy painted on the wall. “What are you doing here?” said I. “Has the festival of the Sementivae brought you here to spend your holiday, as it used to bring our fathers and grandfathers?” [2] “I take it,” replied Agrius, “that the same reason brought us which brought you — the invitation of the sacristan. If I am correct, as your nod implies, you will have to await with us his return; he was summoned by the aedile who has supervision of this temple, and has not yet returned; and he left a man to ask us to wait for him. Do you wish us then meanwhile to follow the old proverb, ‘the Roman wins by sitting still,’ until he returns?” “By all means,” replied Agrius; and reflecting that the longest part of the journey is said to be the passing of the gate, he walked to a bench, with us in his train.

[3] When we had taken our seats Agrasius opened the conversation: “You have all travelled through many lands; have you seen any land more fully cultivated than Italy?” “For my part,” replied Agrius, “I think there is none which is so wholly under cultivation. Consider first: Eratosthenes, following a most natural division, has divided the earth into two parts, [4] one to the south and the other to the north; and since the northern part is undoubtedly more healthful than the southern, while the part which is more healthful is more fruitful, we must agree that Italy at least was more suited to cultivation than Asia. In the first place, it is in Europe; and in the next place, this part of Europe has a more temperate climate than we find farther inland. For the winter is almost continuous in the interior, and no wonder, since its lands lie between the arctic circle and the pole, where the sun is not visible for six months at a time; wherefore we are told that even navigation in the ocean is not possible in that region because of the frozen sea.” [5] “Well,” remarked Fundanius, “do you think that anything can germinate in such a land, or mature if it does germinate? That was a true saying of Pacuvius, that if either day or night be uninterrupted, all the fruits of the earth perish, from the fiery vapour or from the cold. For my part, I could not live even here, where the night and the day alternate at moderate intervals, if I did not break the summer day with my regular midday nap; [6] but there, where the day and the night are each six months long, how can anything be planted, or grow, or be harvested? On the other hand, what useful product is there which not only does not grow in Italy, but even grow to perfection? What spelt shall I compare to the Campanian, what wheat to the Apulian, what wine to the Falernian, what oil to the Venafran? Is not Italy so covered with trees that the whole land seems to be an orchard?

An Phrygia magis vitibus cooperta, quam Homerus appellat ampeloessan, quam haec? Aut tritico Argos, quod idem poeta polupuron? In qua terra iugerum unum denos et quinos denos culleos fert vini, quot quaedam in Italia regiones? An non M. Cato scribit in libro Originum sic: ‘ager Gallicus Romanus vocatur, qui viritim cis Ariminum datus est ultra agrum Picentium. In eo agro aliquotfariam in singula iugera dena cullea vini fiunt’? Nonne item in agro Faventino, a quo ibi trecenariae appellantur vites, quod iugerum trecenas amphoras reddat? Simul aspicit me, Certe, inquit, Libo Marcius, praefectus fabrum tuos, in fundo suo Faventiae hanc multitudinem dicebat suas reddere vites. Duo in primis spectasse videntur Italici homines colendo, possentne fructus pro impensa ac labore redire et utrum saluber locus esset an non. Quorum si alterutrum decolat et nihilo minus quis vult colere, mente est captus adque adgnatos et gentiles est deducendus. Nemo enim sanus debet velle impensam ac sumptum facere in cultura, si videt non posse refici, nec si potest reficere fructus, si videt eos fore ut pestilentia dispereant. Sed, opinor, qui haec commodius ostendere possint adsunt. Nam C. Licinium Stolonem et Cn. Tremelium Scrofam video venire: unum, cuius maiores de modo agri legem tulerunt (nam Stolonis illa lex, quae vetat plus D iugera habere civem R.), et qui propter diligentiam culturae Stolonum confirmavit cognomen, quod nullus in eius fundo reperiri poterat stolo, quod effodiebat circum arbores e radicibus quae nascerentur e solo, quos stolones appellabant. Eiusdem gentis C. Licinius, tr. pl. cum esset, post reges exactos annis CCCLXV primus populum ad leges accipiendas in septem iugera forensia e comitio eduxit. Alterum collegam tuum, viginti virum qui fuit ad agros dividendos Campanos, video huc venire, Cn. Tremelium Scrofam, virum omnibus virtutibus politum, qui de agri cultura Romanus peritissimus existimatur. An non iure? inquam. Fundi enim eius propter culturam iucundiore spectaculo sunt multis, quam regie polita aedificia aliorum, cum huius spectatum veniant villas, non, ut apud Lucullum, ut videant pinacothecas, sed oporothecas. Huiusce, inquam, pomarii summa sacra via, ubi poma veneunt contra aurum, imago.

Illi interea ad nos, et Stolo, Num cena comessa, inquit, venimus? Nam non L. videmus Fundilium, qui nos advocavit. Bono animo este, inquit Agrius. Nam non modo ovom illut sublatum est, quod ludis circensibus novissimi curriculi finem facit quadrigis, sed ne illud quidem ovom vidimus, quod in cenali pompa solet esse primum. Itaque dum id nobiscum una videatis ac venit aeditumus, docete nos, agri cultura quam summam habeat, utilitatemne an voluptatem an utrumque. Ad te enim rudem esse agri culturae nunc, olim ad Stolonem fuisse dicunt.

[7] Is that Phrygia, which Homer calls ‘the vine-clad,’ more covered with vines than this land, or Argos, which the same poet calls ‘the rich in corn,’º more covered with wheat? In what land does one iugerum bear ten and fifteen cullei of wine, as do some sections of Italy? Or does not Marcus Cato use this language in his Origines? ‘The land lying this side of Ariminum and beyond the district of Picenum, which was allotted to colonists, is called Gallo-Roman. In that district, at several places, ten cullei of wine are produced to the iugerum.’ Is not the same true of the district of Faventia? The vines there are called by this writer trecenariae, from the fact that the iugerum yields three hundred amphorae.” And he added, turning to me, “At least your friend, Marcius Libo, the engineer officer, used to tell me that the vines on his estate at Faventia bore this quantity. [8] The Italian seems to have had two things particularly in view in his farming: whether the land would yield a fair return for the investment in money and labour, and whether the situation was healthful or not. If either of these elements is lacking, any man who, in spite of that fact, desires to farm has lost his wits, and should be taken in charge by his kinsmen and family. For no sane man should be willing to undergo the expense and outlay of cultivation if he sees that it cannot be recouped; or, supposing that he can raise a crop, if he sees that it will be destroyed by the unwholesomeness of the situation. [9] But, I think, there are some gentlemen present who can speak with more authority on these subjects; for I see Gaius Licinius Stolo and Gnaeus Tremelius Scrofa approaching, one of them a man whose ancestors originated the bill to regulate the holding of land (for that law which forbids a Roman citizen to hold more than 500 iugera was proposed by a Stolo), and who has proved the appropriateness of the family name by his diligence in farming; he used to dig around his trees so thoroughly that there could not be found on his farm a single one of those suckers which spring up from the roots and are called stolones. Of the same farm was that Gaius Licinius who, when he was tribune of the plebs, 365 years after the expulsion of the kings, was the first to lead people, for the hearing of laws, from the comitium into the “farm” of the forum. [10] The other whom I see coming is your colleague, who was of the Commission of Twenty for parcelling the Campanian lands, Gnaeus Tremelius Scrofa, a man distinguished by all virtues, who is esteemed the Roman most skilled in agriculture.” “And justly so,” I exclaimed. “For his estates, because of their high cultivation, are a more pleasing sight to many than the country seats of others, furnished in a princely style. When people come to inspect his farmsteads, it is not to see collections of pictures, as at Lucullus’s, but collections of fruit. The top of the Via Sacra,” I added, “where fruit brings its weight in gold, is a very picture of his orchard.”

[11] While we were speaking they came up, and Stolo inquired: “We haven’t arrived too late for dinner? For I do not see Lucius Fundilius, our host.” “Do not be alarmed,” replied Agrius, “for not only has that egg which shows the last lap of the chariot race at the games in the circus not been taken down, but we have not even seen that other egg which usually heads the procession at dinner. [12] And so, while you and we are waiting to see the latter, and our sacristan is returning, tell us what end agriculture has in view, profit, or pleasure, or both; for we are told that you are now the past-master of agriculture, and that Stolo formerly was.”

Scrofa, Prius, inquit, discernendum, utrum quae serantur in agro, ea sola sint in cultura, an etiam quae inducantur in rura, ut oves et armenta. Video enim, qui de agri cultura scripserunt et Poenice et Graece et Latine, latius vagatos, quam oportuerit. Ego vero, inquit Stolo, eos non in omni re imitandos arbitror et eo melius fecisse quosdam, qui minore pomerio finierunt exclusis partibus quae non pertinent ad hanc rem. Quare tota pastio, quae coniungitur a plerisque cum agri cultura, magis ad pastorem quam ad agricolam pertinere videtur. Quocirca principes qui utrique rei praeponuntur vocabulis quoque sunt diversi, quod unus vocatur vilicus, alter magister pecoris. Vilicus agri colendi causa constitutus atque appellatus a villa, quod ab eo in eam convehuntur fructus et evehuntur, cum veneunt. A quo rustici etiam nunc quoque viam veham appellant propter vecturas et vellam, non villam, quo vehunt et unde vehunt. Item dicuntur qui vecturis vivunt velaturam facere. Certe, inquit Fundanius, aliut pastio et aliut agri cultura, sed adfinis et ut dextra tibia alia quam sinistra, ita ut tamen sit quodam modo coniuncta, quod est altera eiusdem carminis modorum incentiva, altera succentiva. Et quidem licet adicias, inquam, pastorum vitam esse incentivam, agricolarum succentivam auctore doctissimo homine Dicaearcho, qui Graeciae vita qualis fuerit ab initio nobis ita ostendit, ut superioribus temporibus fuisse doceat, cum homines pastoriciam vitam agerent neque scirent etiam arare terram aut serere arbores aut putare; ab iis inferiore gradu aetatis susceptam agri culturam. Quocirca ea succinit pastorali, quod est inferior, ut tibia sinistra a dextrae foraminibus. Agrius, Tu, inquit, tibicen non solum adimis domino pecus, sed etiam servis peculium, quibus domini dant ut pascant, atque etiam leges colonicas tollis, in quibus scribimus, colonus in agro surculario ne capra natum pascat: quas etiam astrologia in caelum recepit, non longe ab tauro. Cui Fundanius, Vide, inquit, ne, Agri, istuc sit ab hoc, cum in legibus etiam scribatur ‘pecus quoddam’. Quaedam enim pecudes culturae sunt inimicae ac veneno, ut istae, quas dixisti, caprae. Eae enim omnia novella sata carpendo corrumpunt, non minimum vites atque oleas. Itaque propterea institutum diversa de causa ut ex caprino genere ad alii dei aram hostia adduceretur, ad alii non sacrificaretur, cum ab eodem odio alter videre nollet, alter etiam videre pereuntem vellet. Sic factum ut Libero patri, repertori vitis, hirci immolarentur, proinde ut capite darent poenas; contra ut Minervae caprini generis nihil immolarent propter oleam, quod eam quam laeserit fieri dicunt sterilem: eius enim salivam esse fructuis venenum: hoc nomine etiam Athenis in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium, ne arbor olea, quae primum dicitur ibi nata, a capra tangi possit. Nec ullae, inquam, pecudes agri culturae sunt propriae, nisi quae agrum opere, quo cultior sit, adiuvare, ut eae quae iunctae arare possunt.

“First,” remarked Scrofa, “we should determine whether we are to include under agriculture only things planted, or also other things, such as sheep and cattle, which are brought on to the land. [13] For I observe that those who have written on agriculture, whether in Punic, or Greek, or Latin, have wandered too far from the subject.” “For my part,” replied Stolo, “I do not think that they are to be imitated in every respect, but that certain of them have acted wisely in confining the subject to narrower limits, and excluding matters which do not bear directly on this topic. Thus the whole subject of grazing, which many writers include under agriculture, seems to me to concern the herdsman rather than the farmer. [14] For that reason the persons who are placed in charge of the two occupations have different names, one being called vilicus, and the other magister pecoris. The vilicus is appointed for the purpose of tilling the ground, and the name is derived from villa, the place into which the crops are hauled (vehuntur), and out of which they are hauled by him when they are sold. For this reason the peasants even now call a road veha, because of the hauling; and they call the place to which and from which they haul vella and not villa. In the same way, those who make a living by hauling are said facere velaturam.” [15] “Certainly,” said Fundanius, “grazing and agriculture are different things, though akin; just as the right pipe of the tibia is different from the left, but still in a way united, inasmuch as the one is the treble, while the other plays the accompaniment of the same air.” [16] “You may even add this,” said I, “that the shepherd’s life is the treble, and the farmer’s plays the accompaniment, if we may trust that most learned man, Dicaearchus. In his sketch of Greek life from the earliest times, he says that in the primitive period, when people led a pastoral life, they were ignorant even of ploughing, of planting trees, and of pruning, and that agriculture was adopted by them only at a later period. Wherefore the art of agriculture ‘accompanies’ the pastoral because it is subordinate, as the left pipe is to the stops of the right.” [17] “You and your piping,” retorted Agrius, “are not only robbing the master of his flock and the slaves of their peculium — the grazing which their master allows them — but you are even abrogating the homestead laws, among which we find one reciting that the shepherd may not graze a young orchard with the offspring of the she-goat, a race which astrology, too, has placed in the heavens, not far from the Bull.” [18] “Be careful, Agrius,” interrupted Fundanius, “that your citation cannot be wide of the mark; for it is also written in the law, ‘a certain kind of flock.’ For certain kinds of animals are the foes of plants, and even poisonous, such as the goats of which you spoke; for they destroy all young plants by their browsing, and especially vines and olives. [19] Accordingly there arose a custom, from opposite reasons, that a victim from the goat family might be led to the altar of one god, but might not be sacrificed on the altar of another; since, because of the same hatred, the one was not willing to see a goat, while the other was pleased to see him die. So it was that he-goats were offered to father Bacchus, the discoverer of the vine, so that they might pay with their lives for the injuries they do him; while, on the other hand, no member of the goat family was sacrificed to Minerva on account of the olive, because it is said that any olive plant which they bite becomes sterile; for their spittle is poisonous to its fruit. [20] For this reason, also, they are not driven into the acropolis at Athens except once a year, for a necessary sacrifice — to avoid the danger of having the olive tree, which is said to have originated there, touched by a she-goat.” “Cattle are not properly included in a discussion on agriculture,” said I, “except those which enhance the cultivation of the land by their labour, such as those which can plough under the yoke.”

Agrasius, Si istuc ita est, inquit, quo modo pecus removeri potest ab agro, cum stercus, quod plurimum prodest, greges pecorum ministrent? Sic, inquit Agrius, venalium greges dicemus agri culturam esse, si propter istam rem habendum statuerimus. Sed error hinc, quod pecus in agro esse potest et fructus in eo agro ferre, quod non sequendum. Nam sic etiam res aliae diversae ab agro erunt adsumendae, ut si habet plures in fundo textores atque institutos histonas, sic alios artifices.

Scrofa, Diiungamus igitur, inquit, pastionem a cultura, et siquis quid vult aliud. Anne ego, inquam, sequar Sasernarum patris et filii libros ac magis putem pertinere, figilinas quem ad modum exerceri oporteat, quam argentifodinas aut alia metalla, quae sine dubio in aliquo agro fiunt? Sed ut neque lapidicinae neque harenariae ad agri culturam pertinent, sic figilinae. Neque ideo non in quo agro idoneae possunt esse non exercendae, atque ex iis capiendi fructus: ut etiam, si ager secundum viam et opportunus viatoribus locus, aedificandae tabernae devorsoriae, quae tamen, quamvis sint fructuosae, nihilo magis sunt agri culturae partes. Non enim, siquid propter agrum aut etiam in agro profectus domino, agri culturae acceptum referre debet, sed id modo quod ex satione terra sit natum ad fruendum. Suscipit Stolo, Tu, inquit, invides tanto scriptori et obstrigillandi causa figlinas reprehendis, cum praeclara quaedam, ne laudes, praetermittas, quae ad agri culturam vehementer pertineant. Cum subrisisset Scrofa, quod non ignorabat libros et despiciebat, et Agrasius se scire modo putaret ac Stolonem rogasset ut diceret, coepit: Scribit cimices quem ad modum interfici oporteat his verbis: ‘cucumerem anguinum condito in aquam eamque infundito quo voles, nulli accedent; vel fel bubulum cum aceto mixtum, unguito lectum’. Fundanius aspicit ad Scrofam, Et tamen verum dicit, inquit, hic, ut hoc scripserit in agri cultura. Ille, Tam hercle quam hoc, siquem glabrum facere velis, quod iubet ranam luridam coicere in aquam, usque qua ad tertiam partem decoxeris, eoque unguere corpus. Ego, Quod magis, inquam, pertineat ad Fundani valetudinem in eo libro, est satius dicas: nam huiusce pedes solent dolere, in fronte contrahere rugas. Dic sodes, inquit Fundanius: nam malo de meis pedibus audire, quam quem ad modum pedes betaceos seri oporteat. Stolo subridens, Dicam, inquit, eisdem quibus ille verbis scripsit (vel Tarquennam audivi, cum homini pedes dolere coepissent, qui tui meminisset, ei mederi posse): ‘ego tui memini, medere meis pedibus, terra pestem teneto, salus hic maneto in meis pedibus’. Hoc ter noviens cantare iubet, terram tangere, despuere, ieiunum cantare. Multa, inquam, item alia miracula apud Sasernas invenies, quae omnia sunt diversa ab agri cultura et ideo repudianda. Quasi vero, inquit, non apud ceteros quoque scriptores talia reperiantur. An non in magni illius Catonis libro, qui de agri cultura est editus, scripta sunt permulta similia, ut haec, quem ad modum placentam facere oporteat, quo pacto libum, qua ratione pernas sallere? Illud non dicis, inquit Agrius, quod scribit, ‘si velis in convivio multum bibere cenareque libenter, ante esse oportet brassicam crudam ex aceto aliqua folia quinque’.

[21] “If that is so,” replied Agrasius, “how can cattle be kept off the land, when manure, which enhances its value very greatly, is supplied by the herds?” “By that method of reasoning,” retorted Agrius, “we may assert that slave-trading is a branch of agriculture, if we decide to keep a gang for that purpose. The error lies in the assumption that, because cattle can be kept on the land and be a source of profit there, they are part of agriculture. It does not follow; for by that reasoning we should have to embrace other things quite foreign to agriculture; as, for instance, you might keep on your farm a number of spinners, weavers, and other artisans.”

“Very well,” said Scrofa, “let us exclude grazing from agriculture, and whatever else anyone wishes.” [22] “Am I, then,” said I, “to follow the writings of the elder and the younger Saserna, and consider that how to manage clay-pits is more related to agriculture than mining for silver or other mining such as undoubtedly is carried out on some land? [23] But as quarries for stone or sand-pits are not related to agriculture, so too clay-pits. This is not to say that they are not to be worked on land where it is suitable and profitable; as further, for instance, if the farm lies along a road and the site is convenient for travellers, a tavern might be built; however profitable it might be, still it would form no part of agriculture. For it does not follow that whatever profit the owner makes on account of the land, or even on the land, should be credited to the account of agriculture, but only that which, as the result of sowing, is born of the earth for our enjoyment.” [24] “You are jealous of that great writer,” interrupted Stolo, “and you attack his potteries carpingly, while passing over the excellent observations he makes bearing very closely on agriculture, so as not to praise them.” [25] This brought a smile from Scrofa, who knew the books and despised them; and Agrasius, thinking that he alone knew them, asked Stolo to give a quotation. “This is his recipe for killing bugs,” he said: “ ‘Soak a wild cucumber in water, and wherever you sprinkle the water the bugs will not come.’ And again, ‘Grease your bed with ox gall, mixed with vinegar.’ “ [26] “And still it is good advice,” said Fundanius, glancing at Scrofa, “even if he did write it in a book on agriculture.” “Just as good, by Hercules,” he replied, “as this one for the making of a depilatory: ‘Throw a yellow frog into water, boil it down to one-third, and rub the body with it.’ “ “It would be better for you to quote from that book,” said I, “a passage which bears more closely on the trouble from which Fundanius suffers; for his feet are always hurting him and bringing wrinkles to his brow.” [27] “Tell me, pray,” exclaimed Fundanius; “I would rather hear about my feet than how beet-roots ought to be planted.” “I will tell you,” said Stolo, with a smile, “in the very words in which he wrote it (at least I have heard Tarquenna say that when a man’s feet begin to hurt he may be cured if he will think of you): ‘I am thinking of you, cure my feet. The pain go in the ground, and may my feet be sound.’ He bids you chant this thrice nine times, touch the ground, spit on it, and be fasting while you chant.” [28] “You will find many other marvels in the books of the Sasernas,” said I, “which are all just as far away from agriculture and therefore to be disregarded.” “Just as if,” said he, “such things are not found in other writers also. Why, are there not many such items in the book of the renowned Cato, which he published on the subject of agriculture, such as his recipes for placenta, for libum, and for the salting of hams?” “You do not mention that famous one of his composing,” said Agrius: “ ‘If you wish to drink deep at a feast and to have a good appetite, eat some half-dozen leaves of raw cabbage with vinegar before dinner.’”

III.

Igitur, inquit Agrasius, quae diiungenda essent a cultura cuius modi sint, quoniam discretum, de iis rebus quae scientia sit in colendo nos docete, ars id an quid aliud, et a quibus carceribus decurrat ad metas. Stolo cum aspexisset Scrofam, Tu, inquit, et aetate et honore et scientia quod praestas, dicere debes. Ille non gravatus, Primum, inquit, non modo est ars, sed etiam necessaria ac magna; eaque est scientia, quae sint in quoque agro serenda ac facienda, quo terra maximos perpetuo reddat fructus.

[3.1] “Well, then,” said Agrasius, “since we have decided the nature of the subjects which are to be excluded from agriculture, tell us whether the knowledge of those things used in agriculture is an art or not, and trace its course from starting-point to goal.” Glancing at Scrofa, Stolo said: “You are our superior in age, in position, and in knowledge, so you ought to speak.” And he, nothing loath, began: “In the first place, it is not only an art but an important and noble art. It is, as well, a science, which teaches what crops are to be planted in each kind of soil, and what operations are to be carried on, in order that the land may regularly produce the largest crops.

IV.

Eius principia sunt eadem, quae mundi esse Ennius scribit, aqua, terra, anima et sol. Haec enim cognoscenda, priusquam iacias semina, quod initium fructuum oritur. Hinc profecti agricolae ad duas metas dirigere debent, ad utilitatem et voluptatem. Utilitas quaerit fructum, voluptas delectationem: priores partes agit quod utile est, quam quod delectat. Nec non ea, quae faciunt cultura honestiorem agrum, pleraque non solum fructuosiorem eadem faciunt, ut cum in ordinem sunt consita arbusta atque oliveta, sed etiam vendibiliorem atque adiciunt ad fundi pretium. Nemo enim eadem utilitati non formosius quod est emere mavult pluris, quam si est fructuosus turpis. Utilissimus autem is ager qui salubrior est quam alii, quod ibi fructus certus; contra [quod] in pestilenti calamitas, quamvis in feraci agro, colonum ad fructus pervenire non patitur. Etenim ubi ratio cum orco habetur, ibi non modo fructus est incertus, sed etiam colentium vita. Quare ubi salubritas non est, cultura non aliud est atque alea domini vitae ac rei familiaris. Nec haec non deminuitur scientia. Ita enim salubritas, quae ducitur e caelo ac terra, non est in nostra potestate, sed in naturae, ut tamen multum sit in nobis, quo graviora quae sunt ea diligentia leviora facere possimus. Etenim si propter terram aut aquam odore, quem aliquo loco eructat, pestilentior est fundus, aut propter caeli regionem ager calidior sit, aut ventus non bonus flet, haec vitia emendari solent domini scientia ac sumptu, quod permagni interest, ube sint positae villae, quantae sint, quo spectent porticibus, ostiis ac fenestris. An non ille Hippocrates medicus in magna pestilentia non unum agrum, sed multa oppida scientia servavit? Sed quid ego illum voco ad testimonium? Non hic Varro noster, cum Corcyrae esset exercitus ac classis et omnes domus repletae essent aegrotis ac funeribus, immisso fenestris novis aquilone et obstructis pestilentibus ianuaque permutata ceteraque eius generis diligentia suos comites ac familiam incolumes reduxit?

[4.1] “Its elements are the same as those which Ennius says are the elements of the universe — water, earth, air, and fire. You should have some knowledge of these before you cast your seed, which is the first step in all production. Equipped with this knowledge, the farmer should aim at two goals, profit and pleasure; the object of the first is material return, and of the second enjoyment. The profitable plays a more important rôle than the pleasurable; [2] and yet for the most part the methods of cultivation which improve the aspect of the land, such as the planting of fruit and olive trees in rows, make it not only more profitable but also more saleable, and add to the value of the estate. For any man would rather pay more for a piece of land which is attractive than for one of the same value which, though profitable, is unsightly. [3] Further, land which is more wholesome is more valuable, because on it the profit is certain; while, on the other hand, on land that is unwholesome, however rich it may be, misfortune does not permit the farmer to reap a profit. For where the reckoning is with death, not only is the profit uncertain, but also the life of the farmers; so that, lacking wholesomeness, agriculture becomes nothing else than a game of chance, in which the life and the property of the owner are at stake. [4] And yet this risk can be lessened by science; for, granting that healthfulness, being a product of climate and soil, is not in our power but in that of nature, still it depends greatly on us, because we can, by care, lessen the evil effects. For if the farm is unwholesome on account of the nature of the land or the water, from the miasma which is exhaled in some spots; or if, on account of the climate, the land is too hot or the wind is not salubrious, these faults can be alleviated by the science and the outlay of the owner. The situation of the buildings, their size, the exposure of the galleries, the doors, and the windows, are matters of the highest importance. [5] Did not that famous physician, Hippocrates, during a great pestilence save not one farm but many cities by his skill? But why do I cite him? Did not our friend Varro here, when the army and fleet were at Corcyra, and all the houses were crowded with the sick and the dead, by cutting new windows to admit the north wind, and shutting out the infected winds, by changing the position of doors, and other precautions of the same kind, bring back his comrades and his servants in good health?

V.

Sed quoniam agri culturae quod esset initium et finis dixi, relinquitur quot partes ea disciplina habeat ut sit videndum. Equidem innumerabiles mihi videntur, inquit Agrius, cum lego libros Theophrasti complures, qui inscribuntur phuton istorias et alteri phutikon aition. Stolo, Isti, inquit, libri non tam idonei iis qui agrum colere volunt, quam qui scholas philosophorum; neque eo dico, quo non habeant et utilia et communia quaedam. Quapropter tu potius agri culturae partes nobis expone. Scrofa, Agri culturae, inquit, quattuor sunt partes summae: e quis prima cognitio fundi, solum partesque eius quales sint; secunda, quae in eo fundo opus sint ac debeant esse culturae causa; tertia, quae in eo praedio colendi causa sint facienda; quarta, quo quicque tempore in eo fundo fieri conveniat. De his quattuor generalibus partibus singulae minimum in binas dividuntur species, quod habet prima ea quae ad solum pertinent terrae et iterum quae ad villas et stabula. Secunda pars, quae moventur atque in fundo debent esse culturae causa, est item bipertita, de hominibus, per quos colendum, et de reliquo instrumento. Tertia pars quae de rebus dividitur, quae ad quamque rem sint praeparanda et ubi quaeque facienda. Quarta pars de temporibus, quae ad solis circumitum annuum sint referenda et quae ad lunae menstruum cursum. De primis quattuor partibus prius dicam, deinde subtilius de octo secundis.

[5.1] “But as I have stated the origin and the limits of the science, it remains to determine the number of its divisions.” “Really,” said Agrius, “it seems to me that they are endless, when I read the many books of Theophrastus, those which are entitled ‘The History of Plants’ and ‘The Causes of Vegetation.’ “ [2] “His books,” replied Stolo, “are not so well adapted to those who wish to tend land as to those who wish to attend the schools of the philosophers; which is not to say that they do not contain matter which is both profitable and of general interest. [3] So, then, do you rather explain to us the divisions of the subject.” “The chief divisions of agriculture are four in number,” resumed Scrofa: “First, a knowledge of the farm, comprising the nature of the soil and its constituents; second, the equipment needed for the operation of the farm in question; third, the operations to be carried out on the place in the way of tilling; and fourth, the proper season for each of these operations. [4] Each of these four general divisions is divided into at least two subdivisions the first comprises questions with regard to the soil as such, and those which pertain to housing and stabling. The second division, comprising the movable equipment which is needed for the cultivation of the farm, is also subdivided into two: the persons who are to do the farming, and the other equipment. The third, which covers operations, is subdivided: the plans to be made for each operation, and where each is to be carried on. The fourth, covering the seasons, is subdivided: those which are determined by the annual revolution of the sun, and those determined by the monthly revolution of the moon. I shall discuss first the four chief divisions, and then the eight subdivisions in more detail.

VI.

Igitur primum de solo fundi videndum haec quattuor, quae sit forma, quo in genere terrae, quantus, quam per se tutus. Formae cum duo genera sint, una quam natura dat, altera quam sationes imponunt, prior, quod alius ager bene natus, alius male, posterior, quod alius fundus bene consitus est, alius male, dicam prius de naturali. Igitur cum tria genera sint a specie simplicia agrorum, campestre, collinum, montanum, et ex iis tribus quartum, ut in eo fundo haec duo aut tria sint, ut multis locis licet videre, e quibus tribus fastigiis simplicibus sine dubio infimis alia cultura aptior quam summis, quod haec calidiora quam summa, sic collinis, quod ea tepidiora quam infima aut summa: haec apparent magis ita esse in latioribus regionibus, simplicia cum sunt. Itaque ubi lati campi, ibi magis aestus, et eo in Apulia loca calidiora ac graviora, et ubi montana, ut in Vesuvio, quod leviora et ideo salubriora: qui colunt deorsum, magis aestate laborant, qui susum, magis hieme. Verno tempore in campestribus maturius eadem illa seruntur quae in superioribus et celerius hic quam illic coguntur. Nec non susum quam deorsum tardius seruntur ac metuntur. Quaedam in montanis prolixiora nascuntur ac firmiora propter frigus, ut abietes ac sappini, hic, quod tepidiora, populi ac salices: susum fertiliora, ut arbutus ac quercus, deosum, ut nuces graecae ac mariscae fici. In collibus humilibus societas maior cum campestri fructu quam cum montano, in altis contra. Propter haec tria fastigia formae discrimina quaedam fiunt sationum, quod segetes meliores existimantur esse campestres, vineae collinae, silvae montanae. Plerumque hiberna iis esse meliora, qui colunt campestria, quod tunc prata ibi herbosa, putatio arborum tolerabilior: contra aestiva montanis locis commodiora, quod ibi tum et pabulum multum, quod in campis aret, ac cultura arborum aptior, quod tum hic frigidior aer. Campester locus is melior, qui totus aequabiliter in unam partem verget, quam is qui est ad libellam aequos, quod is, cum aquae non habet delapsum, fieri solet uliginosus: eo magis, siquis est inaequabilis, eo deterior, quod fit propter lacunas aquosus. Haec atque huiusce modi tria fastigia agri ad colendum disperiliter habent momentum.

[6.1] “First, then, with respect to the soil of the farm, four points must be considered: the conformation of the land, the quality of the soil, its extent, and in what way it is naturally protected. As there are two kinds of conformation, the natural and that which is added by cultivation, in the former case one piece of land being naturally good, another naturally bad, and in the latter case one being well tilled, another badly, I shall discuss first the natural conformation. [2] There are, then, with respect to the topography, three simple types of land — plain, hill, and mountain; though there is a fourth type consisting of a combination of these, as, for instance, on a farm which may contain two or three of those named, as may be seen in many places. Of these three simple types, undoubtedly a different system is applicable to the lowlands than to the mountains, because the former are hotter than the latter; and the same is true of hillsides, because they are more temperate than either the plains or the mountains. [3] These qualities are more apparent in broad stretches, when they are uniform; thus the heat is greater where there are broad plains, and hence in Apulia the climate is hotter and more humid, while in mountain regions, as on Vesuvius, the air is lighter and therefore more wholesome. Those who live in the lowlands suffer more in summer; those who live in the uplands suffer more in winter; the same crops are planted earlier in the spring in the lowlands than in the uplands, and are harvested earlier, while both sowing and reaping come later in the uplands. [4] Certain trees, such as the fir and the pine, flourish best and are sturdiest in the mountains on account of the cold climate, while the poplar and the willow thrive here where the climate is warmer; the arbute and the oak do better in the upland, the almond and the mariscan fig in the lowlands. On the foothills the growth is nearer akin to that of the plains than to that of the mountains; on the higher hills the opposite is true. [5] Owing to these three types of configuration different crops are planted, grain being considered best adapted to the plains, vines to the hills, and forests to the mountains. Usually the winter is better for those who live in the plains, because at that season the pastures are fresh, and pruning can be carried on in more comfort. On the other hand, the summer is better in the mountains, because there is abundant forage at that time, whereas it is dry in the plains, and the cultivation of the trees is more convenient because of the cooler air. [6] A lowland farm that everywhere slopes regularly in one direction is better than one that is perfectly level, because the latter, having no outlet for the water, tends to become marshy. Even more unfavourable is one that is irregular, because pools are liable to form in the depressions. These points and the like have their differing importance for the cultivation of the three types of configuration.”

VII.

Stolo, Quod ad hanc formam naturalem pertinet, de eo non incommode Cato videtur dicere, cum scribit optimum agrum esse, qui sub radice montis situs sit et spectet ad meridianam caeli partem. Subicit Scrofa, De formae cultura hoc dico, quae specie fiant venustiora, sequi ut maiore quoque fructu sint, ut qui habent arbusta, si sata sunt in quincuncem, propter ordines atque intervalla modica. Itaque maiores nostri ex arvo aeque magno male consito et minus multum et minus bonum faciebant vinum et frumentum, quod quae suo quicque loco sunt posita, ea minus loci occupant, et minus officit aliud alii ab sole ac luna et vento. Hoc licet coniectura videre ex aliquot rebus, ut nuces integras quas uno modio comprendere possis, quod putamina suo loco quaeque habet natura composita, cum easdem, si fregeris, vix sesquimodio concipere possis. Praeterea quae arbores in ordinem satae sunt, eas aequabiliter ex omnibus partibus sol ac luna coquunt. Quo fit ut uvae et oleae plures nascantur et ut celerius coquantur. Quas res duas sequuntur altera illa duo, ut plus reddant musti et olei et preti pluris.

Sequitur secundum illud, quali terra solum sit fundi, a qua parte vel maxime bonus aut non bonus appellatur. Refert enim, quae res in eo seri nascique et cuius modi possint: non enim eadem omnia in eodem agro recte possunt. Nam ut alius est ad vitem appositus, alius ad frumentum, sic de ceteris alius ad aliam rem. Itaque Cretae ad Cortyniam dicitur platanus esse, quae folia hieme non amittat, itemque in Cypro, ut Theophrastus ait, una, item Subari, qui nunc Thurii dicuntur, quercus simili esse natura, quae est in oppidi conspectu: item contra atque apud nos fieri ad Elephantinen, ut neque ficus neque vites amittant folia. Propter eandem causam multa sunt bifera, ut vitis apud mare Zmyrnae, malus in agro Consentino. Idem ostendit, quod in locis feris plura ferunt, in iis quae sunt culta meliora. Eadem de causa sunt quae non possunt vivere nisi in loco aquoso aut etiam aqua, et id discriminatim alia in lacubus, ut [h]arundines in Reatino, alia in fluminibus, ut in Epiro arbores alni, alia in mari, ut scribit Theophrastus palmas et squillas. In Gallia transalpina intus, ad Rhenum cum exercitum ducerem, aliquot regiones accessi, ubi nec vitis nec olea nec poma nascerentur, ubi agros stercorarent candida fossicia creta, ubi salem nec fossicium nec maritimum haberent, sed ex quibusdam lignis combustis carbonibus salsis pro eo uterentur. Stolo, Cato quidem, inquit, gradatim praeponens alium alio agrum meliorem dicit esse in novem discriminibus, quod sit primus ubi vineae possint esse bono vino et multo, secundus ubi hortus inriguus, tertius ubi salicta, quartus ubi oliveta, quintus ubi pratum, sextus ubi campus frumentarius, septimus ubi caedua silva, octavus ubi arbustum, nonus ubi glandaria silva. Scrofa, Scio, inquit, scribere illum; sed de hoc non consentiunt omnes, quod alii dant primatum bonis pratis, ut ego, a quoantiqui prata parata appellarunt. Caesar Vopiscus, aedilicius causam cum ageret apud censores, campos Roseae Italiae dixit esse sumen, in quo relicta pertica postridie non appareret propter herbam.

[7.1] “So far as concerns the natural situation,” said Stolo, “it seems to me that Cato was quite right when he said that the best farm was one that was situated at the foot of a mountain, facing south.” [2] Scrofa continued: “With regard to the conformation due to cultivation, I maintain that the more regard is had for appearances the greater will be the profits: as, for instance, if those who have orchards plant them in quincunxes, with regular rows and at moderate intervals. Thus our ancestors, on the same amount of land but not so well laid out, made less wine and grain than we do, and of a poorer quality; for plants which are placed exactly where each should be take up less ground and screen each other less from the sun, the moon, and the air. [3] You may prove this by one of several experiments; for instance, a quantity of nuts which you can hold in a modius measure with their shells whole, because the shells naturally keep them compacted, you can scarcely pack into a modius and a half when they are cracked. [4] As to the second point, trees which are planted in a row are warmed by the sun and the moon equally on all sides, with the result that more grapes and olives form, and that they ripen earlier; which double result has the double consequence that they yield more must and oil, and of greater value.

[5] “We come now to the second division of the subject, the type of soil of which the farm is composed. It is in respect of this chiefly that a farm is considered good or bad; for it determines what crops, and of what variety, can be planted and raised on it, as not all crops can be raised with equal success on the same land. As one type is suited to the vine and another to grain, so of others — one is suited to one crop, another to another. [6] Thus near Cortynia, in Crete, there is said to be a plane tree which does not shed its leaves in winter, and another in Cyprus, according to Theophrastus. Likewise at Sybaris, which is now called Thurii, there is said to be an oak tree of like character, in sight of the town; and that near Elephantine neither the fig nor the vine sheds its leaves — which is quite the opposite of what happens with us. For the same reason there are many trees which bear two crops a year, such as the vine on the coast near Smyrna, and the apple in the district of Consentia. [7] The fact that trees produce more fruit in uncultivated spots, and better fruit under cultivation, proves the same thing. For the same reason there are plants which cannot live except in marshy ground, or actually in the water and not in every kind of water. Some grow in ponds, as the reeds near Reate, others in streams, as the alder trees in Epirus, and still others in the sea, as the palms and squills of which Theophrastus writes. [8] When I was in command of the army in the interior of Transalpine Gaul near the Rhine, I visited a number of spots where neither vines nor olives nor fruit trees grew; where they fertilized the land with a white chalk which they dug; where they had no salt, either mineral or marine, but instead of it used salty coals obtained by burning certain kinds of wood.” [9] “Cato, you know,” interjected Stolo, “in arranging plots according to the degree of existence, formed nine categories: first, land on which vines can bear a large quantity of wine of good quality; second, land suited for a watered garden; third, for an osier bed; fourth, for olives; fifth, for meadows; sixth, for a grain field; seventh, for a wood lot: eighth, for an orchard; ninth, for a mast grove.” [10] “I know he wrote that,” replied Scrofa, “but all authorities do not agree with him on this point. There are some who assign the first place to good meadows, and I am one of them. Hence our ancestors gave the name prata to meadow-land as being ready (parata). Caesar Vopiscus, once an aedile, in pleading a case before the censors, spoke of the plains of Rosea as the nursing-ground of Italy, such that if a rod were left there overnight, it would be lost the next morning on account of the growth of the grass.

VIII.

Contra vineam sunt qui putent sumptu fructum devorare. Refert, inquam, quod genus vineae sit, quod sunt multae species eius. Aliae enim humiles ac sine ridicis, ut in Hispania, aliae sublimes, quae appellantur iugatae, ut pleraeque in Italia. Cuius generis nomina duo, pedamenta et iuga. Quibus stat rectis vinea, dicuntur pedamenta; quae transversa iunguntur, iuga: ab eo quoque vineae iugatae. Iugorum genera fere quattuor, pertica, harundo, restes, vites: pertica, ut in Falerno, harundo, ut in Arpano, restes, ut in Brundisino, vites, ut in Mediolanensi. iugationis species duae, una derecta, ut in agro Canusino, altera conpluviata in longitudinem et latitudinem iugata, ut in Italia pleraeque. Haec ubi domo nascuntur, vinea non metuit sumptum; ubi multa e propinqua villa, non valde. Primum genus quod dixi maxime quaerit salicta, secundum harundineta, tertium iunceta aut eius generis rem aliquam, quartum arbusta, ubi traduces possint fieri vitium, ut Mediolanenses faciunt in arboribus, quas vocant opulos, Canusini in hardulatione in ficis. Pedamentum item fere quattuor generum: unum robustum, quod optimum solet afferri in vineam e querco ac iunipiro et vocatur ridica; alterum palus e pertica, meliore dura, quo diuturnior; quem cum infimum terra solvit, puter evertitur et fit solum summum: tertium, quod horum inopiae subsidio misit harundinetum. Inde enim aliquot colligatas libris demittunt in tubulos fictiles cum fundo pertuso, quas cuspides appellant, qua umor adventicius transire possit. Quartum est pedamentum nativum eius generis, ubi ex arboribus in arbores traductis vitibus vinea fit, quos traduces quidam rumpos appellant. Vineae altitudinis modus longitudo hominis, intervalla pedamentorum, qua boves iuncti arare possint. Ea minus sumptuosa vinea, quae sine iugo ministrat acratophoro vinum. Huius genera duo: unum, in quo terra cubilia praebet uvis, ut in Asia multis locis, quae saepe vulpibus et hominibus fit communis. Nec non si parit humus mures, minor fit vindemia, nisi totas vineas oppleris muscipulis, quod in insula Pandateria faciunt. Alterum genus vineti, ubi ea modo removetur a terra vitis, quae ostendit se adferre uvam. Sub eam, ubi nascitur uva, subiciuntur circiter bipedales e surculis furcillae, ne vindemia facta denique discat pendere in palma aut funiculo aut vinctu, quod antiqui vocabant cestum. Ibi dominus simul ac vidit occipitium vindemiatoris, furcillas reducit hibernatum in tecta, ut sine sumptu harum opera altero anno uti possit. Hac consuetudine in Italia utuntur Reatini. Haec ideo varietas maxime, quod terra cuius modi sit refert. Ubi enim natura umida, ibi altius vitis tollenda, quod in partu et alimonio vinum non ut in calice quaerit aquam, sed solem. Itaque ideo, ut arbitror, primum e vinea in arbores escendit vitis.

[8.1] “As an argument against the vineyard, there are those who claim that the cost of upkeep swallows up the profits. In my opinion, it depends on the kind of vineyard, for there are several: for some are low-growing and without props, as in Spain; others tall, which are called ‘yoked,’ as generally in Italy. For this latter class there are two names, pedamenta and iuga: those on which the vine runs vertically are called pedamenta (stakes), and those on which it runs transversely are called iuga (yokes); and from this comes the name ‘yoked vines.’ [2] Four kinds of ‘yokes’ are usually employed, made respectively of poles, of reeds, of cords, and of vines: the first of these, for example, around Falernum, the second around Arpi, the third around Brundisium, the fourth around Mediolanum. There are two forms of this trellising: in straight lines, as in the district of Canusium, or yoked lengthways and sideways in the form of the compluvium, as is the practice generally in Italy. If the material grows on the place the vineyard does not mind the expense; and it is not burdensome if much of it can be obtained in the neighbourhood. [3] The first class I have named requires chiefly a willow thicket, the second a reed thicket, the third a rush bed or some material of the kind. For the fourth you must have an arbustum, where trellises can be made of the vines, as the people of Mediolanum do on the trees which they call opuli (maples), and the Canusians on lattice-work in fig trees. [4] Likewise, there are, as a rule, four types of props. The best for common use in the vineyard is a stout post, called ridica, made of oak or juniper. The second best is a stake made from a branch, and preferably from a tough one, so that it will last longer; when one end has rotted in the ground the stake is reversed, what had been the top becoming the bottom. The third, which is used only as a substitute when the others are lacking, is formed of reeds; bundles of these, tied together with bark, are planted in what they call cuspides, earthenware pipes with open bottoms so that the casual water can run out. The fourth is the natural prop, where the vineyard is formed of vines growing across from tree to tree; such traverses are called by some rumpi. [5] The limit to the height of the vineyard is the height of a man, and the intervals between the props should be sufficient to allow a yoke of oxen to plough between. The most economical type of vineyard is that which furnishes wine to beaker without the aid of trellises. There are two kinds of these: one in which the ground serves as a bed for the grapes, as in many parts of Asia. The foxes often share the harvest with man in such vineyards, and if the land breeds mice the yield is cut short unless you fill the whole vineyard with traps, as they do in the island Pandateria. [6] In the other type only those branches are raised from the ground which give promise of producing fruit. These are propped on forked sticks about two feet long, at the time when the grapes form, so that they may not wait until the harvest is over to learn to hang in a bunch by means of a string or the fastening which our fathers called a cestus. In such a vineyard, as soon as the master sees the back of the vintager he takes his forks back to hibernate under cover so that he may be able to enjoy their assistance without cost the next year. In Italy the people of Reate practise this custom. [7] This variation in culture is caused chiefly by the fact that the nature of the soil makes a great difference; where this is naturally humid the vine must be trained higher, because while the wine is forming and ripening it does not need water, as it does in the cup, but sun. And that is the chief reason, I think, that the vines climb up trees.

IX.

Terra, inquam, cuius modi sit refert et ad quam rem bona aut non bona sit. Ea tribus modis dicitur, communi et proprio et mixto. Communi, ut cum dicimus orbem terrae et terram Italiam aut quam aliam. In ea enim et lapis et harena et cetera eius generis sunt in nominando comprensa. Altero modo dicitur terra proprio nomine, quae nullo alio vocabulo neque cognomine adiecto appellatur. Tertio modo dicitur terra, quae est mixta, in qua seri potest quid et nasci, ut argillosa aut lapidosa, sic aliae, cum in hac species non minus sint multae quam in illa communi propter admixtiones. In illa enim cum sint dissimili vi ac potestate partes permultae, in quis lapis, marmor, rudus, harena, sabulo, argilla, rubrica, pulvis, creta, cinis, carbunculus, id est quae sole perferve ita fit, ut radices satorum comburat, ab iis quae proprio nomine dicitur terra, cum est admixta ex iis generibus aliqua re, dicitur aut cretosa * * * sic ab aliis generum discriminibus mixta. Horum varietatis ita genera haec, ut praeterea subtiliora sint alia, minimum in singula facie terna, quod alia terra est valde lapidosa, alia mediocriter, alia prope pura. Sic de aliis generibus reliquis admixtae terrae tres gradus ascendunt eosdem. Praeterea hae ipsae ternae species ternas in se habent alias, quod partim sunt umidiores, partim aridiores, partim mediocres. Neque non haec discrimina pertinent ad fructus vehementer. Itaque periti in loco umidiore far adoreum potius serunt quam triticum, contra in aridiore hordeum potius quam far, in mediocri utrumque. Praeterea etiam discrimina omnium horum generum subtiliora alia, ut in sabulosa terra, quod ibi refert sabulo albus sit an rubicundus, quod subalbus ad serendos surculos alienus, contra rubicundior appositus. Sic magna tria discrimina terrae, quod refert utrum sit macra an pinguis an mediocris, quod ad culturam pinguis fecundior ad multa, macra contra. Itaque in tenui, ut in Pupinia, neque arbores prolixae neque vites feraces, neque stramenta videre crassa possis neque ficum mariscam et arbores plerasque ac prata retorrida muscosa. Contra in agro pingui, ut in Etruria, licet videre et segetes fructuosas ac restibilis et arbores prolixas et omnia sine musco. In mediocri autem terra, ut in Tiburti, quo propius accedit ut non sit macra, quam ut sit ieiuna, eo ad omnes res commodior, quam si inclinabit ad illud quod deterius. Stolo, Non male, inquit, quae sit idonea terra ad colendum aut non, Diophanes Bithynos scribit signa sumi posse aut ex ipsa aut quae nascuntur ex iis: ex ipsa, si sit terra alba, si nigra, si levis, quae cum fodiatur, facile frietur, natura quae non sit cineracia neve vehementer densa: ex iis autem quae enata sunt fera, si sunt prolixa atque quae ex iis nasci debent earum rerum feracia. Sed quod sequitur, tertium illut de modis dic.

[9.1] “The nature of the soil, I say, makes a great difference, in determining to what it is or is not adapted. The word terra is used in three senses, the general, the specific, and the mixed. It is used in the general sense when we speak of the orbis terrae, or of the terra of Italy or any other country; for in that designation are included rock, and sand, and other such things. The word is used specifically in the second sense when it is employed without the addition of a qualifying word or epithet. [2] It is used in the third or mixed sense, of the element in which seed can be planted and germinate — such as clay soil, rocky soil, etc. In this last sense of the word there are as many varieties of earth as when it is used in the general sense, on account of the different combinations of substances. For there are many substances in the soil, varying in consistency and strength, such as rock, marble, rubble, sand, loam, clay, red ochre, dust, chalk, ash, carbuncle (that is, when the ground becomes so hot from the sun that it chars the roots of plants); [3] and soil, using the word in its specific sense, is called chalky or . . . according as one of these elements predominates — and so of other types of soil. The classes of these vary in such a way that there are, besides other subdivisions, at least three for each type: rocky soil, for instance, may be very rocky, or moderately rocky, or almost free of rocks, and in the case of other varieties of mixed soil the same three grades are distinguished. [4] And further, each of these three grades contains three grades: one may be very wet, one very dry, one intermediate. And these distinctions are not without the greatest importance for the crops; thus the intelligent farmer plants spelt rather than wheat on wet land, and on the other hand barley rather than spelt on dry land, while he plants either on the intermediate. [5] Furthermore, even finer distinctions are made in all these classes, as, for instance, in loamy soil it makes a difference whether the loam be white or red, as the whitish loam is not suited to nurseries, while the reddish is well adapted. Thus there are three chief distinctions in soil, according as it is poor, rich, or medium; the rich being able to produce many kinds of vegetation, and the poor quite the opposite. In thin soil, as, for instance, in Pupinia, you see no sturdy trees, nor vigorous vines, nor stout straw, nor mariscan figs, and most of the trees are covered with moss, as are the parched meadows. [6] On the other hand, in rich soil, like that in Etruria, you can see rich crops, land that can be worked steadily, sturdy trees, and no moss anywhere. In the case of medium soil, however, such as that near Tibur, the nearer it comes to not being thin than to being sterile, the more it is suited to all kinds of growth than if it inclined to the poorer type.” [7] “Diophanes of Bithynia makes a good point,” remarked Stolo, “when he writes that you can judge whether land is fit for cultivation or not, either from the soil itself or from the vegetation growing on it: from the soil according as it is white or black, light and crumbling easily when it is dug, of a consistency not ashy and not excessively heavy; from the wild vegetation growing on it if it is luxuriant and bearing abundantly its natural products. But proceed to your third topic, that of measurement.”

X.

Ille, Modos, quibus metirentur rura, alius alios constituit. Nam in Hispania ulteriore metiuntur iugis, in Campania versibus, apud nos in agro Romano ac Latino iugeris. Iugum vocant, quod iuncti boves uno die exarare possint. Versum dicunt centum pedes quoquo versum quadratum. Iugerum, quod quadratos duos actus habeat. Actus quadratus, qui et latus est pedes CXX et longus totidem: is modus acnua latine appellatur. Iugeri pars minima dicitur scripulum, id est decem pedes et longitudine et latitudine quadratum. Ab hoc principio mensores non numquam dicunt in subsicivum esse unciam agri aut sextantem, sic quid aliud, cum ad iugerum pervenerunt, quod habet iugerum scripula CCLXXXVIII, quantum as antiquos noster ante bellum punicum pendebat. Bina iugera quod a Romulo primum divisa dicebantur viritim, quae heredem sequerentur, heredium appellarunt. Haec postea centum centuria. Centuria est quadrata, in omnes quattuor partes ut habeat latera longa pedum * *CD. Hae porro quattuor, centuriae coniunctae ut sint in utramque partem binae, appellantur in agris divisis viritim publice saltus.

[10.1] Scrofa resumed: “Each country has its own method of measuring land. Thus in farther Spain the unit of measure is the iugum, in Campania the versus, with us here in the district of Rome and in Latium the iugerum. The iugum is the amount of land which a yoke of oxen can plough in a day; the versus is an area 100 feet square; [2] the iugerum an area containing two square actus. The square actus, which is an area 120 feet in each direction, is called in Latin acnua. The smallest section of the iugerum, an area ten feet square, is called a scripulum; and hence surveyors sometimes speak of the odd fractions of land above the iugerum as an uncia or a sextans, or the like; for the iugerum contains 288 scripula, which was the weight of the old pound before the Punic War. Two iugera form a haeredium, from the fact that this amount was said to have been first allotted to each citizen by Romulus, as the amount that could be transmitted by will. Later on 100 haeredia were called a centuria; this is a square area, each side being 2400 feet long. Further, four such centuriae, united in such a way that there are two on each side, are called a saltus in the distribution of public lands.

XI.

In modo fundi non animadverso lapsi multi, quod alii villam minus magnam fecerunt, quam modus postulavit, alii maiorem, cum utrumque sit contra rem familiarem ac fructum. Maiora enim tecta et aedificamus pluris et tuemur sumptu maiore. Minora cum sunt, quam postulat fundus, fructus solent disperire. Dubium enim non est quin cella vinaria maior sit facienda in eo agro, ubi vineta sint, ampliora ut horrea, si frumentarius ager est. Villa aedificanda potissimum ut intra saepta villae habeat aquam, si non, quam proxime: primum quae ibi sit nata, secundum quae influat perennis. Si omnino aqua non est viva, cisternae faciendae sub tectis et lacus sub dio, ex altero loco ut homines, ex altero ut pecus uti possit.

[11.1] “Many errors result from the failure to observe the measurement of the farm, some building a steading smaller and some larger than the dimensions demand — each of which is prejudicial to the estate and its revenue. For buildings which are too large cost us too much for construction and require too great a sum for upkeep; and if they are smaller than the farm requires the products are usually ruined. [2] There is no doubt, for instance, that a larger wine cellar should be built on an estate where there is a vineyard, and larger granaries if it is a grain farm.

“The steading should be so built that it will have water, if possible, within the enclosure, or at least very near by. The best arrangement is to have a spring on the place, or, failing this, a perennial stream. If no running water is available, cisterns should be built under cover and a reservoir in the open, the one for the use of people and the other for cattle.

XII.

Danda opera ut potissimum sub radicibus montis silvestris villam ponat, ubi pastiones sint laxae, item ut contra ventos, qui saluberrimi in agro flabunt. Quae posita est ad exortos aequinoctiales, aptissima, quod aestate habet umbram, hieme solem. Sin cogare secundum flumen aedificare, curandum ne adversum eam ponas; hieme enim fiet vehementer frigida et aestate non salubris. Advertendum etiam, siqua erunt loca palustria, et propter easdem causas, et quod crescunt animalia quaedam minuta, quae non possunt oculi consequi, et per aera intus in corpus per os ac nares perveniunt atque efficiunt difficilis morbos. Fundanius, Quid potero, inquit, facere, si istius modi mi fundus hereditati obvenerit, quo minus pestilentia noceat? Istuc vel ego possum respondere, inquit Agrius; vendas, quot assibus possis, aut si nequeas, relinquas. At Scrofa, Vitandum, inquit, ne in eas partes spectet villa, e quibus ventus gravior afflare soleat, neve in convalli cava et ut potius in sublimi loco aedifices, qui quod perflatur, siquid est quod adversarium inferatur, facilius discutitur. Praeterea quod a sole toto die inlustratur, salubrior est, quod et bestiolae, siquae prope nascuntur et inferuntur, aut efflantur aut aritudine cito pereunt. Nimbi repentini ac torrentes fluvii periculosi illis, qui in humilibus ac cavis locis aedificia habent, et repentinae praedonum manus quod improvisos facilius opprimere possunt, ab hac utraque re superiora loca tutiora.

[12.1] “Especial care should be taken, in locating the steading, to place it at the foot of a wooded hill, where there are broad pastures, and so as to be exposed to the most healthful winds that blow in the region. A steading facing the east has the best situation, as it has the shade in summer and the sun in winter. If you are forced to build on the bank of a river, be careful not to let the steading face the river, as it will be extremely cold in winter, and unwholesome in summer. [2] Precautions must also be taken in the neighbourhood of swamps, both for the reasons given, and because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases.” “What can I do,” asked Fundanius, “to prevent disease if I should inherit a farm of that kind?” “Even I can answer that question,” replied Agrius; “sell it for the highest cash price; or if you can’t sell it, abandon it.” [3] Scrofa, however, replied: “See that the steading does not face in the direction from which the infected wind usually comes, and do not build in a hollow, but rather on elevated ground, as a well-ventilated place is more easily cleared if anything obnoxious is brought in. Furthermore, being exposed to the sun during the whole day, it is more wholesome, as any animalculae which are bred near by and brought in are either blown away or quickly die from the lack of humidity. [4] Sudden rains and swollen streams are dangerous to those who have their buildings in low-lying depressions, as are also the sudden raids of robber bands, who can more easily take advantage of those who are off their guard. Against both these dangers the more elevated situations are safer.

XIII.

In villa facienda stabula ita, ut bubilia sint ibi, hieme quae possint esse caldiora. Fructus, ut est vinum et oleum, loco plano in cellis, item vasa vinaria et olearia potius faciendum; aridus, ut est faba et faenum, in tabulatis. Familia ubi versetur providendum, si fessi opere aut frigore aut calore, ubi commodissime possint se quiete reciperare. Vilici proximum ianuam cellam esse oportet eumque scire, qui introeat aut exeat noctu quidve ferat, praesertim si ostiarius est nemo. In primis culina videnda ut sit admota, quod ibi hieme antelucanis temporibus aliquot res conficiuntur, cibus paratur ac capitur. Faciundum etiam plaustris ac cetero instrumento omni in cohorte ut satis magna sint tecta, quibus caelum pluvium inimicum. Haec enim si intra clausum in consaepto et sub dio, furem modo non metuunt, adversus tempestatem nocentem non resistunt. Cohortes in fundo magno duae aptiores: una ut interdius conpluvium habeat lacum, ubi aqua saliat, qui intra stylobatas, cum velit, sit semipiscina. Boves enim ex arvo aestate reducti hic bibunt, hic perfunduntur, nec minus e pabulo cum redierunt anseres, sues, porci. In cohorte exteriore lacum esse oportet, ubi maceretur lupinum, item alia quae demissa in aquam ad usum aptiora fiunt. Cohors exterior crebro operta stramentis ac palea occulcata pedibus pecudum fit ministra fundo, ex ea quod evehatur. Secundum villam duo habere oportet stercilina aut unum bifariam divisum. Alteram enim partem fieri oportet novam, alteram veterem tolli in agrum, quod enim quam recens quod confracuit melius. Nec non stercilinum melius illud, cuius latera et summum virgis ac fronde vindicatum a sole. Non enim sucum, quem quaerit terra, solem ante exugere oportet. Itaque periti, qui possunt, ut eo aqua influat eo nomine faciunt (sic enim maxime retinetur sucus) in eoque quidam sellas familiaricas ponunt. Aedificium facere oportet, sub quod tectum totam fundi subicere possis messem, quod vocant quidam nubilarium. Id secundum aream faciendum, ubi triturus sis frumentum, magnitudine pro modo fundi, ex una parti apertum, et id ab area, quo et in tritura proruere facile possis et, si nubilare coepit, inde ut rursus celeriter reicere. Fenestras habere oportet ex ea parti, unde commodissime perflari possit. Fundanius, Fructuosior, inquit, est certe fundus propter aedificia, si potius ad anticorum diligentiam quam ad horum luxuriam derigas aedificationem. Illi enim faciebant ad fructum rationem, hi faciunt ad libidines indomitas. Itaque illorum villae rusticae erant maioris preti quam urbanae, quae nunc sunt pleraque contra. Illic laudabatur villa, si habebat culinam rusticam bonam, praesepis laxas, cellam vinariam et oleariam ad modum agri aptam et pavimento proclivi in lacum, quod saepe, ubi conditum novum vinum, orcae in Hispania fervore musti ruptae neque non dolea in Italia. Item cetera ut essent in villa huiusce modi, quae cultura quaereret, providebant. Nunc contra villam urbanam quam maximam ac politissimam habeant dant operam ac cum Metelli ac Luculli villis pessimo publico aedificatis certant. Quo hi laborant ut spectent sua aestiva triclinaria ad frigus orientis, hiberna ad solem occidentem, potius quam, ut antiqui, in quam partem cella vinaria aut olearia fenestras haberet, cum fructus in ea vinarius quaerat ad dolia aera frigidiorem, item olearia calidiorem. Item videre oportet, si est collis, nisi quid impedit, ut ibi potissimum ponatur villa.

[13.1] “In laying out the steading, you should arrange the stables so that the cow-stalls will be at the place which will be warmest in winter. Such liquid products as wine and oil should be set away in store-rooms on level ground, and jars for oil and wine should be provided; while dry products, such as beans and hay, should be stored in a floored space. A place should be provided for the hands to stay in when they are tired from work or from cold or heat, where they can recover in comfort. [2] The overseer’s room should be next to the entrance, where he can know who comes in or goes out at night and what he takes; and especially if there is no porter. Especially should care be taken that the kitchen be conveniently placed, because there in winter there is a great deal going on before daylight, in the preparation and eating of food. Sheds of sufficient size should also be provided in the barnyard for the carts and all other implements which are injured by rain; for if these are kept in an enclosure inside the walls, but in the open, they will not have to fear thieves, yet they will be exposed to injurious weather. [3] On a large farm it is better to have two farm-yards: one, containing an outdoor reservoir — a pond with running water, which, surrounded by columns, if you like, will form a sort of fish-pond; for here the cattle will drink, and here they will bathe themselves when brought in from ploughing in the summer, not to mention the geese and hogs and pigs when they come from pasture; and in the outer yard there should be a pond for the soaking of lupines and other products which are rendered more fit for use by being immersed in water. [4] As the outer yard is often covered with chaff and straw trampled by the cattle, it becomes the handmaid of the farm because of what is cleaned off it. Hard by the steading there should be two manure pits, or one pit divided into two parts; into one part should be cast the fresh manure and from the other the rotted manure should be hauled into the field; for manure is not so good when it is put in fresh as when it is well rotted. The best type of manure pit is that in which the top and sides are protected from the sun by branches and leaves; for the sun ought not to dry out the essence which the land needs. It is for this reason that experienced farmers arrange it, when possible, so that water will collect there, for in this way the strength is best retained; and some people place the privies for the servants on it. [5] You should build a shed large enough to store the whole yield of the farm under cover. This shed, which is sometimes called a nubilarium, should be built hard by the floor on which you are to thresh the grain; it should be of a size proportioned to that of the farm, and open only on one side, that next to the threshing floor, so that you can easily throw out the grain for threshing, and quickly throw it back again, if it begins to ‘get cloudy.’ You should have windows on the side from which it can be ventilated most easily.” [6] “A farm is undoubtedly more profitable, so far as the buildings are concerned,” said Fundanius, “if you construct them more according to the thrift of the ancients than the luxury of the moderns; for the former built to suit the size of their crops, while the latter build to suit their unbridled luxury. Hence their farms cost more than their dwelling-houses, while now the opposite is usually the case. In those days a steading was praised if it had a good kitchen, roomy stables, and cellars for wine and oil in proportion to the size of the farm, with a floor sloping to a reservoir, because often, after the new wine is laid by, not only the butts which they use in Spain but also the jars which are used in Italy are burst by the fermentation of the must. [7] In like manner they took care that the steading should have everything else that was required for agriculture; while in these times, on the other hand, the effort is to have as large and handsome a dwelling-house as possible; and they vie with the ‘farm houses’ of Metellus and Lucullus, which they have built to the great damage of the state. What men of our day aim at is to have their summer dining-rooms face the cool east and their winter dining-rooms face the west, rather than, as the ancients did, to see on what side the wine and oil cellars have their windows; for in a cellar wine requires cooler air on the jars, while oil requires warmer. Likewise you should see that, if there be a hill, the house, unless something prevents, should be placed there by preference.”

XIV.

Nunc de saeptis, quae tutandi causa fundi aut partis fiant, dicam. Earum tutelarum genera IIII, unum naturale, alterum agreste, tertium militare, quartum fabrile. Horum unum quodque species habet plures. Primum naturale saepimentum, quod opseri solet virgultis aut spinis, quod habet radices ac vivit, praetereuntis lascivi non metuet facem ardentem. Secunda saeps est agrestis e ligno, sed non vivit: fit aut palis statutis crebris et virgultis implicatis aut latis perforatis et per ea foramina traiectis longuris fere binis aut ternis aut ex arboribus truncis demissis in terram deinceps constitutis. Tertium militare saepimentum est fossa et terreus agger. Sed fossa ita idonea, si omnem aquam, quae e caelo venit, recipere potest aut fastigium habet, ut exeat e fundo. Agger is bonus, qui intrinsecus iunctus fossa aut ita arduus, ut eum transcendere non sit facile. Hoc genus saepes fieri secundum vias publicas solent et secundum amnes. Ad viam Salariam in agro Crustumino videre licet locis aliquot coniunctos aggeres cum fossis, ne flumen agris noceat. Aggeres faciunt sine fossa: eos quidam vocant muros, ut in agro Retino. Quartum fabrile saepimentum est novissimum, maceria. Huius fere species quattuor, quod fiunt e lapide, ut in agro Tusculano, quod e lateribus coctilibus, ut in agro Gallico, quod e lateribus crudis, ut in agro Sabino, quod ex terra et lapillis compositis in formis, ut in Hispania et agro Tarentino.

[14.1] “Now I shall speak of the enclosures which are constructed for the protection of the farm as a whole, or its divisions. There are four types of such defences: the natural, the rustic, the military, and the masonry type; and each of these types has several varieties. The first type, the natural, is a hedge, usually planted with brush or thorn, having roots and being alive, and so with nothing to fear from the flaming torch of a mischievous passer-by. [2] The second type, the rustic, is made of wood, but is not alive. It is built either of stakes planted close and intertwined with brush; or of thick posts with holes bored through, having rails, usually two or three to the panel, thrust into the openings; or of trimmed trees placed end to end, with the branches driven into the ground. The third, or military type, is a trench and bank of earth; but the trench is adequate only if it can hold all the rain water, or has a slope sufficient to enable it to drain the water off the land. [3] The bank is serviceable which is close to the ditch on the inside, or so steep that it is not easy to climb. This type of enclosure is usually built along public roads and along streams. At several points along the Via Salaria, in the district of Crustumeria, one may see banks combined with trenches to prevent the river from injuring the fields. Banks built without trenches, such as occur in the district of Reate, are sometimes called walls. [4] The fourth and last type of fence, that of masonry, is a wall, and there are usually four varieties: that which is built of stone, such as occurs in the district of Tusculum; that of burned brick, such as occurs in the Ager Gallicus; that of sun-dried brick, such as occurs in the Sabine country; and that formed of earth and gravel in mounds, such as occurs in Spain and the district of Tarentum.

XV.

Praeterea sine saeptis fines praedi satione arborum tutiores fiunt, ne familiae rixent[ur] cum vicinis ac limites ex litibus iudicem quaerant. Serunt alii circum pinos, ut habet uxor in Sabinis, alii cupressos, ut ego habui in Vesuvio, alii ulmos, ut multi habent in Crustumino: ubi id pote, ut ibi, quod est campus, nulla potior serenda, quod maxime fructuosa, quod et sustinet saepe ac cogit aliquot corbulas uvarum et frondem iucundissimam ministrat ovibus ac bubus ac virgas praebet saepibus et foco ac furno. Scrofa, Igitur primum haec, quae dixi, quattuor videnda agricolae, de fundi forma, de terrae natura, de modo agri, de finibus tuendis.

[15.1] “Furthermore, if there are no enclosures, the boundaries of the estate are made more secure by the planting of trees, which prevent the servants from quarrelling with the neighbours, and make it unnecessary to fix the boundaries by lawsuits. Some plant pines around the edges, as my wife has done on her Sabine farms; others plant cypresses, as I did on my place on Vesuvius; and still others plant elms, as many have done near Crustumeria. Where that is possible, as it is there because it is a plain, there is no tree better for planting; it is extremely profitable, as it often supports and gathers many a basket of grapes, yields a most agreeable foliage for sheep and cattle, and furnishes rails for fencing, and wood for hearth and furnace.

“These points, then, which I have discussed,” continued Scrofa, “are the four which are to be observed by the farmer: the topography of the land, the nature of the soil, the size of the plot, and the protection of the boundaries.

XVI.

Relinquitur altera pars, quae est extra fundum, cuius appendices et vehementer pertinent ad culturam propter adfinitatem. Eius species totidem: si vicina regio est infesta; si quo neque fructus nostros exportare expediat neque inde quae opus sunt adportare; tertium, si viae aut fluvii, qua portetur, aut non sunt aut idonei non sunt; quartum, siquid ita est in confinibus fundis, ut nostris agris prosit aut noceat. E quis quattuor quod est primum, refert infesta regio sit necne. Multos enim agros egregios colere non expedit propter latrocinia vicinorum, ut in Sardinia quosdam, qui sunt prope Oeliem, et in Hispania prope Lusitaniam. Quae vicinitatis invectos habent idoneos, quae ibi nascuntur ubi vendant, et illinc invectos opportunos quae in fundo opus sunt, propter ea fructuosa. Multi enim habent, in praediis quibus frumentum aut vinum aliudve quid desit, importandum; contra non pauci, quibus aliquid sit exportandum. Itaque sub urbe colere hortos late expedit, sic violaria ac rosaria, item multa quae urps recipit, cum eadem in longinquo praedio, ubi non sit quo deferri possit venale, non expediat colere. Item si ea oppida aut vici in vicinia aut etiam divitum copiosi agri ac villae, unde non care emere possis quae opus sunt in fundum, quibus quae supersint venire possint, ut quibusdam pedamenta aut perticae aut harundo, fructuosior fit fundus, quam si longe sint importanda, non numquam etiam, quam si colendo in tuo ea parare possis. Itaque in hoc genus coloni potius anniversarios habent vicinos, quibus imperent, medicos, fullones, fabros, quam in villa suos habeant, quorum non numquam unius artificis mors tollit fundi fructum. Quam partem lati fundi divites domesticae copiae mandare solent. Si enim a fundo longius absunt oppida aut vici, fabros parant, quos habeant in villa, sic ceteros necessarios artifices, ne de fundo familia ab opere discedat ac profestis diebus ambulet feriata potius, quam opere faciendo agrum fructuosiorem reddat. Itaque ideo Sasernae liber praecipit, nequis de fundo exeat praeter vilicum et promum et unum, quem vilicus legat; siquis contra exierit, ne impune abeat; si abierit, ut in vilicum animadvertatur. Quod potius ita praecipiendum fuit, nequis iniussu vilici exierit, neque vilicus iniussu domini longius, quam ut eodem die rediret, neque id crebrius, quam opus esset fundo. Eundem fundum fructuosiorem faciunt vecturae, si viae sunt, qua plaustra agi facile possint, aut flumina propinqua, qua navigari possit, quibus utrisque rebus evehi atque invehi ad multa praedia scimus. Refert etiam ad fundi fructus, quem ad modum vicinus in confinio consitum agrum habeat. Si enim ad limitem querquetum habet, non possis recte secundum eam silvam serere oleam, quod usque eo est contrarium natura, ut arbores non solum minus ferant, sed etiam fugiant, ut introrsum in fundum se reclinent, ut vitis adsita ad holus facere solet. Ut quercus, sic iugulandes magnae et crebrae finitimae fundi oram faciunt sterilem.

[16.1] “It remains to discuss the second topic, the conditions surrounding the farm, for they too vitally concern agriculture because of their relation to it. These considerations are the same in number: whether the neighbourhood is unsafe; whether it is such that it is not profitable to transport our products to it, or to bring back from it what we need; third, whether roads or streams for transportation are either wanting or inadequate; and fourth, whether conditions on the neighbouring farms are such as to benefit or injure our land. [2] Taking up the first of the four: the safety or lack of safety of the neighbourhood is important; for there are many excellent farms which it is not advisable to cultivate because of the brigandage in the neighbourhood, as in Sardinia certain farms near . . . . , and in Spain on the borders of Lusitania. Farms which have near by suitable means of transporting their products to market and convenient means of transporting thence those things needed on the farm, are for that reason profitable. For many have among their holdings some into which grain or wine or the like which they lack must be brought, and on the other hand not a few have those from which a surplus must be sent away. [3] And so it is profitable near a city to have gardens on a large scale; for instance, of violets and roses and many other products for which there is a demand in the city; while it would not be profitable to raise the same products on a distant farm where there is no market to which its products can be carried. Again, if there are towns or villages in the neighbourhood, or even well-furnished lands and farmsteads of rich owners, from which you can purchase at a reasonable price what you need for the farm, and to which you can sell your surplus, such as props, or poles, or reeds, the farm will be more profitable than if they must be fetched from a distance; sometimes, in fact, more so than if you can supply them yourself by raising them on your own place. [4] For this reason farmers in such circumstances prefer to have in their neighbourhood men whose services they can call upon under a yearly contract — physicians, fullers, and other artisans — rather than to have such men of their own on the farm; for sometimes the death of one artisan wipes out the profit of a farm. This department of a great estate rich owners are wont to entrust to their own people; for if towns or villages are too far away from the estate, they supply themselves with smiths and other necessary artisans to keep on the place, so that their farm hands may not leave their work and lounge around holiday-making on working days, rather than make the farm more profitable by attending to their duties. [5] It is for this reason, therefore, that Saserna’s book lays down the rule that no person shall leave the farm except the overseer, the butler, and one person whom the overseer may designate; if one leaves against this rule he shall not go unpunished, and if he does, the overseer shall be punished. The rule should rather be stated thus: that no one shall leave the farm without the direction of the overseer, nor the overseer without the direction of the master, on an errand which will prevent his return this day, and that no oftener than is necessary for the farm business. [6] A farm is rendered more profitable by convenience of transportation: if there are roads on which carts can easily be driven, or navigable rivers near by. We know that transportation to and from many farms is carried on by both these methods. The manner in which your neighbour keeps the land on the boundary planted is also of importance to your profits. For instance, if he has an oak grove near the boundary, you cannot well plant olives along such a forest; for it is so hostile in its nature that your trees will not only be less productive, but will actually bend so far away as to lean inward toward the ground, as the vine is wont to do when planted near the cabbage. As the oak, so large numbers of large walnut trees close by render the border of the farm sterile.

XVII.

De fundi quattuor partibus, quae cum solo haerent, et alteris quattuor, quae extra fundum sunt et ad culturam pertinent, dixi. Nunc dicam, agri quibus rebus colantur. Quas res alii dividunt in duas partes, in homines et adminicula hominum, sine quibus rebus colere non possunt; alii in tres partes, instrumenti genus vocale et semivocale et mutum, vocale, in quo sunt servi, semivocale, in quo sunt boves, mutum, in quo sunt plaustra. Omnes agri coluntur hominibus servis aut liberis aut utrisque: liberis, aut cum ipsi colunt, ut plerique pauperculi cum sua progenie, aut mercennariis, cum conducticiis liberorum operis res maiores, ut vindemias ac faenisicia, administrant, iique quos obaerarios nostri vocitarunt et etiam nunc sunt in Asia atque Aegypto et in Illyrico complures. De quibus universis hoc dico, gravia loca utilius esse mercennariis colere quam servis, et in salubribus quoque locis opera rustica maiora, ut sunt in condendis fructibus vindemiae aut messis. De iis, cuius modi esse oporteat, Cassius scribit haec: operarios parandos esse, qui laborem ferre possint, ne minores annorum XXII et ad agri culturam dociles. Eam coniecturam fieri posse ex aliarum rerum imperatis, et in eo eorum e noviciis requisitione, ad priorem dominum quid factitarint.

Mancipia esse oportere neque formidulosa neque animosa. Qui praesint esse oportere, qui litteris atque aliqua sint humanitate imbuti, frugi, aetate maiore quam operarios, quos dixi. Facilius enim iis quam qui minore natu sunt dicto audientes. Praeterea potissimum eos praeesse oportere, qui periti sint rerum rusticarum. Non solum enim debere imperare, sed etiam facere, ut facientem imitetur et ut animadvertat eum cum causa sibi praeesse, quod scientia praestet. Neque illis concedendum ita imperare, ut verberibus coerceant potius quam verbis, si modo idem efficere possis. Neque eiusdem nationis plures parandos esse: ex eo enim potissimum solere offensiones domesticas fieri. Praefectos alacriores faciendum praemiis dandaque opera ut habeant peculium et coniunctas conservas, e quibus habeant filios. Eo enim fiunt firmiores ac coniunctiores fundo. Itaque propter has cognationes Epiroticae familiae sunt inlustriores ac cariores. Inliciendam voluntatem praefectorum honore aliquo habendo, et de operariis qui praestabunt alios, communicandum quoque cum his, quae facienda sint opera, quod, ita cum fit, minus se putant despici atque aliquo numero haberi a domino. Studiosiores ad opus fieri liberalius tractando aut cibariis aut vestitu largiore aut remissione operis concessioneve, ut peculiare aliquid in fundo pascere liceat, huiusce modi rerum aliis, ut quibus quid gravius sit imperatum aut animadversum qui, consolando eorum restituat voluntatem ac benevolentiam in dominum.

[17.1] “I have now discussed the four divisions of the estate which are concerned with the soil, and the second four, which are exterior to the soil but concern its cultivation; now I turn to the means by which land is tilled. Some divide these into two parts: men, and those aids to men without which they cannot cultivate; others into three: the class of instruments which is articulate, the inarticulate, and the mute; the articulate comprising the slaves, the inarticulate comprising the cattle, and the mute comprising the vehicles. [2] All agriculture is carried on by men — slaves, or freemen, or both; by freemen, when they till the ground themselves, as many poor people do with the help of their families; or hired hands, when the heavier farm operations, such as the vintage and the haying, are carried on by the hiring of freemen; and those whom our people called obaerarii and of whom there are still many in Asia, in Egypt, and in Illyricum. [3] With regard to these in general this is my opinion: it is more profitable to work unwholesome lands with hired hands than with slaves; and even in wholesome places it is more profitable thus to carry out the heavier farm operations, such as storing the products of the vintage or harvest. As to the character of such hands Cassius gives this advice: that such hands should be selected as can bear heavy work, are not less than twenty-two years old, and show some aptitude for farm labour. You may judge of this by the way they carry out their other orders, and, in the case of new hands, by asking one of them what they were in the habit of doing for their former master.

“Slaves should be neither cowed nor high-spirited. [4] They ought to have men over them who know how to read and write and have some little education, who are dependable and older than the hands whom I have mentioned; for they will be more respectful to these than to men who are younger. Furthermore, it is especially important that the foremen be men who are experienced in farm operations; for the foreman must not only give orders but also take part in the work, so that his subordinates may follow his example, and also understand that there is good reason for his being over them — the fact that he is superior to them in knowledge. [5] They are not to be allowed to control their men with whips rather than with words, if only you can achieve the same result. Avoid having too many slaves of the same nation, for this is a fertile source of domestic quarrels. The foremen are to be made more zealous by rewards, and care must be taken that they have a bit of property of their own, and mates from among their fellow-slaves to bear them children; for by this means they are made more steady and more attached to the place. Thus, it is on account of such relationships that slave families of Epirus have the best reputation and bring the highest prices. [6] The good will of the foremen should be won by treating them with some degree of consideration; and those of the hands who excel the others should also be consulted as to the work to be done. When this is done they are less inclined to think that they are looked down upon, and rather think that they are held in some esteem by the master. [7] They are made to take more interest in their work by being treated more liberally in respect either of food, or of more clothing, or of exemption from work, or of permission to graze some cattle of their own on the farm, or other things of this kind; so that, if some unusually heavy task is imposed, or punishment inflicted on them in some way, their loyalty and kindly feeling to the master may be restored by the consolation derived from such measures.

XVIII.

De familia Cato derigit ad duas metas, ad certum modum agri et genus sationis, scribens de olivetis et vineis ut duas formulas: unam, in qua praecipit, quo modo olivetum agri iugera CCXL instruere oporteat. Dicit enim in eo modo haec mancipia XIII habenda, vilicum, vilicam, operarios V, bubulcos III, asinarium I, subulcum I, opilionem I. Alteram formulam scribit de vinearum iugeribus C, ut dicat haberi oportere haec XV mancipia, vilicum, vilicam, operarios X, bubulcum, asinarium, subulcum. Saserna scribit satis esse ad iugera VIII hominem unum: ea debere eum confodere diebus XLV tametsi quaternis operis singula iugera possit; sed relinquere se operas XIII valetudini, tempestati, inertiae, indiligentiae. Horum neuter satis dilucide modulos reliquit nobis, quod Cato si voluit, debuit sic, ut pro portione ad maiorem fundum et minorem adderemus et demeremus. Praeterea extra familiam debuit dicere vilicum et vilicam. Neque enim, si minus CCXL iugera oliveti colas, non possis minus uno vilico habere, nec, si bis tanto ampliorem fundum aut eo plus colas, ideo duo vilici aut tres habendi. Fere operarii modo et bubulci pro portione addendi ad maioris modos fundorum, ii quoque, si similis est ager. Sin est ita dissimilis, ut arari non possit, quod sit confragosus atque arduis clivis, minus multi opus sunt boves et bubulci. Mitto illut, quod modum neque unum nec modicum proposuit CCXL iugerum (modicus enim centuria, et ea CC iugerum), e quo quom sexta pars sit ea XL, quae de CCXL demuntur, non video quem ad modum ex eius praecepto demam sextam partem et de XIII mancipiis, nihilo magis, si vilicum et vilicam removero, quem ad modum ex XI sextam partem demam. Quod autem ait in C iugeribus vinearum opus esse XV mancipia, siquis habebit centuriam, quae dimidium vineti, dimidium oliveti, sequetur ut duo vilicos et duas vilicas habeat, quod est deridiculum. Quare alia ratione modus mancipiorum generatim est animadvertendus et magis in hoc Saserna probandus, qui ait singula iugera quaternis operis uno operario ad conficiendum satis esse. Sed si hoc in Sasernae fundo in Gallia satis fuit, non continuo idem in agro Ligusco montano. Itaque de familiae magnitudine et reliquo instrumento commodissime scies quantam pares, si tria animadverteris diligenter: in vicinitate praedia cuius modi sint et quanta, et quot quaeque hominibus colantur, et quot additis operis aut demptis melius aut deterius habeas cultum. Bivium nobis enim ad culturam dedit natura, experientiam et imitationem. Antiquissimi agricolae temptando pleraque constituerunt, liberi eorum magnam partem imitando. Nos utrumque facere debemus, et imitari alios et aliter ut faciamus experientia temptare quaedam, sequentes non aleam, sed rationem aliquam: ut si altius repastinaverimus aut minus quam alii, quod momentum ea res habeat, ut fecerunt ii in sariendo iterum et tertio, et qui insitiones ficulnas ex verno tempore in aestivum contulerunt.

[18.1] “With regard to the number of slaves required, Cato has in view two bases of calculation: the size of the place, and the nature of the crop grown. Writing of oliveyards and vineyards, he gives two formulas. The first is one in which he shows how an oliveyard of 240 iugera should be equipped; on a place of this size he says that the following thirteen slaves should be kept: an overseer, a housekeeper, five labourers, three teamsters, one muleteer, one swineherd, one shepherd. The second he gives for a vineyard of 100 iugera, on which he says should be kept the following fifteen slaves: an overseer, a housekeeper, ten labourers, a teamster, a muleteer, a swineherd. [2] Saserna states that one man is enough for eight iugera, and that he ought to dig over that amount in forty-five days, although he can dig over a single iugerum with four days’ work; but he says that he allows thirteen days extra for such things as illness, bad weather, idleness, and laxness. [3] Neither of these writers has left us a very clearly expressed rule. For if Cato wished to do this, he should have stated it in such a way that we add or subtract from the number proportionately as the farm is larger or smaller. Further, he should have named the overseer and the housekeeper outside of the number of slaves; for if you cultivate less than 240 iugera of olives you cannot get along with less than one overseer, nor if you cultivate twice as large a place or more will you have to keep two or three overseers. [4] It is only the labourers and teamsters that are to be added proportionately to larger bodies of land; and even then only if the land is uniform. But if it is so varied that it cannot all be ploughed, as, for instance, if it is very broken or very steep, fewer oxen and teamsters will be needed. I pass over the fact that the 240 iugera instanced is a plot which is neither a unit nor standard (the standard unit is the century, containing 200 iugera); [5] when one-sixth, or 40 iugera, is deducted from this 240, I do not see how, according to his rule, I shall take one-sixth also from thirteen slaves, or, if I leave out the overseer and the housekeeper, how I shall take one-sixth from the eleven. As to his saying that on 100 iugera of vineyard you should have fifteen slaves; if one has a century, half vineyard and half oliveyard, it will follow that he should have two overseers and two housekeepers, which is absurd. [6] Wherefore the proper number and variety of slaves must be determined by another method, and Saserna is more to be approved in this matter; he says that each iugerum is enough to furnish four days’ work for one hand. But if this applied to Saserna’s farm in Gaul, it does not necessarily follow that the same would hold good for a farm in the mountains of Liguria. Therefore you will most accurately determine the number of slaves and other equipment which you should provide [7] if you observe three things carefully: the character of the farms in the neighbourhood and their size; the number of hands employed on each; and how many hands should be added or subtracted in order to keep your cultivation better or worse. For nature has given us two routes to agriculture, experiment and imitation. The most ancient farmers determined many of the practices by experiment, their descendants for the most part by imitation. [8] We ought to do both — imitate others and attempt by experiment to do some things in a different way, following not chance but some system: as, for instance, if we plough a second time, more or less deeply than others, to see what effect this will have. This was the method they followed in weeding a second and third time, and those who put off the grafting of figs from spring-time to summer.

XIX.

De reliqua parte instrumenti, quod semivocale appellavi, Saserna ad iugera CC arvi boum iuga duo satis esse scribit, Cato in olivetis CCXL iugeris boves trinos. Ita fit ut, si Saserna dicit verum, ad C iugera iugum opus sit, si Cato, ad octogena. Sed ego neutrum modum horum omnem ad agrum convenire puto et utrumque ad aliquem. Alia enim terra facilior aut difficilior est: aliam terram boves proscindere nisi magnis viribus non possunt et saepe fracta bura relinquunt vomerem in arvo. Quo sequendum nobis in singulis fundis, dum sumus novicii, triplici regula, superioris domini instituto et vicinorum et experientia quadam. Quod addit asinos qui stercus vectent tres, asinum molarium, in vinea iugerum C iugum boum, asinorum iugum, asinum molendarium: in hoc genere semivocalium adiciendum de pecore ea sola quae agri colendi causa erunt et quae solent esse peculiaria pauca habenda, quo facilius mancipia se tueri et assidua esse possint. In eo numero non modo qui prata habent, ut potius oves quam sues habeant curant, sed etiam qui non solum pratorum causa habent, propter stercus. De canibus vero utique, quod villa sine iis parum tuta.

[19.1] “With regard to the second division of equipment, to which I have given the name of inarticulate, Saserna says that two yoke of oxen are enough for 200 iugera of cultivated land, while Cato states that three yoke are needed for 240 iugera of olive-yard. Hence, if Saserna is right, one yoke is needed for every 100 iugera; if Cato is right, one of every 80. My own opinion is that neither of these standards will fit every piece of land, and that each will fit some particular piece. One piece, for instance, may be easier or harder to work than another, [2] and there are places which oxen cannot break unless they are unusually powerful, and frequently they leave the plough in the field with broken beam. Wherefore on each farm, so long as we are unacquainted with it, we should follow a threefold guide: the practice of the former owner, the practice of neighbouring owners, and a degree of experimentation. [3] As to his addition of three donkeys to haul manure and one for the mill (for a vineyard of 100 iugera, a yoke of oxen, a pair of donkeys, and one for the mill); under this head of inarticulate equipment it is to be added that of other animals only those that are to be kept which are of service in agriculture, and the few which are usually allowed as the private property of the slaves for their more comfortable support and to make them more diligent in their work. Of such animals, not only owners who have meadows prefer to keep sheep rather than swine because of their manure, but also those who keep animals for other reasons than the benefit of the meadows. As to dogs, they must be kept as a matter of course, for no farm is safe without them.

XX.

Igitur de omnibus quadripedibus prima est probatio, qui idonei sint boves, qui arandi causa emuntur. Quos rudis neque minoris trimos neque maioris quadrimos parandum: ut viribus magnis sint ac pares, ne in opere firmior inbecilliorem conficiat: amplis cornibus et nigris potius quam aliter ut sint, lata fronte, naribus simis, lato pectore, crassis coxendicibus. Hos veteranos ex campestribus locis non emendum in dura ac montana, nec non contra si incidit, ut sit vitandum. Novellos cum quis emerit iuvencos, si eorum colla in furcas destitutas incluserit ac dederit cibum, diebus paucis erunt mansueti et ad domandum proni. Tum ita subigendum, ut minutatim adsuefaciant et ut tironem cum veterano adiungant (imitando enim facilius domatur), et primum in aequo loco et sine aratro, tum eo levi, principio per harenam aut molliorem terram. Quos ad vecturas, item instituendum ut inania primum ducant plaustra et, si possis, per vicum aut oppidum: creber crepitus ac varietas rerum consuetudine celeberrima ad utilitatem adducit. Neque pertinaciter, quem feceris dextrum, in eo manendum, quod, si alternis fit sinister, fit laboranti in alterutra parte requies. Ubi terra levis, ut in Campania, ibi non bubus gravibus, sed vaccis aut asinis quod arant, eo facilius ad aratrum leve adduci possunt, ad molas et ad ea, siquae sunt, quae in fundo convehuntur. In qua re alii asellis, alii vaccis ac mulis utuntur, exinde ut pabuli facultas est; Nam facilius asellus quam vacca alitur, sed fructuosior haec. In eo agricolae hoc spectandum, quo fastigio sit fundus. In confragoso enim haec ac difficili valentiora parandum et potius ea quae per se fructum reddere possint, cum idem operis faciant.

[20.1] “The first consideration, then, in the matter of quadrupeds, is the proper kind of ox to be purchased for ploughing. You should purchase them unbroken, not less than three years old and not more than four; they should be powerful and equally matched, so that the stronger will not exhaust the weaker when they work together; they should have large horns, black for choice, a broad face, flat nose, deep chest, and heavy quarters. [2] Oxen that have reached maturity on level ground should not be bought for rough and mountainous country; moreover, if the opposite happens to be the case, it should be avoided. When you have bought young steers, if you will fasten forked sticks loosely around their necks and give them food, within a few days they will grow gentle and fit for breaking to the plough. This breaking should consist in letting them grow accustomed to the work gradually, in yoking the raw ox to a broken one (for the training by imitation is easier), and in driving them first on level ground without a plough, then with a light one, and at first in sandy or rather light soil. [3] Draught cattle should be trained in a similar way, first drawing an empty cart, and if possible through a village or town. The constant noise and the variety of objects, by frequent repetition, accustom them to their work. The ox which you have put on the right should not remain continuously on that side, because if he is changed in turn to the left, he finds rest by working on alternate sides. [4] In light soils, as in Campania, the ploughing is done, not with heavy steers, but with cows or donkeys; and hence they can more easily be adapted to a light plough or a mill, and to doing the ordinary hauling of the farm. For this purpose some employ donkeys, others cows or mules, according to the fodder available; for a donkey requires less feed than a cow, but the latter is more profitable. [5] In this matter the farmer must keep in mind the conformation of his land; in broken and heavy land stronger animals must be got, and preferably those which, while doing the same amount of work, can themselves return some profit.

XXI.

Canes potius cum dignitate et acres paucos habendum quam multos, quos consuefacias potius noctu vigilare et interdiu clausos dormire. De indomitis quadripedibus ac pecore faciendum: si prata sunt in fundo neque pecus habet, danda opera ut pabulo vendito alienum pecus in suo fundo pascat ac stabulet.

[21.1] “As to dogs, you should keep a few active ones of good traits rather than a pack, and train them rather to keep watch at night and sleep indoors during the day. With regard to unbroken animals and flocks; if the owner has meadow-lands on the farm and no cattle, the best practice is, after selling the forage, to feed and fold the flocks of a neighbour on the farm.

XXII.

De reliquo instrumento muto, in quo sunt corbulae, dolia, sic alia, haec praecipienda. Quae nasci in fundo ac fieri a domesticis poterunt, eorum nequid ematur, ut fere sunt quae ex viminibus et materia rustica fiunt, ut corbes, fiscinae, tribula, valli, rastelli; sic quae fiunt de cannabi, lino, iunco, palma, scirpo, ut funes, restes, tegetes. Quae e fundo sumi non poterunt, ea si empta erunt potius ad utilitatem quam ob speciem, sumptu fructum non extenuabunt; eo magis, si inde empta erunt potissimum, ubi ea et bona et proxime et vilissimo emi poterunt. Cuius instrumenti varia discrimina ac multitudo agri magnitudine finitur, quod plura opus sunt, si fines distant late. Itaque, Stolo inquit, proposita magnitudine fundi de eo genere Cato scribit, oliveti iugera CCXL qui coleret, eum instruere ita oportere, ut faceret vasa olearia iuga quinque, quae membratim enumerat, ut ex aere ahenea, urceos, nassiternam, item alia: sic e ligno et ferro, ut plostra maiora tria, aratra cum vomeribus sex, crates stercorarias quattuor, item alia; sic de ferramentis quae sint et qua opus multitudine, ut ferreas octo, sarcula totidem, dimidio minus palas, item alia. Item alteram formulam instrumenti fundi vinarii fecit, in qua scribit, si sit C iugerum, habere oportere vasa torcularia instructa trina, dolia cum operculis culleorum octingentorum, acinaria viginti, frumentaria viginti, item eius modi alia. Quae minus multa quidem alii, sed tantum numerum culleorum scripsisse puto, ne cogeretur quotannis vendere vinum. Vetera enim quam nova et eadem alio tempore quam alio pluris. Item sic de ferramentorum varietate scribit permulta, et genere et multitudine qua sint, ut falces, palas, rastros, sic alia, quorum non nulla genera species habent plures, ut falces. Nam dicuntur ab eodem scriptore vineaticae opus esse XL, sirpiculae V, silvaticae V, arborariae III, rustariae X. Hic haec. At Scrofa, Instrumentum et supellectilem rusticam omnem oportet habere scriptam in urbe et rure dominum, vilicum contra ea ruri omnia certo suo quoque loco ad villam esse posita; quae non possunt esse sub clavi, quam maxime facere ut sint in conspectu oportet, eo magis ea quae in rariore sunt usu, ut quibus in vindemia utuntur et corbulae, et sic alia. Quae enim res cotidie videntur, minus metuunt furem.

[22.1] “With regard to the rest of the equipment— ‘the mute’, a term which includes baskets, jars, and the like — the following rules may be laid down: nothing should be bought which can be raised on the place or made by men on the farm, in general articles which are made of withes and of wood, such as hampers, baskets, threshing-sledges, fans, and rakes; so too articles which are made of hemp, flax, rush, palm fibre, and bulrush, such as ropes, cordages, and mats. [2] Articles which cannot be got from the place, if purchased with a view to utility rather than for show, will not cut too deeply into the profits; and the more so if care is taken to buy them where they can be had of good quality, near by and at the same lowest price. The several kinds of such equipment and their number are determined by the size of the place, more being needed if the farm is extensive. [3] Accordingly,” said Stolo, “under this head Cato, fixing a definite size for his farm, writes that one who had under cultivation 240 iugera of olive land should equip it by assembling five complete sets of oil-pressing equipment; and he itemizes such equipment, as, copper kettles, pots, a pitcher with three spouts, and so forth; then implements made of wood and iron, as three large carts, six ploughs and ploughshares, four manure hampers, and so forth; then the kind and number of iron tools needed, as eight forks, as many hoes, half as many shovels, and so forth. [4] He likewise gives a second schedule for a vineyard, in which he writes that if it be one of 100 iugera it should have three complete pressing equipments, vats and covers to hold 800 cullei, twenty grape hampers, twenty grain hampers, and other like implements. Other authorities, it is true, give smaller numbers, but I imagine he fixed the number of cullei so high in order that the farmer might not be forced to sell his wine every year; for old wine brings a better price than new, and the same wine a better price at one time than at another. [5] He likewise says much of the several kinds of tools, giving the kind and number needed, such as hooks, shovels, harrows, and so forth; some classes of which have several subdivisions, such as the hooks — thus the same author says there will be needed forty pruning-hooks for vines, five for rushes, three for trees, ten for brambles.” So far Stolo; [6] and Scrofa resumed: “The master should keep, both in town and on the place, a complete inventory of tools and equipment of the farm, while the overseer on the place should keep all tools stored near the steading, each in its own place. Those that cannot be kept under lock and key he should manage to keep in sight so far as possible, and especially those that are used only at intervals; for instance, the implements which are used at vintage, such as baskets and the like; for articles which are seen every day run less risk from the thief.”

XXIII.

Suscipit Agrasius, Et quoniam habemus illa duo prima ex divisione quadripertita, de fundo et de instrumento, quo coli solet, de tertia parte expecto. Scrofa, Quoniam fructum, inquit, arbitror esse fundi eum qui ex eo satus nascitur utilis ad aliquam rem, duo consideranda, quae et quo quidque loco maxime expediat serere. Alia enim loca adposita sunt ad faenum, alia ad frumentum, alia ad vinum, alia ad oleum, sic ad pabulum quae pertinent, in quo est ocinum, farrago, vicia, medica, cytiscum, lupinum. Neque in pingui terra omnia seruntur recte neque in macra nihil. Rectius enim in tenuiore terra ea quae non multo indigent suco, ut cytisum et legumina praeter cicer; hoc enim quoque legumen, ut cetera quae velluntur e terra, non subsecantur, quae, quod ita leguntur, legumina dicta. In pingui rectius quae cibi sunt maioris, ut holus, triticum, siligo, linum. Quaedam etiam serenda non tam propter praesentem fructum quam in annum prospicientem, quod ibi subsecta atque relicta terram faciunt meliorem. Itaque lupinum, cum minus siliculam cepit, et non numquam fabalia, si ad siliquas non ita pervenit, ut fabam legere expediat, si ager macrior est, pro stercore inarare solent. Nec minus ea discriminanda in conserendo quae sunt fructuosa, propter voluptatem, ut quae pomaria ac floralia appellantur, item illa quae ad hominum victum ac sensum delectationemque non pertinent neque ab agri utilitate sunt diiuncta. Idoneus locus eligendus, ubi facias salictum et harundinetum, sic alia quae umidum locum quaerunt, contra ubi segetes frumentarias, ubi fabam potissimum seras, item alia quae arida loca secuntur: sic ut umbrosis locis alia seras, ut corrudam, quod ita petit asparagus; aprica, ut ibi seras violam et hortos facias, quod ea sole nutricantur, sic alia. Et alio loco virgulta serenda, ut habeas vimina, unde viendo quid facias, ut sirpeas, vallus, crates; alio loco ut seras ac colas silvam caeduam, alio ubi aucupere, sic ubi cannabim, linum, iuncum, spartum, unde nectas bubus soleas, lineas, restis, funes. Quaedam loca eadem alia ad serendum idonea. Nam et in recentibus pomariis dissitis seminibus in ordinemque arbusculis positis primis annis, antequam radices longius procedere possint, alii conserunt hortos, alii quid aliud, neque cum convaluerunt arbores, idem faciunt, ne violent radices.

[23.1] Agrasius remarked: “And since we have the first two of the fourfold division, the farm and the equipment with which it is usually worked, I am waiting for the third topic.” “Since I hold,” continued Scrofa, “that the profit of the farm is that which arises from it as the result of planting for a useful purpose, two items are to be considered: what it is most expedient to plant and in what place. For some spots are suited to hay, some to grain, others to vines, others to olive, and so of forage crops, including clover, mixed forage, vetch, alfalfa, snail clover, and lupines. [2] It is not good practice to plant every kind of crop on rich soil, nor to plant nothing on poor soil; for it is better to plant in thinner soil those crops which do not need much nutriment, such as clover and the legumes, except the chick pea, which is also a legume, as are all those plants which are pulled from the ground and not mowed, and are called legumes from the fact that they are ‘gathered’ (leguntur) in this way. In rich soil it is better to plant those requiring more food, as cabbage, wheat, winter wheat, and flax. [3] Some crops are also to be planted not so much for the immediate return as with a view to the year later, as when cut down and left on the ground they enrich it. Thus, it is customary to plough under lupines as they begin to pod — and sometimes field beans before the pods have formed so far that it is profitable to harvest the beans — in place of dung, if the soil is rather thin. [4] And also in planting selection should be made of those things which are profitable for the pleasure they afford, such as those plots which are called orchards and flower gardens, and also of those which do not contribute either to the sustenance of man or to the pleasure of his senses, but are not without value to the farm. So a suitable place is to be chosen for planting a willow bed and a reed thicket, [5] together with other plants which prefer humid ground; and on the other hand places best suited for planting grain crops, beans, and other plants which like dry ground. Similarly, you should plant some crops in shady spots, as, for instance, the wild asparagus, because the asparagus prefers that type; while sunny ground should be chosen for planting violets and laying out gardens, as these flourish in the sun, and so forth. In still another place should be planted thickets, so that you may have withes with which to weave such articles as wicker wagon bodies, winnowing baskets, and hampers; and in another plant and tend a wood-lot, [6] in another a wood for fowling; and have a place for hemp, flax, rush, and Spanish broom, from which to make shoes for cattle, thread, cord, and rope. Some places are suitable at the same time for the planting of other crops; thus in young orchards, when the seedlings have been planted and the young trees have been set in rows, during the early years before the roots have spread very far, some plant garden crops, and others plant other crops; but they do not do this after the trees have gained strength, for fear of injuring the roots.”

XXIV.

Stolo, Quod ad haec pertinet, Cato non male, quod scribit de sationibus, ager crassus et laetus si sit sine arboribus, eum agrum frumentarium fieri oportere; idem ager si nebulosus sit, rapa, raphanos, milium, panicum; in agro crasso et calido oleam conditaneam, radium maiorem, Sallentinam, orcitem, poseam, Sergianam, Colminiam, albicerem, quam earum in iis locis optimam dicant esse, eam maxime serere. Agrum oliveto conserendo, nisi qui in ventum favonium spectet et soli ostentus sit, alium bonum nullum esse. Qui ager frigidior et macrior sit, ibi oleam licinianam seri oportere. Si in loco crasso aut calido posueris, hostum nequam fieri et ferendo arborem perire et muscum rubrum molestum esse. Hostum vocant quod ex uno facto olei reficitur. Factum dicunt quod uno tempore conficiunt, quem alii CLX aiunt esse modiorum, alii ita minus magnum, ut ad CXX descendat, exinde ut vasa olearia quot et quanta habeant, quibus conficiunt illut. Quod Cato ait circum fundum ulmos et populos, unde frons ovibus et bubus sit et materies, seri oportere (sed hoc neque in omnibus fundis opus est neque, in quibus est opus, propter frondem maxime), sine detrimento ponuntur a septemtrionali parte, quod non officiunt soli.

Ille adicit ab eodem scriptore, si locus umectus sit, ibi cacumina populorum serenda et harundinetum. Id prius bipalio verti, ibi oculos harundinis pedes ternos alium ab alio seri, * * * aptam esse utrique eandem fere culturam. Salicem Graecam circum harundinetum seri oportere, uti sit qui vitis alligari possit.

[24.1] “What Cato says about planting,” said Stolo, “is very much to the point on this subject: ‘Soil that is heavy, rich, and treeless should be used for grain; and the same soil, if subject to fogs, should preferably be planted in rape, turnips, millet, and panic-grass. In heavy, warm soil plant olives — those for pickling, the long variety, the Sallentine, the orcites, the posea, the Sergian, the Colminian, and the waxy; choose especially the varieties which are commonly agreed to be the best for these districts. Land which is suitable for olive planting is that which faces the west and is exposed to the sun; no other will be good. [2] In colder and thinner soil the Licinian olive should be planted. If you plant it in rich or warm soil the yield will be worthless, the tree will exhaust itself in bearing, and a reddish scale will injure it.’ [3] A hostus is what they call the yield of oil from one factus; and a factus (‘making’) is the amount they make up at one time. Some say this is 160 modii, others reduce it so far as 120 modii, according to the number and size of the equipment they have for making it. As to Cato’s remark that elms and poplars should be planted around the farm to supply leaves for sheep and cattle, and timber (but this is not necessary on all farms, and where it is necessary it is not chiefly for the forage), they may safely be planted on the northern edge, because there they do not cut off the sun.”

[4] Scrofa gave the following advice from the same author: “ ‘Wherever there is wet ground, poplar cuttings and a reed thicket should be planted. The ground should first be turned with the mattock and then the eyes of the reed should be planted three feet apart; . . . the same cultivation is adapted pretty much to each. The Greek willow should be planted along the border of the thicket, so that you may have withes for tying up vines.

XXV.

Vinea quo in agro serenda sit, sic observandum. Qui locus optimus vino sit et ostentus soli, Aminneum minusculum et geminum eugeneum, helvium minusculum seri oportere. Qui locus crassior sit aut nebulosus, ibi Aminneum maius aut Murgentinum, Apicium, Lucanum seri. Ceteras vites, et de iis miscellas maxime, in omne genus agri convenire.

[25.1] ‘Soil for laying out a vineyard should be chosen by the following rules: In soil which is best adapted for grapes and which is exposed to the sun the small Aminnian, the double eugeneum, and the small parti-coloured should be planted; in soil that is heavy or more subject to fogs the large Aminnian, the Murgentian, the Apician, and the Lucanian. The other varieties, and especially the hybrids, grow well anywhere.’

XXVI.

In omni vinea diligenter observant ut ridica vitis ad septemtrionem versus tegatur; et si cupressos vivas, pro ridicis quas inserunt, alternos ordines inponunt neque eos crescere altius quam ridicas patiuntur, neque propter eos ut adserant vites, quod inter se haec inimica.

Agrius Fundanio, Vereor, inquit, ne ante aeditumus veniat huc, quam hic ad quartum actum. Vindemiam enim expecto. Bono animo es, inquit Scrofa, ac fiscinas expedi et urnam.

[26.1] “In every vineyard they are careful to see that the vine is protected toward the north by the prop; and if they plant live cypresses to serve as props they plant them in alternate rows, yet do not allow the rows to grow higher than the props, and are careful not to plant vines near them, because they are hostile to each other.”

“I am afraid,” remarked Agrius to Fundanius, “that the sacristan will com back before our friend comes to the fourth act; for I am awaiting the vintage.” “Be of good cheer,” replied Scrofa, “and get ready the baskets and jar.”

XXVII.

Et quoniam tempora duorum generum sunt, unum annale, quod sol circuitu suo finit, alterum menstruum, quod luna circumiens comprendit, prius dicam de sole. Eius cursus annalis primum fere circiter ternis mensibus ad fructus est divisus in IIII partis, et idem subtilius sesquimensibus in IIX, in IIII, quod dividitur in ver et aestatem et autumnum et hiemem. Vere sationes quae fiunt, terram rudem proscindere oportet, quae sunt ex ea enata, priusquam ex iis quid seminis cadat, ut sint exradicata; et simul glaebis ab sole percalefactis aptiores facere ad accipiendum imbrem et ad opus faciliores relaxatas; neque eam minus binis arandum, ter melius. Aestate fieri messes oportere, autumno siccis tempestatibus vindemias, ac silvas excoli commodissime tunc, praecidi arbores oportere secundum terram: radices autem primoribus imbribus ut effodiantur, nequid ex iis nasci possit. Hieme putari arbores dumtaxat his temporibus, cum gelu cortices ex imbribus careant et glacie.

[27.1] “And since we have two measures of time, one annual which the sun bounds by its circuit, the other monthly which the moon embraces as it circles, I shall speak first of the sun. Its annual course is divided first into four periods of about three months each up to its completion, and more narrowly into eight periods of a month and a half each; the fourfold division embraces spring, summon, autumn, and winter. [2] For the spring plantings the untilled ground should be broken up so that the weeds which have sprung from it may be rooted up before any seed falls from them; and at the same time, when the clods have been thoroughly dried by the sun, to make them more accessible to the rain and easier to work when they have been thus broken up; and there should be not less than two ploughings, and preferably three. [3] In summer the grain should be gathered, and in autumn, when the weather is dry, the grapes; and this is the best time for the woods to be cleared, the trees being cut close to the ground, while the roots should be dug out at the time of the early rains, so that they cannot sprout again. In winter trees should be pruned, provided it is done when the bark is free from the chill of rain and ice.

XXVIII.

Dies primus est veris in aquario, aestatis in tauro, autumni in leone, hiemis in scorpione. Cum unius cuiusque horum IIII signorum dies tertius et vicesimus IIII temporum sit primus et efficiat ut ver dies habeat XCI, aestas XCIV, autumnus XCI, hiems XXCIX, quae redacta ad dies civiles nostros, qui nunc sunt, primi verni temporis ex a. d. VII id. Febr., aestivi ex a. d. VII id. Mai., autumnalis ex a. d. III id. Sextil., hiberni ex a. d. IV id. Nov., suptilius descriptis temporibus observanda quaedam sunt, eaque in partes VIII dividuntur: primum a favonio ad aequinoctium vernum dies XLV, hinc ad vergiliarum exortum dies XLIV, ab hoc ad solstitium dies XLIIX, inde ad caniculae signum dies XXVII, dein ad aequinoctium autumnale dies LXVII, exin ad vergiliarum occasum dies XXXII, ab hoc ad brumam dies LVII, inde ad favonium dies XLV.

[28.1] “The first day of spring occurs [when the sun is] in Aquarius, that of summer when it is in Taurus, of autumn when it is in Leo, of winter when it is in Scorpio. As the twenty-third day of each one of these four signs is the first day of the four seasons, this makes spring contain 91 days, summer 94, autumn 91, winter 89, which numbers, reduced to the official calendar now in force, fix the beginning of spring on February 7, of summer on May 9, of autumn on August 11, of winter on November 10. [2] But in the more exact divisions certain things are to be taken into account, which cause an eightfold division: the first from the rising of the west wind to the vernal equinox, 45 days, thence to the rising of the Pleiades 44 days, thence to the solstice 48 days, thence to the rising of the Dog Star 27 days, thence to the autumnal equinox 67 days, from there to the setting of the Pleiades 32 days, hence to the winter solstice 57 days, and back to the rising of the west wind 45 days.

XXIX.

Primo intervallo inter favonium et aequinoctium vernum haec fieri oportet. Seminaria omne genus ut serantur, putari arbusta, stercorari in pratis, circum vites ablacuari, radices quae in summa terra sunt praecidi, prata purgari, salicta seri, segetes sariri. Seges dicitur quod aratum satum est, arvum quod aratum necdum satum est, novalis, ubi satum fuit, antequam secunda aratione novatur rursus. Terram cum primum arant, proscindere appellant, cum iterum, offringere dicunt, quod prima aratione glaebae grandes solent excitari; cum iteratur, offringere vocant. Tertio cum arant iacto semine, boves lirare dicuntur, id est cum tabellis additis ad vomerem simul et satum frumentum operiunt in porcis et sulcant fossas, quo pluvia aqua delabatur. Non nulli postea, qui segetes non tam latas habent, ut in Apulia et id genus praediis, per sartores occare solent, siquae in porcis relictae grandiores sunt glaebae. Qua aratrum vomere lacunam striam fecit, sulcus vocatur. Quod est inter duos sulcos elata terra dicitur porca, quod ea seges frumentum porricit. Sic quoque exta deis cum dabant, porricere dicebant.

[29.1] “These are things which should be done in the first period, from the rising of the west wind to the vernal equinox: — All kinds of nurseries should be set out, orchards pruned, meadows manured, vines trenched and outcropping roots removed, meadows cleared, willow beds planted, grain-land weeded. The word seges is used of ploughed land which has been sowed, arvum of ploughed land not yet sowed, novalis of land where there has been a crop before it is “renewed” (novatur) by a second ploughing. [2] When they plough the first time they say they are ‘breaking up,’ the second time that they are ‘breaking down,’ because at the first ploughing large clods are usually turned up, and when the ploughing is repeated they call it ‘breaking down.’ When they plough the third time, after the seed has been broadcast, the oxen are said to ‘ridge’; that is, with mould boards attached to the ploughshare they both cover the broadcast seed in ridges, and at the same time cut ditches to let the rain-water drain off. Some farmers, who have fields which are not very large, as in Apulia and farms of that kind, have the custom later on of breaking up with hoes any large clods which have been left on the ridges. [3] Where the plough makes a hollow or channel with the share, it is called a ‘furrow.’ The space between two furrows, the raised dirt, is called porca, because that part of the field presents (porricit) the grain; so they also used to employ the word porricere when they offered the entrails to the gods.

XXX.

Secundo intervallo inter vernum aequinoctium et vergiliarum exortum haec fieri. Segetes runcari, id est herbam e segetibus expurgari, boves terram proscindere, salicem caedi, prata defendi. Quae superiore tempore fieri oportuerit et non sunt absoluta, antequam gemmas agant ac florescere incipiant, fieri, quod, si quae folia amittere solent ante frondere inceperunt, statim ad serendum idonea non sunt. Oleam seri interputarique oportet.

[30.1] “In the second period, between the vernal equinox and the rising of the Pleiades, these operations should be carried out: — Crops should be weeded, that is, the grass cleared from the crops, oxen should break up the ground, willows should be cut, and meadows fenced. What should have been done in the former period but was not completed should be done before the plants begin to bud and flower, because if those which are deciduous once begin to frond, they are at once unsuited for planting. Olives should be planted and pruned.

XXXI.

Tertio intervallo inter vergiliarum exortum et solstitium haec fieri debent. Vineas novellas fodere aut arare et postea occare, id est comminuere, ne sit glaeba. Quod ita occidunt, occare dictum. Vites pampinari, sed a sciente (nam id quam putare maius), neque in arbusto, sed in vinea fieri. Pampinare est e sarmento coles qui nati sunt, de iis, qui plurimum valent, primum ac secundum, non numquam etiam tertium, relinquere, reliquos decerpere, ne relictis colibus sarmentum nequeat ministrare sucum. Ideo in vitiario primitus cum exit vitis, tota resicari solet, ut firmiore sarmento e terra exeat atque in pariendis colibus vires habeat maiores. Eiuncidum enim sarmentum propter infirmitatem sterile neque ex se potest eicere vitem, quam vocant minorem flagellum, maiorem et iam unde uvae nascuntur palmam. Prior littera una mutata declinata a venti flatu, similiter ac flabellum flagellum. Posterior, quod ea vitis immittitur ad uvas pariendas, dicta primo videtur a pariendo parilema: exin mutatis litteris, ut in multis, dici coepta palma. Ex altera parte parit capreolum. Is est coliculus viteus intortus, ut cincinnus. hi sunt enim vitis quibus teneat id quo serpit ad locum capiendum, a quo capiendo capreolus dictus. Omne pabulum, primum ocinum farraginem viciam, novissime faenum, secari. Ocinum dictum a graeco verbo, okeos quod valet cito, similiter quod ocimum in horto. Hoc amplius dictum ocinum, quod citat alvom bubus et ideo iis datur, ut purgentur. Id est ex fabali segete viride sectum, antequam genat siliquas. Farrago contra ex segete ubi sata admixta hordeum et vicia et legumina pabuli causa viride aut quod ferro caesa ferrago dicta, aut inde, quod primum in farracia segete seri coepta. Eo equi et iumenta cetera verno tempore purgantur ac saginantur. Vicia dicta a vinciendo, quod item capreolos habet, ut vitis, quibus, cum susum versus serpit, ad scapum lupini aliumve quem ut haereat, id solet vincire. Si prata inrigua habebis, simulac faenum sustuleris, inrigare. In poma, quae insita erunt, siccitatibus aquam addi cotidie vesperi. A quo, quod indigent potu, poma dicta esse possunt.

[31.1] “In the third period, between the rising of the Pleiades and the solstice, these operations should be carried out: — Digging or ploughing the young vines and then forking them, that is, breaking the ground so that there will be no clods. This is called occare because they crush (occidunt) the ground. The vines should be thinned (for that is better than pruning), but by an expert, and this should be done not in the orchard but in the vineyard. [2] Thinning consists in leaving the first and second, sometimes even the third of the strongest shoots with spring from the stock and picking off the rest, lest the stock be not strong enough to furnish sap to the shoots if all are left. For that reason, in the vine-nursery when the vine first comes out, it is the practice for the whole to be cut back, so that it may come from the ground with a sturdier stock and have greater strength in sending out shoots. [3] For a slender stock, on account of weakness, is sterile and cannot put out the vine, which, when it is smaller, they call flagellum, while the larger from which the grapes spring they call palma. The first word by the change of one letter is derived from flatus, the blowing of the wind, so that they call it flagellum instead of flabellum. The second word seems at first to have been called parilema, from parere, to bear, because the shoot is sent out to bear grapes; [4] thence, by change of letters, as in many words, it got to be called palma. On the other side, it bears a tendril; this is a vine twig twisted like a curl. It is by means of these tendrils that the vine holds the support on which it creeps to grasp a place, from which grasping (capere) it is called capreolus. All fodder crops should be cut, first clover, mixed fodder, and vetch, and last hay. Ocinum is derived, as is the garden clover (ocimum), from the Greek word ὠκέως, which means ‘quickly.’ It is called ocinum for the further reason that it moves (citat) the bowels of cattle, and is fed to them on that account, as a purgative. It is cut green from the bean crop before it forms pods. [5] Farrago, on the other hand, is so called from a crop where a mixture of barley, vetch, and legumes has been sowed for green feed, either because it is cut with the steel (ferrum, ferrago) or for the reason that it was first sowed in a spelt (far) field. It is with this that horses and other animals are purged and fattened in the spring. Vetch is so called from vincire, to bind, because it also has tendrils as the vine has, with which, when it creeps up to cling to the stalk of the lupine or some other plant, it usually binds (vincit) it. If you have meadows to be irrigated, as soon as you have gathered the hay, irrigate them. During droughts water should be given every evening to the fruit trees that are grafted. It may be that they are called poma from the fact that they need drink (potus).

XXXII.

Quarto intervallo inter solstitium et caniculam plerique messem faciunt, quod frumentum dicunt quindecim diebus esse in vaginis, quindecim florere, quindecim exarescere, cum sit maturum. Arationes absolvi, quae eo fructuosiores fiunt, quo caldiore terra aratur. Si proscideris, offringi oportet, id est iterare, ut frangantur glaebae; prima enim aratione grandes glaebae ex terra scinduntur. Serendum viciam, lentem, cicerculam, ervilam ceteraque, quae alii legumina, alii, ut Gallicani quidam, legarica appellant, utraque dicta a legendo, quod ea non secantur, sed vellendo leguntur. Vineas veteres iterum occare, novellas etiam tertio, si sunt etiam tum glaebae.

[32.1] “In the fourth period, between the solstice and the Dog Star, most farmers harvest, because it is a saying that the grain is in the sheath for fifteen days, blooms for fifteen days, dries for fifteen days, and is then ripe. Ploughing should be completed, and it will be more valuable in proportion as it is done in warm ground; if you are ‘breaking up’ the ground it should be crushed, that is, gone over a second time so that the clods may be broken; for in the first ploughing large clods are cut from the ground. [2] You should sow vetch, lentils, small peas, pulse, and other plants, which some call legumes, and others, like some Gallic farmers, call legarica, both words being derived from legere, because these are not reaped, but are gathered by pulling. Hoe old vines a second time, young ones even a third time, if there are clods still left.

XXXIII.

Quinto intervallo inter caniculam et aequinoctium autumnale oportet stramenta desecari et acervos constitui, arata offringi, frondem caedi, prata inrigua iterum secari.

[33.1] “In the fifth period, between the Dog Star and the autumnal equinox, the straw should be cut and stacks built, ploughed land harrowed, leaf-fodder gathered, and irrigated meadows mowed a second time.

XXXIV.

Sexto intervallo ab aequinoctio autumnali incipere scribunt oportere serere usque ad diem nonagensimum unum. Post brumam, nisi quae necessaria causa coegerit, non serere, quod tantum intersit, ut ante brumam sata quae septimo die, post brumam sata quadragesimo die vix existant. Neque ante aequinoctium incipi oportere putant, quod, si minus idoneae tempestates sint consecutae, putescere semina soleant. Fabam optime seri in vergiliarum occasu: uvas autem legere et vindemiam facere inter aequinoctium autumnale et vergiliarum occasum; dein vites putare incipere et propagare et serere poma. Haec aliquot regionibus, ubi maturius frigora fiunt asperiora, melius verno tempore.

[34.1] “In the sixth period, from the autumnal equinox, the authorities state that sowing should begin and continue up to the ninety-first day. After the winter solstice, unless necessity requires, there should be no sowing — a point of such importance that seeds which, when planted before the solstice, sprout in seven days, hardly sprout in forty if sowed after the solstice. And they hold that sowing should not begin before the equinox, because, if unfavourable seasons follow, the seeds usually rot. Beans are sowed to best advantage at the time of the setting of the Pleiades: [2] while the gathering of the grapes and the making of the vintage falls between the autumnal equinox and the setting of the Pleiades; then the pruning and layering of vines and the planting of fruit trees should begin. In some localities, where severe frosts come earlier, these operations are best carried on in spring.

XXXV.

Septimo intervallo inter vergiliarum occasum et brumam haec fieri oportere dicunt: Serere lilium et crocum. Quae iam egit radicem rosa, ea conciditur radicitus in virgulas palmares et obruitur, haec eadem postea transfertur facta viviradix. Violaria in fundo facere non est utile, ideo quod necesse est terra adruenda pulvinos fieri, quos inrigationes et pluviae tempestates abluunt et agrum faciunt macriorem. A favonio usque ad arcturi exortum recte serpillum e seminario transferri, quod dictum ab eo, quod serpit. Fossas novas fodere, veteres tergere, vineas arbustumque putare, dum in XV diebus ante et post brumam, ut pleraque, ne facias. Nec non tum aliquid recte seritur, ut ulmi.

[35.1] “In the seventh period, between the setting of the Pleiades and the winter solstice, they say that these operations should be carried out: — Planting of lilies and crocus. A rose which has already formed a root is cut from the root up into twigs a palm-breadth long and planted; later on the same twig is transplanted when it has made a living root. It is not profitable to plant violet beds on a farm for the reason that beds must be formed by heaping up the soil, and irrigation and heavy rains wash these away and thus make the ground poorer. [2] From the beginning of the west wind to the rising of Arcturus, it is proper to transplant from the nursery wild thyme, which gets its name (serpillum) from the fact that it ‘creeps’ (serpit). Dig new ditches, clear old ones, prune vineyards and orchards, provided you do not do this, or in fact most things, during the fifteen days preceding and following the solstice. And yet some trees, such as the elm, are properly planted at that time.

XXXVI.

Octavo intervallo inter brumam et favonium haec fieri oportet. De segetibus, siqua est aqua, deduci; sin siccitates sunt et terra teneritudinem habet, sarire. Vineas arbustaque putare. Cum in agris opus fieri non potest, quae sub tecto possunt tunc conficienda antelucano tempore hiberno. Quae dixi scripta et proposita habere in villa oportet, maxime ut vilicus norit.

[36.1] “In the eighth period, between the solstice and the beginning of the west wind, these operations should be carried out: — Any water in the grain lands should be drained, but if there is a drought and the land is friable, harrow. Prune vineyards and orchards. When work cannot be carried out on the land, indoor tasks should be completed then in the early winter mornings. You should keep the rules I have laid down written and posted in the farmstead, in order that the overseer particularly may know them.

XXXVII.

Dies lunares quoque observandi, qui quodam modo bipertiti, quod a nova luna crescit ad plenam et inde rursus ad novam lunam decrescit, quaad veniat ad intermenstruum, quo die dicitur luna esse extrema et prima; a quo eum diem Athenis appellant enhn kai nean, triakada alii. Quaedam facienda in agris potius crescente luna quam senescente, quaedam contra quae metas, ut frumenta et caeduas silvas. Ego istaec, inquit Agrasius, non solum in ovibus tondendis, sed in meo capillo a patre acceptum servo, ni crescente luna tondens calvos fiam. Agrius, Quem ad modum, inquit, luna quadripertita? Et quid ea divisio ad agros pollet? Tremelius, Numquam rure audisti, inquit, octavo Ianam lunam et crescentem et contra senescentem, et quae crescente luna fieri oporteret, [et] tamen quaedam melius fieri post octavo Ianam lunam quam ante? Et siquae senescente fieri conveniret, melius, quanto minus haberet ignis id astrum? Dixi de quadripertita forma in cultura agri.

Stolo, Est altera, inquit, temporum divisio coniuncta quodam modo cum sole et luna sexpertita, quod omnis fere fructus quinto denique gradu pervenit ad perfectum ac videt in villa dolium ac modium, unde sexto prodit ad usum. Primo praeparandum, secundo serendum, tertio nutricandum, quarto legendum, quinto condendum, sexto promendum. Ad alia in praeparando faciendi scrobes aut repastinandum aut sulcandum, ut si arbustum aut pomarium facere velis; ad alia arandum aut fodiendum, ut si segetes instituas; ad quaedam bipalio vertenda terra plus aut minus. Aliae enim radices angustius diffundunt, ut cupressi, aliae latius, ut platani, usque eo ut Theophrastus scribat Athenis in Lyceo, cum etiam nunc platanus novella esset, radices trium et triginta cubitorum egisse. Quaedam si bubus et aratro proscideris, et iterandum, antequam semen iacias. Item praeparatio siquae fit in pratis, id est ut defendantur a pastione, quod fere observant a piro florente; si inrigua sunt, ut tempestive inrigentur.

[37.1] “The lunar periods also must be taken into account; these are roughly twofold, as the moon waxes from the new to the full and then wanes again toward the new, until it reaches the intermenstruum, or time ‘between two months,’ on which day the moon is said to be ‘last and first’; hence, at Athens they call this day ἕνην καὶ νέαν, or ‘old and new,’ while others call it τριακάδα, or the ‘thirtieth.’ Some operations should be carried out on the land during the waxing rather than the waning of the moon, while there are certain crops which you should gather in the opposite phase, such as grain and firewood.” [2] “I learned this rule from my father,” said Agrasius, “and I keep it not only in shearing my sheep but in cutting my hair, for fear that if I have it done when the moon is waxing I may become bald.” “After what method is the moon divided into quarters,” asked Agrius, “and what influence has that division on farming?” [3] “Have you never heard in the country,” replied Tremelius, “the expressions ‘eight days before the waxing of the moon,’ and ‘eight days before the waning of the moon,’ and that of the things which should be done when the moon is waxing some are nevertheless better done after this ‘eight days before the waxing’ than before it; and that the things which should be done when she is waning are better done the less light that heavenly body has? I have discussed the fourfold division in agriculture.”

[4] “There is,” said Stolo, “a second, a sixfold-division of seasons of which may be said to bear a relation to the sun and moon, because almost every product comes to perfection in five stages and reaches jar and basket in the farmstead, and from these is brought forth for use in the sixth. The first stage is the preparation, the second the planting, the third the cultivation, the fourth the harvesting, the fifth the storing, the sixth the marketing. In the matter of preparation: for some crops you must make trenches or dig thoroughly or draw furrows, as when you wish to make an arbustum or an orchard; for others you must plough or spade, as when you starting a grain field; [5] for some the earth must be turned more or less deeply with the trenching spade. For some trees, such as the cypress, spread their roots less, and others, such as the plane, more; so much, indeed, that Theophrastus mentions a plane tree in the Lyceum at Athens which, even when it was quite young, had thrown out its roots to a spread of thirty-three cubits. Certain land, when you have broken it with oxen and plough, must be worked a second time before you broadcast the seed. Any preparation that is made in the matter of meadows consists in closing them from grazing, a practice which is usually observed from the time of the blooming of the pear trees; and if they are irrigated, in turning in the water at the proper time.

XXXVIII.

Quae loca in agro stercoranda, videndum, et qui et quo genere potissimum facias: nam discrimina eius aliquot. Stercus optimum scribit esse Cassius volucrium praeter palustrium ac nantium. De hisce praestare columbinum, quod sit calidissimum ac fermentare possit terram. Id ut semen aspargi oportere in agro, non ut de pecore acervatim poni. Ego arbitror praestare ex aviariis turdorum ac merularum, quod non solum ad agrum utile, sed etiam ad cibum ita bubus ac subus, ut fiant pingues. Itaque qui aviaria conducunt, si cavet dominus stercus ut in fundo maneat, minoris conducunt, quam ii quibus id accedit. Cassius secundum columbinum scribit esse hominis, tertio caprinum et ovillum et asininum, minime bonum equinum, sed in segetes; in prata enim vel optimum, ut ceterarum veterinarum, quae hordeo pascuntur, quod multam facit herbam. Stercilinum secundum villam facere oportet, ut quam paucissimis operis egeratur. In eo, si in medio robusta aliqua materia sit depacta, negant serpentem nasci.

[38.1] “We must observe what parts of the land must be manured, how the manure is to be applied, and the best kind to use; for there are several varieties. Cassius states that the best manure is that of birds, except marsh- and sea-fowl; and that the dung of pigeons is the best of these, because it has the most heat and causes the ground to ferment. This should be broadcast on the land like seed, and not placed in piles like cattle dung. [2] My own opinion is that the best dung is from aviaries of thrushes and blackbirds, as it is not only good for the land, but is excellent food both for cattle and swine, to fatten them. Hence those who lease aviaries with the owner’s stipulation that the dung shall remain on the place pay less rent than those who have the use of it. Cassius states that next to pigeon dung human excrement is the best, and in the third place goat, sheep, and ass dung; [3] that horse dung is least valuable, but good on grain land; for on meadows it is the most valuable of all, as is that of all draught animals which feed on barley, because it produces a quantity of grass. The farmer should make a dung-hill near the steading, so that the manure may be cleared out with the least labour. They say that if an oak stake is driven into the middle of it no serpent will breed there.

XXXIX.

Sationis autem gradus, secundus, hanc habet curam: naturam ad quod tempus cuiusque seminis apta sit ad serendum. Nam refert in agro ad quam partem caeli quisque locus spectet, sic ad quod tempus quaeque res facillime crescat. Nonne videmus alia florere verno tempore, alia aestivo, neque eadem autumnali, quae hiberno? Itaque alia seruntur atque inseruntur et metuntur ante aut post quam alia; et cum pleraque vere quam autumno inserantur, circiter solstitium inseri ficos nec non brumalibus diebus cerasos. Quare cum semina sint fere quattuor generum, quae natura dedit, quae transferuntur e terra in terram viva radice, quae ex arboribus dempta demittuntur in humum, quae inseruntur ex arboribus in arbores, de singulis rebus videndum, quae quoque tempore locoque facias.

[39.1] “The second step, that of planting, requires care as to the season of planting which is suited to the nature of each seed. For in a field it is important to note the exposure of every section, and also the season at which each plant grows best. Do we not observe that some blossom in spring, some in summer, and that the autumn growth is not the same as the winter? [2] Thus some plants are sown and grafted and harvested earlier or later than others; and while most are grafted in spring rather than in autumn, figs are grafted near the solstice, and cherries actually in mid-winter. [3] Now as seeds are, in general, of four kinds — those furnished by nature, those which are transplanted from one piece of ground to another as rooted slips, cuttings from trees planted in the ground, and grafts from tree to tree — you should observe what separate operation should be carried out at each season and in each locality.

XL.

Primum semen, quod est principium genendi, id duplex, unum quod latet nostrum sensum, alterum quod apertum. Latet, si sunt semina in aere, ut ait physicos Anaxagoras, et si aqua, quae influit in agrum, inferre solet, ut scribit Theophrastus. Illud quod apparet ad agricolas, id videndum diligenter. Quaedam enim ad genendum propensa usque adeo parva, ut sint obscura, ut cupressi. Non enim galbuli qui nascuntur, id est tamquam pilae parvae corticiae, id semen, sed in iis intus. Primigenia semina dedit natura, reliqua invenit experientia coloni. Prima quae sine colono, priusquam sata, nata; secunda quae ex iis collecta neque, priusquam sata, nata. Prima semina videre oportet ne vetustate sint exsucta aut ne sint admixta aut ne propter similitudinem sint adulterina. Semen vetus tantum valet in quibusdam rebus, ut naturam commutet. Nam ex semine brassicae vetere sato nasci aiunt rapa et contra ex raporum brassicam. Secunda semina videre oportet ne, unde tollas, nimium cito aut tarde tollas. Tempus enim idoneum, quod scribit Theophrastus, vere et autumno et caniculae exortu, neque omnibus locis ac generibus idem. In sicco et macro loco et argilloso vernum tempus idoneum, quo minus habet umoris: in terra bona ac pingui autumno, quod vere multus umor, quam sationem quidam metiuntur fere diebus XXX. Tertium genus seminis, quod ex arbore per surclos defertur in terram, si in humum demittitur, in quibusdam est videndum ut eo tempore sit deplantatum, quo oportet (id fit tum, antequam gemmare aut florere quid incipit); et quae de arbore transferas ut ea deplantes potius quam defringas, quod plantae solum stabilius, quo latius aut radices facilius mittit. Ea celeriter, antequam sucus exarescat, in terram demittunt. In oleagineis seminibus videndum ut sit de tenero ramo ex utraque parte aequabiliter praecisum, quas alii clavolas, alii taleas appellant ac faciunt circiter pedales. Quartum genus seminis, quod transit ex arbore in aliam, videndum qua ex arbore in quam transferatur et quo tempore et quem ad modum obligetur. Non enim pirum recipit quercus, neque enim si malus pirum. Hoc secuntur multi, qui haruspices audiunt multum, a quibus proditum, in singulis arboribus quot genera insita sint, uno ictu tot fulmina fieri illut quod fulmen concepit. Si in pirum silvaticam inserueris pirum quamvis bonam, non fore tam iucundam, quam si in eam quae silvestris non sit. In quamcumque arborem inseras, si eiusdem generis est, dumtaxat ut sit utraque malus, ita inserere oportet referentem ad fructum, meliore genere ut sit surculus, quam est quo veniat arbor. Est altera species ex arbore in arborem inserendi nuper animadversa in arboribus propinquis. Ex arbore, qua vult habere surculum, in eam quam inserere vult ramulum traducit et in eius ramo praeciso ac diffisso implicat, eum locum qui contingit, ex utraque parte quod intro est falce extenuatum, ita ut ex una parti quod caelum visurum est corticem cum cortice exaequatum habeat. Eius ramuli, quem inseret, cacumen ut derectum sit ad caelum curat. Postero anno, cum comprendit, unde propagatum est, ab altera arbore praecidit.

[40.1] “In the first place, the seed, which is the origin of growth, is of two kinds, one being invisible, the other visible. There are invisible seed, if, as the naturalist Anaxagoras holds, they are in the air, and if the water which flows on the land carries them, as Theophrastus writes. The seed which can be seen should be carefully watched by the farmer; for some seed, such as that of the cypress, though capable of generating, is so small that it can hardly be seen; (for the pods which it bears, that look like little balls of bark, are not the seeds but contain them). [2] The original seeds were given by nature, while the later were discovered in the experiments of the farmer. The first are those which, without the aid of the farmer, grow without being sown; the second are those which, derived from these, do not grow without being sown. In the case of the first, care should be taken to see that they are not dried out from age, and that they are clean and not mixed with seed of similar appearance. The age of the seed is of such importance in the case of some plants that it alters their nature; thus from the planting of old cabbage seeds it is said that rape grows, and on the other hand that cabbage grows from old rape seed. [3] In the case of the second class of seed, you should be careful not to transplant them too early or too late. The proper time is that given by Theophrastus — spring, autumn, and at the rising of the Dog Star — but the time is not the same for all localities and all species. In ground that is dry, thin, or clayey, spring is the proper season, because it is less humid; in good, rich land the autumn, because in spring it is very wet. Some authorities allow about thirty days for such planting. [4] In the third method, which consists in transferring shoots from a tree into the ground, if the shoot is buried in the earth, you must be careful, in the case of some, that the shoot be removed at the proper time — that is, before it shows any sign of budding or blossoming; and that what you transplant from the tree you tear from the stock rather than break off a limb, as the heel of a shoot is steadier, or the wider it is the more easily it puts out roots. They are thrust into the ground at once, before the sap dries out. In the case of olive cuttings, care must be taken that they be from a tender branch, sharpened evenly at both ends. Such cuttings, about a foot in length, are called by some clavolae, and by others taleae. [5] In the fourth method, which consists in running a shoot from one tree to another, the points to be observed are the nature of the tree, the season, and the method of fastening. You cannot, for instance, graft a pear on an oak, even though you can on an apple. This is a matter of importance to many people who pay considerable attention to the soothsayers; for these have a saying that when a tree has been grafted with several varieties, the one that attracts the lightning turns into as many bolts as there are varieties, though the stroke is a single one. No matter how good the pear shoot which you graft on a wild pear, the fruit will not be as well flavoured as if you graft it on a cultivated pear. [6] It is a general rule in grafting, if the shoot and the tree are of the same species, as, for instance, if both are of the apple family, that for the effect on the fruit the grafting should be of a such a nature that the shoot is of a better type than the tree on which it is grafted. There is a second method of grafting from tree to tree which has recently been developed, under conditions where the trees stand close to each other. From the tree from which you wish to take the shoot a small branch is run to the tree on which you wish to graft and is inserted in a branch of the latter which has been cut off and split; the part which fits into the branch having first been sharpened on both sides with the knife so that one side the part which will be exposed to the weather will have bark fitted accurately to bark. Care is taken to have the tip of the grafted shoot point straight up. The next year, after it has taken firm hold, it is cut off the parent stem.

XLI.

Quo tempore quaeque transferas, haec in primis videnda, quae prius verno tempore inserebantur, nunc etiam solstitiali, ut ficus, quod densa materia non est et ideo sequitur caldorem. A quo fit ut in locis frigidis ficeta fieri non possint. Aqua recenti insito inimica: tenellum enim cito facit putre. Itaque caniculae signo commodissime existimatur ea inseri. Quae autem natura minus sunt mollia, vas aliquod supra alligant, unde stillet lente aqua, ne prius exarescat surculus, quam colescat. Cuius surculi corticem integrum servandum et eum sic exacuendum, ut non denudes medullam. Ne extrinsecus imbres noceant aut nimius calor, argilla oblinendum ac libro obligandum. Itaque vitem triduo antequam inserant desecant, ut qui in ea nimius est umor defluat, antequam inseratur; aut in quam inserunt, in ea paulo infra, quam insitum est, incidunt, qua umor adventicius effluere possit. Contra in fico et malo punica, et siquae etiam horum natura aridiora, continuo. In aliis translationibus videndum ut quod transferat cacumen habeat gemmam, ut in ficis.

De his primis quattuor generibus seminum quaedam quod tardiora, surculis potius utendum, ut in ficetis faciunt. Fici enim semen naturale intus in ea fico, quam edimus, quae sunt minuta grana; e quibus parvis quod enasci coliculi vix queunt — omnia enim minuta et arida ad crescendum tarda, ea quae laxiora, et fecundiora, ut femina quam mas et pro portione in virgultis item; itaque ficus, malus punica et vitis propter femineam mollitiam ad crescendum prona, contra palma et cupressus et olea in crescendo tarda: in hoc enim umidiora quam aridiora — quare ex terra potius in seminariis surculos de ficeto quam grana de fico expedit obruere, praeter si aliter nequeas, ut siquando quis trans mare semina mittere aut inde petere vult. Tum enim resticulam per ficos, quas edimus, maturas perserunt et eas, cum inaruerunt, complicant ac quo volunt mittunt, ubi obrutae in seminario pariant. Sic genera ficorum, Chiae ac Chalcidicae et Lydiae et Africanae, item cetera transmarina in Italiam perlata. Simili de causa, oleae semen cum sit nuculeus, quod ex eo tardius enascebatur colis quam ex aliis, ideo potius in seminariis taleas, quas dixi, serimus.

[41.1] “As to the proper season for grafting, this must be especially observed: that some plants which formerly were grafted in spring are now grafted in mid-summer also, such as the fig, which, as the wood is not hard, requires warm weather; it is for this reason that fig groves cannot be planted in cold localities. Moisture is harmful to a fresh graft, for it causes the tender shoot to decay quickly, [2] and hence it is the common view that this tree is best grafted in the dog days. In the case of plants which are not so soft, however, a vessel is fastened above the graft in such a way that water may drip slowly to keep the shoot from drying out before it unites with the tree. The bark of the shoot must be kept uninjured, and the shoot itself be sharpened in such a way as not to bare the pith. To prevent moisture or excessive heat from injuring it on the surface its be smeared with clay and tied up with bark. [3] For this reason the vine is cut off three days before grafting, so that any excessive moisture in it may run out before it is grafted; or else a cut is made in the branch on which the graft is made a little lower than the graft, so as to allow casual water to run off. On the other hand, figs, pomegranates, and plants of a drier nature are grafted at once. In other graftings, such as of figs, care must be taken that the shoot contains a bud.

[4] “Of these four forms of propagation it is better to use quicksets in the case of some slow-growing plants, as is the practice in fig groves; for the natural seed of the fig is on the inside of the fruit which we eat, in the form of very small grains. As the seedling can scarcely spring from these small grains — for all things which are small and dry grow slowly, while those which are of looser texture are also of more rapid growth, as, for instance, the female grows more rapidly than the male, a rule which holds good also in plants to some extent, the fig, the pomegranate, and the vine being, on account of their feminine softness, of rapid growth, while, on the other hand, the palm, the cypress, and the olive are of slow growth; [5] for in this respect the humid [are quicker] than the dry — it is therefore better to plant in the nursery shoots from the fig tree than grains from the fruit; unless this is impracticable, as when you wish to ship seeds overseas or import them thence. In this case we pass a string through the figs when they are ripe for eating, and after they have dried they are tied in bundles and may be sent where we will; and there they are planted in a nursery and reproduce. [6] It was in this manner that the Chian, Chalcidian, Lydian, African, and other varieties of over-sea figs were imported into Italy. For a similar reason, the seed of the olive being a nut, we prefer to plant in our nurseries the cuttings which I have described, as the stem was found to spring more slowly from the olive nut than from others.

XLII.

In primis observes ne in terram nimium aridam aut variam, sed temperatam, semen demittas. In iugerum unum, si est natura temperata terra, scribunt opus esse medicae sesquimodium. Id seritur ita, ut semen iaciatur, quem ad modum cum pabulum et frumentum seritur.

[42.1] “Be especially careful not to plant in ground that is very dry or very wet, but rather in moderately moist ground. Authorities state that the proper amount of alfalfa is a modius and a half to the iugerum, if the ground is by nature moderately moist; the method of sowing is to broadcast the seed, as is done in sowing forage crops and grain.

XLIII.

Cytisum seritur in terra bene subacta tamquam semen brassicae. Inde differtur et in sesquipedem ponitur, aut etiam de cytiso duriore virgulae deplantantur, et ita pangitur in serendo.

[43.1] “Snail-clover is sowed on land that has been thoroughly worked, like cabbage seed; then it is transplanted at intervals of a foot and a half, or, when the plant is more mature, shoots are detached, and it is set out in planting as above.

XLIV.

Seruntur fabae modii IIII in iugero, tritici V, hordei VI, farris X, sed non nullis locis paulo amplius aut minus. Si enim locus crassus, plus; si macer, minus. Quare observabis, quantum in ea regione consuetudo erit serendi, ut tantum facias, quod tantum valet regio ac genus terrae, ut ex eodem semine aliubi cum decimo redeat, aliubi cum quinto decimo, ut in Etruria locis aliquot. In Italia in Subaritano dicunt etiam cum centesimo redire solitum, in Syria ad Gadara et in Africa ad Byzacium item ex modio nasci centum. Illut quoque multum interest, in rudi terra, an in ea seras, quae quotannis obsita sit, quae vocatur restibilis, an in vervacto quae interdum requierit. Cui Agrius, In Olynthia quotannis restibilia esse dicunt, sed ita ut tertio quoque anno uberiores ferant fructos. Licinius, Agrum alternis annis relinqui oportet paulo levioribus sationibus, id est quae minus sugunt terram.

Dicetur, inquit Agrius, de tertio gradu, de nutricationibus atque alimoniis eorum. Ille, Quae nata sunt, inquit, in fundo alescunt, adulta concipiunt, praegnatia, cum sunt matura, pariunt poma aut spicam, sic alia.A quo profectum, redit semen. Itaque si florem acerbumve pirum aliudve quid decerpseris, in eodem loco eodem anno nihil renascitur, quod praegnationis idem bis habere non potest. Ut enim mulieres habent ad partum dies certos, sic arbores ac fruges.

[44.1] “Beans are sowed 4 modii to the iugerum, wheat 5, barley 6, spelt 10, the amount being a little more or less in some localities; more being sowed on rich ground and less on thin. You should therefore note the amount that is usually sowed in the district and follow this practice; for the locality and the type of soil is so important that the same seed in one district yields tenfold and in another fifteen-fold — as at some places in Etruria. [2] Around Sybaris in Italy the normal yield is said to be even a hundred to one, and a like yield is reported near Gadara in Syria, and for the district of Byzacium in Africa. It also makes a great difference whether the planting is on virgin soil or on what is called restibilis — land cultivated every year — or on vervactum, which is allowed sometimes to lie fallow between crops.” [3] “In Olynthia,” remarked Agrius, “they say that the land is cropped every year, but in such a way that a richer crop is produced every other year.” “Land ought to be left every other year with somewhat lighter crops,” rejoined Licinius; “I mean by that crops which are less exhausting to the land.”

“Tell us now,” said Agrius, “of the third step, the nurture and feeding of the plant.” [4] “All plants,” resumed Stolo, “grow in the soil, and when mature conceive, and when the time of gestation is complete bear fruit or ear, or the like; and the seed returns whence it came. Thus, if you pluck the blossom or an unripe pear, or the like, no second one will grown on the same spot in the same year, as the same plant cannot have two periods of gestation. For trees and plants, just as women, have a definite period from conception to birth.

XLV.

Primum plerumque e terra exit hordeum diebus VII, nec multo post triticum; legumina fere quadriduo aut quinque diebus, praeterquam faba: ea enim serius aliquanto prodit. Item milium et sesima et cetera similiter aequis fere diebus, praeterquam siquid regio aut tempestas viti attulit, quo minus ita fiat. Quae in seminario nata, si loca erunt frigidiora, quae molli natura sunt, per brumalia tempora tegere oportet fronde aut stramentis. Si erunt imbres secuti, videndum necubi aqua consistat; venenum enim gelum radicibus tenellis. Sub terra et supra virgulta non eodem tempore aeque crescunt; nam radices autumno aut hieme magis sub terra quam supra alescunt, quod tectae terrae tepore propagantur, supra terram aere frigidiore coguntur. Itaque ita esse docent silvestria, ad quae sator non accessit. Nam prius radices, quam ex iis quod solet nasci, crescunt. Neque radices longius procedunt, nisi quo tepor venit solis. Duplex causa radicium, quod et materiem aliam quam aliam longius proicit natura, et quod alia terra alia facilius viam dat.

[45.1] “Barley usually appears in seven days, wheat not much later; legumes usually in four or five days, except the bean, which is somewhat slower in appearing. Millet also, and sesame, and similar plants appear in about the same number of days, except in cases where the locality or the weather prevents this from occurring. [2] Seedlings in the nursery should be covered with leaves or straw during the winter if the locality is at all cold, as they are tender; and if rains follow, water must not be allowed to stand anywhere, for frost is baneful to the tender rootlets. [3] Plants do not grow at the same rate below and above ground; thus roots grow faster below than does the part above ground in autumn and in winter because, being covered, they are nourished by the heat of the earth, while the part above ground is checked by the colder air. Wild plants which have not been touched by the planter show that this is true; for roots grow before the plant which comes from them, but they go no deeper than the point to which the sun’s warmth reaches. The growth of roots is determined by two factors: that nature thrusts one kind of wood to a greater distance than another; and that one kind of soil yields more readily than another.

XLVI.

Propter cuius modi res admiranda discrimina sunt naturae aliquot, ex quibusdam foliis propter eorum versuram, quod sit anni tempus, ut dici possit, ut olea et populus alba et salix. Horum enim folia cum converterunt se, solstitium dicitur fuisse. Nec minus admirandum quod fit in floribus, quos vocant heliotropia ab eo, quod ad solis ortum mane spectant et eius iter ita secuntur ad occasum, ut ad eum semper spectent.

[46.1] “As a result of factors of this kind there are several remarkable differences of character; so that, for instance, the season may be told from the leaves of such trees as the olive, the silver poplar, and the willow, by the direction in which they lie; thus when the leaves of these trees turn over it is said that the summer solstice has passed. No less remarkable is the behaviour of the flowers which are called ‘heliotropes’ from the fact that they face the rising sun in the morning and follow his course until the setting, facing him the whole time.

XLVII.

In seminario quae surculis consita et eorum molliora erunt natura cacumina, ut olea ac ficus, ea summa integenda binis tabellis dextra et sinistra deligatis herbaeque eligendae. Eae dum tenerae sunt, vellendae. Post enim aridae factae rixantur ac celerius rumpuntur, quam secuntur. Contra herba in pratis ad spem faenisiciae nata non modo non evellenda in nutricatu, sed etiam non calcanda. Quo et pecus ab prato ablegandum et omne iumentum, etiam hominem. Solum enim hominis exitium herbae et semitae fundamentum.

[47.1] “Plants such as the olive and fig, such, reared in the nursery from shoots and naturally somewhat delicate on top, should be protected at the top by two boards tied right and left; and the weeds should be cleared. These should be pulled while they are young; for after they become dry they resist more strongly, and break off more readily than they yield. On the other hand, growth that springs up on a meadow for haying must not only not be plucked while it is maturing, but also must not be trampled. For this reason flocks, and every sort of animal, including even man, must be kept off a meadow; for the foot of man is death to grass and marks the beginning of a path.

XLVIII.

In segetibus autem frumentum quo culmus extulit, spicam. Ea quae mutilata non est, in hordeo et tritico, tria habet continentia, granum, glumam, aristam et etiam, primitus spica cum oritur, vaginam. Granum dictum quod est intimum soldum; gluma qui est folliculus eius; arista quae ut acus tenuis longa eminet e gluma, proinde ut grani apex sit gluma et arista. Arista et granum omnibus fere notum, gluma paucis. Itaque id apud Ennium solum scriptum scio esse in Euhemeri libris versis. Videtur vocabulum etymum habere a glubendo, quod eo folliculo deglubitur granum. Itaque eodem vocabulo appellant fici eius, quam edimus, folliculum. Arista dicta, quod arescit prima. Granum a gerendo; id enim ut gerat spica, seritur frumentum, non ut glumam aut aristam gerat, ut vitis seritur, non ut pampinum ferat, sed ut uvam. Spica autem, quam rustici, ut acceperunt antiquitus, vocant specam, a spe videtur nominata; eam enim quod sperant fore, serunt. Spica mutila dicitur, quae non habet aristam; ea enim quasi cornua sunt spicarum. Quae primitus cum oriuntur neque plane apparent, qua sub latent herba, ea vocatur vagina, ut in qua latet conditum gladium. Illut autem summa in spica iam matura, quod est minus quam granum, vocatur frit; quod in infima spica ad culmum stramenti summum item minus quam granum est, appellatur urru.

[48.1] “Now, in the case of grain crops, that by which the stalk puts forth the grain is the head. If is this “hornless,” as in barley and wheat, it has three components: the grain, the husk, and the beard — and the sheath, also, when the ear first appears. The hard inner part is called the grain; the husk is its envelope; and the beard is the part which rises from the husk like a long, slender needle, just as if the husk and bead formed a peaked cap for the grain. [2] ‘Beard’ and ‘grain’ are familiar words to most people, but ‘husk’ (gluma) to few; thus the only place where it occurs, to my knowledge, is in Ennius, in his translation of Euhemerus. The word (gluma) seems to be derived from glubere, ‘strip,’ because the grain is stripped (deglubitur) from this envelope; so the same word is used for the envelope of the edible fruit of the fig tree. The beard is called arista from the fact that it is the first part to dry (arescere). The grain is so called from gerere; for the seed is planted that the ear may ‘bear’ (gerat) the grain, not the husk of the beard; just as the vine is planted not to bear leaves but grapes. The ear, however, which the peasants, in their old-fashioned way, call speca, seems to have got its name from spes; for it is because they hope (sperant) to have this grow that they plant. [3] An ear which has no bears is said to be ‘hornless,’ as the beard may be said to be the ‘horns’ of the ear. When these are just forming and are not yet quite visible, the green envelope under which they are hidden is called the sheath, being like the sheath in which a sword is encased. The part at the top of the full-grown ear, which is smaller than the grain, is called frit; while the part, also smaller than the grain, at the bottom of the ear where it joins the top of the stalk is called urru.”

XLIX.

Cum conticuisset nec interrogaretur, de nutricatu credens nihil desiderari, Dicam, inquit, de fructibus maturis capiendis. Primum de pratis summissis herba, cum crescere desiit et aestu arescit, subsecari falcibus debet et, quaad perarescat, furcillis versari; cum peraruit, de his manipulos fieri ac vehi ad villam; tum de pratis stipulam rastellis eradi atque addere faenisiciae cumulum. Quo facto sicilienda prata, id est falcibus consectanda quae faenisices praeterierunt ac quasi herba tuberosum reliquerunt campum. A qua sectione arbitror dictum sicilire pratum.

[49.1] Stolo paused at this point, and, judging from the fact that no questions were asked that no further discussion of nutrition was desired, he continued: “I shall discuss next the subject of harvesting the ripe crops. First the grass on the hay-meadows should be cut close with the sickle when it ceases to grow and begins to dry out with the heat, and turned with the fork while it is drying out; when it is quite dry it should be made into bundles and hauled to the barn. Then the loose hay from the meadows should be raked up and added to the hay-pile. [2] After doing this you should ‘sickle’ the meadows — that is, cut with the sickle what the mowers have passed over, leaving the field humped, as it were, with tufts of grass. I suppose the verb sicilire, used with meadow as object, is derived from this cutting (sectio).

L.

Messis proprio nomine dicitur in iis quae metimur, maxime in frumento, et ab eo esse vocabulo declinata. Frumenti tria genera sunt messionis, unum, ut in Umbria, ubi falce secundum terram succidunt stramentum et manipulum, ut quemque subsicuerunt, ponunt in terra. Ubi eos fecerunt multos, iterum eos percensent ac de singulis secant inter spicas et stramentum. Spicas coiciunt in corbem atque in aream mittunt, stramenta relincunt in segete, unde tollantur in acervum. Altero modo metunt, ut in Piceno, ubi ligneum habent incurvum bacillum, in quo sit extremo serrula ferrea. Haec cum comprendit fascem spicarum, desecat et stramenta stantia in segeti relinquit, ut postea subsecentur. Tertio modo metitur, ut sub urbe Roma et locis plerisque, ut stramentum medium subsicent, quod manu sinistra summum prendunt; a quo medio messem dictam puto. Infra manum stramentum cum terra haeret, postea subsecatur; contra quod cum spica stramentum haeret, corbibus in aream defertur. Ibi discedit in aperto loco palam: a quo potest nominata esse palea. Alii stramentum ab stando, ut st[r]amen, dictum putant; alii ab stratu, quod id substernatur pecori. Cum est matura seges, metendum, cum in ea [in] iugerum fere una opera propemodum in facili agro satis esse dicatur. Messas spicas corbibus in aream deferre debent.

[50.1] “The word messis is properly employed of the crops which we ‘measure’ (metimur), especially of grain; and this, I suggest, is the derivation of the word. There are three methods of harvesting grain: the first, employed in Umbria, in which the stalk is cut close to the ground with the hook, and each bundle, as it is cut, is laid on the ground. When a number of bundles are formed, they go over them again, and cut the ears from each close to the stalk. The ears are cast into the basket and carried to the threshing-floor, while the straw is left in the field and afterwards stacked. [2] In the second method, employed in Picenum, they use a curved handle of wood with a small iron saw attached to the end; when this catches a bundle of ears it cuts them off and leaves the straw standing in the field to be cut later. In the third method, employed near Rome and in numerous other places, seizing the top with the left hand they cut the straw in the middle; and I suggest that the word messis is derived from this middle (medium) which they cut. The part of the stalk below the hand remains attached to the ground, and is cut later; [3] while the part which is attached to the ear is carried to the threshing-floor in baskets. The name for straw, palea, may be derived from the fact that there, in an uncovered place, it is detached ‘openly’ (palam); some derive the other word, stramentum, from stare, as they do also the word stamen, and others from stratus, because it is ‘spread’ (substernitur) under cattle. The grain should be cut when it is ripe; and on easily worked land it is held that the reaping of one iugerum is approximately a day’s work for one man — this should include the carrying of the reaped ears to the threshing-floor in baskets.

LI.

Aream esse oportet in agro sublimiori loco, quam perflare possit ventus; hanc esse modicam pro magnitudine segetis, potissimum rutundam et mediam paulo extumidam, ut, si pluerit, non consistat aqua et quam brevissimo itinere extra aream defluere possit; omne porro brevissimum in rutundo e medio ad extremum. Solida terra pavita, maxime si est argilla, ne, aestu peminosa si sit, in rimis eius grana oblitescant et recipiant aquam et ostia aperiant muribus ac formicis. Itaque amurca solent perfundere, ea enim herbarum et formicarum et talparum venenum. Quidam aream ut habeant soldam, muniunt lapide aut etiam faciunt pavimentum. Non nulli etiam tegunt areas, ut in Bagiennis, quod ibi saepe id temporis anni oriuntur nimbi. Ubi ea retecta et loca calda, prope aream faciundum umbracula, quo succedant homines in aestu tempore meridiano.

[51.1] “The threshing-floor should be on the place, in a somewhat elevated spot, so that the wind can sweep over it; the size should be determined by the size of the harvest. It should preferably be round, with a slight elevation at the centre, so that, if it rains, water will not stand but be able to run off the floor in the shortest line — and of course in a circle the shortest line is from the centre to the circumference. It should be built of solid dirt, well packed, and especially if it is of clay, so that it may not crack in the heat and allow the grain to hide, or take in water and open the door to mice and ants. For this reason it is customary to coat it with amurca, which is poison to weeds, ants, and moles. [2] Some farmers build up the floor with stone to make it solid, or even pave it. Others, such as the Bagienni, go so far as to build a shelter over the floors, because in that country rain-storms frequently occur at threshing time. When the floor is without a roof and the climate is hot, a shelter should be built hard by, to which the hands may go at midday in hot weather.

LII.

Quae seges grandissima atque optima fuerit, seorsum in aream secerni oportet spicas, ut semen optimum habeat; e spicis in area excuti grana. Quod fit apud alios iumentis iunctis ac tribulo. Id fit e tabula lapidibus aut ferro asperata, quae cum imposito auriga aut pondere grandi trahitur iumentis iunctis, discutit e spica grana; aut ex axibus dentatis cum orbiculis, quod vocant plostellum poenicum; in eo quis sedeat atque agitet quae trahant iumenta, ut in Hispania citeriore et aliis locis faciunt. Apud alios exteritur grege iumentorum inacto et ibi agitato perticis, quod ungulis e spica exteruntur grana. Iis tritis oportet e terra subiectari vallis aut ventilabris, cum ventus spirat lenis. Ita fit ut quod levissimum est in eo atque appellatur acus ac palea evannatur foras extra aream ac frumentum, quod est ponderosum, purum veniat ad corbem.

[52.1] “On the threshing-floor the largest and best ears should be placed apart, to furnish the best seed, and the grain should be threshed on the floor. This is done in some districts by means of a yoke of steers and a sledge. The latter is constructed either of a board made rough with stones or iron, which separates the grain from the ear when it is dragged by a yoke of steers with the driver or a heavy weight on it; or of a toothed axle running on low wheels, called a Punic cart, the driver sitting on it and driving the steers which drag it — a contrivance in use in Hither Spain and other places. [2] Among other peoples the threshing is done by turning in cattle and driving them around with goads, the grain being separated from the beards by their hoofs. After the threshing the grain should be tossed from the ground when the wind is blowing gently, with winnowing fans or forks. The result is that the lightest part of it, called acus and palea, is fanned outside the floor, while the grain, being heavy, comes clean to the basket.

LIII.

Messi facta spicilegium venire oportet aut domi legere stipulam aut, si sunt spicae rarae et operae carae, compasci. Summa enim spectanda, ne in ea re sumptus fructum superet.

[53.1] “When the harvest is over the gleaning should be let, or the loose stalks gathered with your own force, or, if the ears left are few and the cost of labour high, it should be pastured. For the thing to be kept in view in this matter is that the expense shall not exceed the profit.

LIV.

In vinetis uva cum erit matura, vindemiam ita fieri oportet, ut videas, a quo genere uvarum et a quo loco vineti incipias legere. Nam et praecox et miscella, quam vocant nigram, multo ante coquitur, quo prior legenda, et quae pars arbusti ac vineae magis aprica, prius debet descendere de vite. In vindemia diligentis uva non solum legitur sed etiam eligitur; legitur ad bibendum, eligitur ad edendum. Itaque lecta defertur in forum vinarium, unde in dolium inane veniat; electa in secretam corbulam, unde in ollulas addatur et in dolia plena vinaciorum contrudatur, alia quae in piscinam in amphoram picatam descendat, alia quae in aream in carnarium escendat. Quae calcatae uvae erunt, earum scopi cum folliculis subiciendi sub prelum, ut, siquid reliqui habeant musti, exprimatur in eundem lacum. Cum desiit sub prelo fluere, quidam circumcidunt extrema et rursus premunt et, rursus cum expressum, circumcisicium appellant ac seorsum quod expressum est servant, quod resipit ferrum. Expressi acinorum folliculi in dolia coiciuntur, eoque aqua additur; ea vocatur lora, quod lota acina, ac pro vino operariis datur hieme.

[54.1] “As to vineyards, the vintage should begin when the grapes are ripe; and you must choose the variety of grapes and the part of the vineyard with which to begin. For the early grapes, and the hybrids, the so-called black, ripen much earlier and so must be gathered sooner; and the part of the plantation and vineyard which is sunnier should have its vines stripped first. [2] At the vintage the careful farmer not only gathers but selects his grapes; he gathers for drinking and selects for eating. So those gathered are carried to the wine-yard, thence to go into the empty jar; those selected are carried to a separate basket, to be placed thence in small pots and thrust into jars filled with wine dregs, while others are plunged into the pond in a jar sealed with pitch, and still others go up to their place in the larder. When the grapes have been trodden, the stalks and skins should be placed under the press, so that whatever must remains in them may be pressed out into the same vat. [3] When the flow ceases under the press, some people trim around the edges of the mass and press again; this second pressing is called circumsicium, and the juice is kept separate because it tastes of the knife. The pressed grape-skins are turned into jars and water is added; this liquid is called lora, from the fact that the skins are washed (lota), and it is issued to the labourers in winter instead of wine.

LV.

De oliveto oleam, quam manu tangere possis e terra ac scalis, legere oportet potius quam quatere, quod ea quae vapulavit macescit nec dat tantum olei. Quae manu stricta, melior ea quae digitis nudis, quam illa quae cum digitabulis, durities enim eorum quod non solum stringit bacam, sed etiam ramos glubit ac relinquit ad gelicidium retectos. Quae manu tangi non poterunt, ita quati debent, ut harundine potius quam pertica feriantur; gravior enim plaga medicum quaerit. Qui quatiet, ne adversam caedat; saepe enim ita percussa olea secum defert de ramulo plantam, quo facto fructum amittunt posteri anni. Nec haec non minima causa, quod oliveta dicant alternis annis non ferre fructus aut non aeque magnos. Olea ut uva per idem bivium redit in villam, alia ad cibum, alia ut eliquescat ac non solum corpus intus unguat sed etiam extrinsecus. Itaque dominum et balneas et gymnasium sequitur. Haec, de qua fit oleum, congeri solet acervatim in dies singulos in tabulata, ut ibi mediocriter fracescat ac primus quisque acervos demittatur per serias ac vasa olearia ad trapetas, quae res molae oleariae ex duro et aspero lapide. Olea lecta si nimium diu fuit in acervis, caldore fracescit et oleum foetidum fit. Itaque si nequeas mature conficere, in acervis iactando ventilare oportet. Ex olea fructus duplex: oleum, quod omnibus notum, et amurca, cuius utilitatem quod ignorant plerique, licet videre e torculis oleariis fluere in agros ac non solum denigrare terram, sed multitudine facere sterilem; cum is umor modicus cum ad multas res tum ad agri culturam pertineat vehementer, quod circum arborum radices infundi solet, maxime ad oleam, et ubicumque in agro herba nocet.

[55.1] “With regard to the olive harvest: the olives which can be reached from the ground or by ladders should be picked rather than shaken down, because the fruit which has been bruised dries out and does not yield so much oil. Those picked with bare fingers are better than those picked with gloves, as the hard gloves not only bruise the berry [2] but also tear the bark from the branches and leave them exposed to the frost. Those which cannot be reached with the hand should be beaten down; but a reed should be used rather than a pole, as the heavier blow renders necessary the work of the tree-doctor. The one who is beating should not strike the olive directly; [3] for an olive struck in this way often tears away the shoot with it, and the fruit of the next year is lost. This is not the least reason for the saying that the olive fails to bear a crop every other year, or does not bear so full a crop. [4] The olive reaches the steading by the same two roads as the grape, one portion for food, and one to gush forth and anoint the body not only within but also without, thus following the master into the bath and into the gymnasium. [5] The portion from which oil is made is usually heaped on a flooring in piles as it comes in from day to day, so that it may mellow a little; and the piles pass in the same order through the jars and the olive vessels to the trapeta, which is an olive-mill fitted with hard stones roughened on the surface. [6] If the olives, after being picked, lie too long in the piles, they spoil from the heat and the oil becomes rancid; hence, if you cannot work them up promptly they should be aired by moving them about in the piles. [7] The olive yields two products: oil, well known to all, and amurca. As most people are ignorant of the value of the latter, you may see it flowing out from the olive presses on to the fields, and not only blackening the ground but rendering it barren when there is a large quantity of it; whereas, in moderate quantities, this fluid is not only extremely valuable for many purposes, but is especially valuable in agriculture, as it is usually poured around the roots of trees, chiefly olive trees, and where noxious weeds grow in the fields.”

LVI.

Agrius, Iamdudum, inquit, in villa sedens expecto cum clavi te, Stolo, dum fructus in villam referas. Ille, Em quin adsum, venio, inquit, ad limen, fores aperi. Primum faenisiciae conduntur melius sub tecto quam in acervis, quod ita fit iucundius pabulum. Ex eo intellegitur, quod pecus utroque posito libentius est.

[56.1] “I have been sitting in the steading for a long time,” exclaimed Agrius, “waiting, key in hand, Stolo, for you to bring the crops into the barn.” “Well,” replied Stolo, “here I am. I am coming up to the threshold; open the doors. First, it is better to stow the hay crop under cover than in stacks, as by this method it makes better fodder — as is proved by the fact that when both kinds are offered them, cattle prefer the former.

LVII.

Triticum condi oportet in granaria sublimia, quae perflentur vento ab exortu ac septemtrionum regione, ad quae nulla aura umida ex propinquis locis adspiret. Parietes et solum opere tectorio marmorato loricandi; si minus, ex argilla mixta acere e frumento et amurca, quod murem et vermem non patitur esse et grana facit solidiora ac firmiora. Quidam ipsum triticum conspargunt, cum addant in circiter mille modium quadrantal amurcae. Item alius aliut adfriat aut aspargit, ut Chalcidicam aut Caricam cretam aut absenthium, item huius generis alia. Quidam granaria habent sub terris speluncas, quas vocant sirus, ut in Cappadocia ac Thracia; alii, ut in agro Carthaginiensi et Oscensi in Hispania citeriore, puteos. Horum solum paleis substernunt et curant ne umor aut aer tangere possit, nisi cum promitur ad usum; quo enim spiritus non pervenit, ibi non oritur curculio. Sic conditum triticum manet vel annos L, milium vero plus annos C. Supra terram granaria in agro quidam sublimia faciunt, ut in Hispania citeriore et in Apulia quidam, quae non solum a lateribus per fenestras, sed etiam subtus a solo ventus refrigerare possit. Faba et legumina in oleariis vasis oblita cinere perdiu incolumia servantur.

[57.1] “Wheat should be stored in granaries, above ground, open to the draught on the east and north, and not exposed to damp air rising in the vicinity. The walls and floor are to be coated with marble cement, [2] or at least with clay mixed with grain-chaff and amurca, as this both keeps out mice and worms and makes the grain more solid and firm. Some farmers sprinkle the wheat, too, with amurca, using a quadrantal to about a thousand modii. Different farmers use different powders or sprays, such as Chalcidian or Carian chalk, or wormwood, and other things of this kind. Some use underground caves as granaries, the so-called sirus, such as occur in Cappadocia and Thrace; and still others use wells, as in the Carthaginian and Oscensian districts in Hither Spain. They cover the bottom of these with straw, and are careful not to let moisture or air touch them, except when the grain is removed for use; for the weevil does not breed where air does not reach. Wheat stored in this way keeps as long as fifty years, and millet more than a hundred. [3] Some people, as in Hither Spain and in Apulia, build granaries in the field, above ground, so constructed that the wind can cool them not only from the sides, through windows, but also beneath from the ground. Beans and legumes are kept fresh for a very long time in olive jars sealed with ashes.

LVIII.

Cato ait uvam Aminneam minusculam et maiorem et Apiciam in ollis commodissime condi; eadem in sapa et musto recte; quas suspendas opportunissimas esse duracinas et Aminneas.

[58.1] “Cato says that smaller and larger Aminnian grape, and the Apician, are best stored in jars, and that the same grapes keep well also in boiled or plain must; and that the best ones for drying are the hard grapes and the Aminnian.

LIX.

De pomis conditiva, mala struthea, cotonea, Scantiana, Scaudiana, orbiculata et quae antea mustea vocabant, nunc melimela appellant, haec omnia in loco arido et frigido supra paleas posita servari recte putant. Et ideo oporothecas qui faciunt, ad aquilonem ut fenestras habeant atque ut eae perflentur curant, neque tamen sine foriculis, ne, cum umorem amiserint, pertinaci vento vieta fiant; ideoque in iis camaras marmorato et parietes pavimentaque faciunt, quo frigidius sit. In quo etiam quidam triclinium sternere solent cenandi causa. Etenim in quibus luxuria concesserit ut in pinacothece faciant, quod spectaculum datur ab arte, cur non quod natura datum utantur in venustate disposita pomorum? Praesertim cum id non sit faciendum, quod quidam fecerunt, ut Romae coempta poma rus intulerint in oporothecen instruendam convivi causa. In oporotheca mala manere putant satis commode alii in tabulis in opere marmorato, alii substrata palea vel etiam floccis; mala punica demissis suis surculis in dolio harenae, mala cotonea struthea in pensilibus iunctis; contra in sapa condita manere pira Aniciana sementiva; sorba quidam dissecta et in sole macerata, ut pira; et sorba per se, ubicumque sint posita in arido, facile durare: servare rapa consecta in sinape, nuces iugulandis in harena. Punica mala et in harena iam decerpta ac matura et etiam immatura, cum haereant in sua virga et demiseris in ollam sine fundo, eaque si coieceris in terram et obleris circum ramum, ne extrinsecus spiritus adflet, ea non modo integra eximi, sed etiam maiora, quam in arbore umquam pependerint.

[59.1] “The varieties of apples for preserving are the smaller and larger quinces, the Scantian, the Scaudian, the small round, and those formerly called must-apples, but now called honey-apples. It is thought that all these keep well in a dry and cool place, laid on straw. For this reason those who build fruit-houses are careful to let them have windows facing the north and open to the wind; but they have shutters, to keep the fruit from shrivelling after losing its juice, when the wind blows steadily. [2] And it is for this reason, too — to make it cooler — that they coat the ceilings, walls, and floors with marble cement. Some people even spread a dining-table in it to dine there; and, in fact, if luxury allows people to do this in a picture gallery, where the scene is set by art, why should they not enjoy a scene set by nature, in a charming arrangement of fruit? Provided always that you do not follow the example set by some, of buying fruit in Rome and carrying it to the country to pile it up in the fruit-gallery for a dinner-party. [3] Some think that apples keep quite well in the gallery if placed on boards on the cement, but others lay them on straw, or even on wool; that pomegranates are preserved by burying their stems in a jar of sand, and large and small quinces in hanging baskets; while, on the other hand, late Anician pears keep best when put down in boiled must. Some hold that boiled sorbs keep best when cut up and dried in the sun, like pears; and that sorbs are easily kept just as they are, wherever they are put, if the place is dry; that rape should be cut up and preserved in mustard, walnuts in sand. Pomegranates are also kept in sand if they are stored freshly gathered and ripe; green ones also, if you keep them on the branch, put them in a pot with no bottom, bury them in the ground, and seal the ends of the branches so that no outside air can reach them; such fruits will be taken out not only sound but even larger than they would ever be if they had hung on the tree.

LX.

De olivitate oleas esui optime condi scribit Cato orcites et puseas vel virides in muria vel in lentisco contusas. Orcites nigras aridas, sale si sint confriatae dies quinque et tum sale excusso biduum si in sole positae fuerint, manere idoneas solere: easdem sine sale in defrutum condi recte.

[60.1] “Of the olives, Cato writes that the table olives, the orcites, and the posea are best preserved either green or in brine, or, when bruised, in mastic oil. The black orcites, if they are covered with salt for five days after being dried, and then, after the salt has been shaken off, are exposed to the sun for two days, usually keep sound; and that the same varieties may be satisfactorily preserved unsalted in boiled must.

LXI.

Amurcam periti agricolae tam in doleis condunt quam oleum aut vinum. Eius conditio: cum expressa effluxit, quod statim de ea decoquuntur duae partes et refrigeratum conditur in vasa. Sunt item aliae conditiones, ut ea in qua adicitur mustum.

[61.1] “Experienced farmers store their amurca in jars, just as they do oil and wine. The method of preserving is: as soon as it flows out from the press, two-thirds of it is boiled away, and when it is cool it is stored in vessels. There are also other methods, such as that in which must is added.

LXII.

Quod nemo fructus condit, nisi ut promat, de eo quoque vel sexto gradu animadvertenda pauca. Promunt condita aut propterea quod sunt tuenda, aut quod utenda, aut quod vendunda. Ea quod dissimilia sunt inter se, aliut alio tempore tuendum et utendum.

[62.1] “As no one stores the products of the farm except to bring them forth later, a few remarks must be made about this, the sixth step. Preserved things are brought out of storage because they are to be either protected or consumed or sold. As the three operations are for different purposes, the protecting and the consuming take place at different times.

LXIII.

Tuendi causa promendum id frumentum, quod curculiones exesse incipiunt. Id enim cum promptum est, in sole ponere oportet aquae catinos, quod eo conveniunt, ut ipsi se necent, curculiones. Sub terra qui habent frumentum in iis quos vocant sirus, quod cum periculo introitur recenti apertione, ita ut quibusdam sit interclusa anima, aliquanto post promere, quam aperueris, oportet. Far, quod in spicis condideris per messem et ad usus cibatus expedire velis, promendum hieme, ut in pistrino pisetur ac torreatur.

[63.1] “Grain which the weevil has begun to infest should be brought out for protection. When it is brought out, bowls of water should be placed around in the sun; the weevils will congregate at these and drown themselves. Those who keep their grain under ground in the pits which they call sirus should remove the grain some time after the pits are opened, as it is dangerous to enter them immediately, some people having been suffocated while doing so. Spelt which you have stored in the ear at harvest-time and wish to prepare for food should be brought out in winter, so that it may be ground in the mill and parched.

LXIV.

Amurca cum ex olea expressa, qui est umor aquatilis, ac retrimentum conditum in vas fictile. Id quidam sic solent tueri; diebus XV in eo quod est levissimum ac summum deflatum ut traiciant in alia vasa, et hoc isdem intervallis duodeciens sex mensibus proximis item faciant; cum id novissime, potissimum traiciant, cum senescit luna. Tum decocunt in ahenis leni igni, ad duas partes quaad redegerunt. Tum denique ad usum recte promitur.

[64.1] “Amurca, which is a watery fluid, after it is pressed from the olives is stored along with the dregs in an earthenware vessel. Some farmers use the following method for preserving it: After fifteen days the dregs which, being lighter, have risen to the top are blown off, and the fluid is turned into other vessels; this operation is repeated at the same intervals twelve times during the next six months, the last cleansing being done preferably when the moon is waning. Then they boil in copper vessels over a slow fire until it is reduced to two-thirds its volume. It is then fit to be drawn off for use.

LXV.

Quod mustum conditur in dolium, ut habeamus vinum, non promendum dum fervet, neque etiam cum processit ita, ut sit vinum factum. Si vetus bibere velis, quod non fit, antequam accesserit annus; anniculum prodit. Si est vero ex eo genere uvae, quod mature coacescat, ante vindemiam consumi aut venire oportet. Genera sunt vini, in quo Falerna, quae quanto pluris annos condita habuerunt, tanto, cum prompta, sunt fructuosiora.

[65.1] “Must which is stored in jars to make wine should not be brought out while it is fermenting, and not even after the fermentation has gone far enough to make wine. If you wish to drink old wine (and wine is not old enough until a year has been added to its age), it should be brought out when it is a year old. But if it is of the variety of grapes that sours quickly, it must be used up or sold before the next vintage. There are brands of wine, the Falernian for instance, which are the more valuable when brought out the more years you have kept them in store.

LXVI.

Oleas albas quas condideris, novas si celeriter promas, propter amaritudinem respuit palatum; item nigras, nisi prius eas sale maceraris, ut libenter in os recipiantur.

[66.1] “If you take out the preserved white olives soon, while they are fresh, the palate will reject them because of the bitter taste; and likewise the black olives, unless you first steep them in salt so that they may be taken into the mouth without distaste.

LXVII.

Nucem iuglandem et palmulam et ficum Sabinam quanto citius promas, iucundiore utare, quod vetustate ficus fit pallidior, palmula cariosior, nux aridior.

[67.1] “As for the walnut, the date, and the Sabine fig, the sooner you use them the better the flavour; for with time the fig gets too pale, the date too soft, and the nut too dry.

LXVIII.

Pensilia, ut uvae, mala et sorba, ipsa ostendunt, quando ad usum oporteat promi, quod colore mutato et contractu acinorum, si non dempseris ad edendum, ad abiciendum descensurum se minitantur. Sorbum maturum mite conditum citius promi oportet; acerbum enim suspensum lentius est, quod prius domi maturitatem adsequi vult, quam nequit in arbore, quam mitescat.

[68.1] “Fruits that are hung, such as grapes, apples, and sorbs, themselves indicate the proper time for consumption; for by the change of colour and the shrivelling of the skin they put you on notice that if you do not take them down to eat they will come down to be thrown away. If you store sorbs which are ripe and soft, you must use them quickly; those hung up when sour may wait, for they mean, before ripening, to reach in the house a degree of maturity which they cannot reach on the tree.

LXIX.

Messum far promendum hieme in pistrino ad torrendum, quod ad cibatum expeditum esse velis; quod ad sationem, tum promendum, cum segetes maturae sunt ad accipiendum. Item quae pertinent ad sationem, suo quoque tempore promenda. Quae vendenda, videndum quae quoque tempore oporteat promi; alia enim, quae manere non possunt, antequam se commutent, ut celeriter promas ac vendas; alia, quae servari possunt, ut tum vendas, cum caritas est. Saepe enim diutius servata non modo usuram adiciunt, sed etiam fructum duplicant, si tempore promas.

Cum haec diceret, venit libertus aeditumi ad nos flens et rogat ut ignoscamus, quod simus retenti, et ut ei in funus postridie prodeamus. Omnes consurgimus ac simul exclamamus, ‘Quid? in funus? quod funus? quid est factum?’ Ille flens narrat ab nescio quo percussum cultello concidisse, quem qui esset animadvertere in turba non potuisse, sed tantum modo exaudisse vocem, perperam fecisse. Ipse cum patronum domum sustulisset et pueros dimisisset, ut medicum requirerent ac mature adducerent, quod potius illut administrasset, quam ad nos venisset, aecum esse sibi ignosci. Nec si eum servare non potuisset, quin non multo post animam efflaret, tamen putare se fecisse recte. Non moleste ferentes descendimus de aede et de casu humano magis querentes, quam admirantes id Romae factum, discedimus omnes.

[69.1] “The part of the spelt harvest which you wish to have ready for food should be taken out in winter to be roasted at the mill; while the part reserved for seed should be taken out when the land is ready to receive it. With regard to seed in general, each kind should be taken out at its proper time. As to the crops intended for market, care must be used as to the proper time for taking out each; thus you should take out and sell at once those which do not stand storage before they spoil, while you should sell those which keep well when the price is high. For often products which have been stored quite a long time will not only pay interest on the storage, but even double the profit if they are marketed at the right time.”

[2] While he was speaking the sacristan’s freedman runs up to us with tears in his eyes and begs us to pardon him keeping us so long, and asks us to go to a funeral for him the next day. We spring to our feet and cry out in chorus: “What? To a funeral? What funeral? What has happened?” Bursting into tears, he tells us that his master had been stabbed with a knife by someone, and had fallen to the ground; that in the crowd he could not tell who it was, but had only heard a voice saying that a mistake had been made. [3] As he had carried his old master home and sent the servants to find a surgeon and bring him with all speed, he hoped he might be pardoned for attending to his duty rather than coming to us; and though he had not been able to keep him from breathing his last a few moments later, he thought that he had acted rightly. We had no fault to find with him, and walking down from the temple we went our several ways, rather blaming the mischances of life than being surprised that such a thing had occurred in Rome.