CADWALADER, GEORGE (1803–1879). In March 1847, Brig. Gen. George Cadwalader, a native of Pennsylvania, led a relief force to Brazos Santiago (q.v.) to strengthen the American position in the lower Rio Grande Valley. He then shifted his brigade to Veracruz (q.v.) and in June 1847 carried out a successful operation along the National Highway (q.v.) to Jalapa (q.v.). After combating Mexican guerrilla (q.v.) forces to the west of Jalapa, he joined Gen. Gideon Pillow (q.v.) in his march to Puebla (q.v.), thus bringing much needed replacement troops to Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.). During the operations in the Valley of Mexico, Cadwalader’s brigade played important roles in the battles of Contreras and Churubusco (q.v.) and the battle of Molino del Rey (q.v.). The general also participated in the move against the center of Mexico City following the capture of Chapultepec Castle (q.v.).
CAHUENGA, CONVENTION OF. A document was signed at Rancho Cahuenga, California, on December 13, 1846, whereby the Californio (q.v.) forces surrendered to Lt. John C. Frémont (q.v.). This document came to be known as the Convention of Cahuenga.
CALDERON DE LA BARCA, MARQUESA DE (1806–1882). Frances Erskine Inglis was born in Scotland, grew up in Boston, Massachusetts, and married the Spanish diplomat Angel Calderón de la Barca, who was appointed ambassador to Mexico. Known as “Fanny,” Mme. Calderón de la Barca traveled with her husband to Mexico in late 1839 and remained until 1842; her keen observations serve as a most useful background to events leading to war between Mexico and the United States.
CALHOUN, JOHN C. (1782–1850). Sen. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina was a strong advocate of states’ rights and author of the doctrine of nullification. As secretary of state in the administration of Pres. John Tyler, Calhoun played a significant role in the annexation of Texas to the United States, being accused of doing so for the expansion of slavery. When James K. Polk (q.v.) came to the presidency, Calhoun, although a member of the Democratic party, was often in opposition to the administration. He attempted to delay the declaration of war, opposed the invasion of central Mexico, and spoke against the annexation of territory in which cultural and racial compositions were markedly different from those in the United States.
CALIFORNIA. Many of the proponents of Manifest Destiny saw in California the primary target for U.S. expansion. President Polk (q.v.) made its annexation one of the objectives of his administration, and in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.), the vast region on the Pacific coast was ceded to the United States by Mexico. The area of Baja California (q.v.), however, remained in Mexico’s possession.
CALIFORNIOS. The residents of California at the time of the war between the United States and Mexico were highly independent and aloof from the controls of Mexico City. They were known as Californios.
CALLENDAR, FRANKLIN D. (1816–1882). Lt. Franklin D. Callendar was an artillery officer under the command of Gen. Gideon J. Pillow (q.v.), who saw important action in the battle of Contreras (q.v.) and was wounded in the course of the battle.
CAMARGO, TAMAULIPAS. Camargo, located on the right bank of the San Juan River, just above its confluence with the Rio Grande (q.v.), had approximately 3,000 inhabitants in 1846. Largely because of its accessibility to shallow-draft steamers, the town was selected by Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) as the key supply point in his campaign against Monterrey (q.v.). Gen. William Worth (q.v.) occupied the town on July 14 and 15, 1846, and Taylor shifted his headquarters there on August 8. By the beginning of the campaign against Monterrey, over 6,000 men were camped in the hot and unhealthy region, plagued by bugs, ants and other “critters.” Continuing as an important supply depot along the line of communication from the mouth of the Rio Grande to Monterrey, Camargo came to be recognized as a “graveyard” for many of the Americans who stopped there.
CAMPBELL, REUBEN C. Lt. Reuben C. Campbell of the Second Dragoons was ambushed by a Mexican guerrilla (q.v.) force under Mucho Martinos on November 2, 1847, at Agua Fria, near Marín (q.v.) on the Rio Grande (q.v.).
CAMPBELL, ROBERT B. Robert B. Campbell was U.S. consul in Havana during the war and sent reports to Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.) relating to the scheme of Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) to pass through the blockade (q.v.) to return to power in Mexico.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM BOWEN (1807–1867). Col. William B. Campbell was commander of the First Tennessee Volunteer Regiment during the battle of Monterrey (q.v.) and carried out an effective attack against the Mexican position known as La Tenería. He was a staunch defender of the volunteers, denouncing those who gave all credit in the war to regular forces.
CAMPUZANO, ANTONIO (1810–1866). Antonio Campuzano fought with Mexico against the Texas revolt, and as a major he was assigned to Sinaloa and Sonora in 1841. Promoted to colonel, Campuzano was the Mexican commandant at Guaymas (q.v.) on the coast of Sonora at the time of the attack against that city by Commo. Samuel F. DuPont (q.v.) on October 7, 1846. Because of the continuing pressure of the American blockade (q.v.), Campuzano eventually abandoned his position in April 1848.
CANAL Y CASTILLO, MANUEL DE LA. Gen. Manuel de la Canal y Castillo took command of the port of Mazatlán (q.v.) on June 13, 1848, following the ratification of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.).
CANALES, ANTONIO (d. 1852). In 1839, Antonio Canales initiated a revolt against central Mexican authority in the state of Tamaulipas, recruiting an army including both Mexicans and Anglo-Americans. In 1840, Canales controlled much of the region of northeastern Mexico, proclaiming it to be the Republic of Rio Grande. Later that year, he came to terms with Pres. Anastasio Bustamante (q.v.), thus ending the dream of a separate republic. After the annexation of Texas by the United States, however, the caudillo negotiated with Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.)—then at Corpus Christi—relating to the establishment of a separate nation in northern Mexico, but the American commander rejected this proposal. With the outbreak of the war, Canales assumed the title of brigadier general over an irregular cavalry force that operated throughout much of 1846 and 1847 between Matamoros (q.v.) and Point Isabel (q.v.). His guerrilla operations along the Rio Grande continued after the fall of Monterrey (q.v.) and the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.), constantly threatening the supply line of General Taylor’s army. After the war, Canales renewed his separatist and regional schemes in the northeastern region of Mexico. In 1851, he was governor of Tamaulipas and continued to play a role in regional politics until his death the following year.
CANALIZO, VALENTIN (1794–1850). Having served briefly as president of Mexico in 1844, Maj. Gen. Valentín Canalizo was appointed minister of war and marine in 1846–1847. As Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) marched inland from Veracruz (q.v.), Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) named Canalizo commander of the Mexican Army of the East (q.v.), with headquarters at Jalapa (q.v.). The general was placed in overall command of the defensive position at Cerro Gordo (q.v.) but was replaced after the arrival of Santa Anna on the scene of battle. Canalizo did, however, remain in command of the Mexican cavalry forces for that action.
CANO Y CANO, JUAN CRISOSTOMO (1815–1847). Juan Crisóstomo Cano y Cano was born in Yucatán but at age three was sent to New York to be educated. He returned to Mexico as a military engineer and worked on a number of fortifications throughout the country. As a lieutenant colonel, he advised Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) relating to the defensive position at Cerro Gordo (q.v.), warning that the general must take precaution to protect his left flank. Cano y Cano later prepared fortifications at El Piñón, Churubusco (q.v.), and Chapultepec (q.v.). He participated in the battles of Molino del Rey (q.v.) and Chapultepec (q.v.), being killed in the latter action.
CARABAJAL, JOSE MARIA. A Mexican political leader and military officer educated in the United States, Col. José María Carabajal was involved in schemes to separate northeastern Mexico from the central government. On several occasions he attempted to reach an independent settlement with the United States, thus weakening the efforts of Mexican federal authorities.
CARABAJAL, RAFAEL. After Maj. Antonio Ponce de León was wounded at the battle of Brazito (q.v.) (December 25, 1846), Capt. Rafael Carabajal took command of the Mexican force against Col. Alexander Doniphan (q.v.) and led his army in retreat.
CARMEN, CAMPECHE. The port of Carmen, in the Gulf Coast state of Campeche, was neutralized at the beginning of the war by a movement in Yucatán (q.v.) against the central Mexican government. It became an important source of fresh fruits and vegetables for the American blockading squadron. On December 21, 1846, Commo. Matthew C. Perry (q.v.) seized Carmen to prevent trade with Mexican ports to the west but later withdrew. With the resumption of that trade, Commodore Perry once again took possession of the town on May 17, 1847, and established a military government to control contraband.
CARNERO PASS. Carnero Pass is some six miles south of Buena Vista (q.v.), on the road from San Luis Potosí (q.v.) to Saltillo (q.v.). It was used by Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) as his last staging area before the attack against the army of Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) at Angostura (q.v.) on February 22, 1847. See also BUENA VISTA, BATTLE OF.
CARPENDER, EDWARD W. Edward W. Carpender, commander of the brig USS Truxtun that grounded on a reef off the Mexican port of Tuxpan (q.v.), was forced to surrender to Mexican authorities on August 17, 1846. He and members of his crew were later exchanged for Mexican prisoners of war who had been captured at Resaca de la Palma (q.v.).
CARRASCO, JOSE MARIA (1813–1851). Col. José María Carrasco was commander of the Mexican Second Regiment at the battles of Palo Alto (q.v.) and Resaca de la Palma (q.v.). He then commanded the Querétaro Battalion during the battle of Monterrey (q.v.). After the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.), Carrasco was prominent in the wars against Indian groups in northwestern Mexico.
CARRICITOS, RANCHO DE. On April 25, 1846, the small force of Capt. Seth B. Thornton (q.v.) was ambushed at the Rancho de Carricitos on the north bank of the Rio Grande (q.v.). Eleven Americans were killed, 6 wounded, and 46 captured, including Thornton himself. Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.) used this event in his call for a declaration of war against Mexico “for the spilling of American blood on American soil.”
CARSON, CHRISTOPHER (KIT) (1809–1868). The famous frontier scout and Indian fighter Kit Carson assisted Lt. John C. Frémont (q.v.) in his mysterious expedition in California. He later served as a guide for Gen. Stephen W. Kearny (q.v.) in his march from New Mexico to California, beginning October 6, 1846.
CASA MATA. The Casa Mata, a large stone building some 500 yards west of the Molino del Rey (q.v.), was heavily defended against the American attacking army on September 8, 1847. Gen. William Worth’s (q.v.) division attacked the position after only a short artillery bombardment. Although successful in seizing the position, Worth’s army suffered extensive casualties: 116 dead and 671 wounded. The action at Casa Mata was a part of the battle of Molino del Rey. See also MOLINO DEL REY, BATTLE OF.
CASEY, SILAS (1807–1882). Capt. Silas Casey was the leader of a storming party of 265 men during the battle of Chapultepec (q.v.).
CASS, LEWIS (1782–1866). A Democratic senator from Michigan, Lewis Cass was very influential with Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.) and supported the annexation of extensive territory in the course of the war with Mexico. In 1848, Cass received the Democratic nomination for president but was defeated by the Whig candidate, Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.).
CASTE WAR OF YUCATAN. In December 1846 an adventurer named Juan Vázquez raised an army of Mayan Indians in southern Yucatán (q.v.) and on January 15, 1847, assaulted the town of Valladolid, killing many of the white citizens. Mayan leaders such as Cecilio Chi (q.v.) and Jacinto Pat called for a war of extermination against all Europeans, and by May 1848, the Indians occupied four-fifths of the peninsula in an uprising called the Caste War. Gov. Miguel Barbachano (q.v.) prepared to abandon Mérida, and Yucatecan agent Justo Sierra suggested to Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.) that the United States annex his state. The offer was refused. See also “ALL OF MEXICO” MOVEMENT.
CASTILLO Y LANZAS, JOAQUIN M. DE (1801–1878). Born in Jalapa, Veracruz, educated in England and Spain, Joaquín M. de Castillo y Lanzas served as Mexican minister to the United States at the time of the Texas revolt. He was later foreign minister at the time of the mission of John Slidell (q.v.) to Mexico. On March 12, 1846, Castillo y Lanzas notified Slidell that he would not be received by the Mexican government. This failure of diplomatic efforts led directly to the outbreak of armed conflict on the Rio Grande (q.v.) and the formal declaration of war. Castillo y Lanzas was also an accomplished poet and made the first translation in Mexico of the works of Lord Byron.
CASTRO, JOSE MARIA. At the beginning of 1846, Brig. Gen. José María Castro was the Mexican commander in California. Controlling the port of Monterey (q.v.) and surrounding territory, he virtually ignored the authority of Gov. Pío Pico (q.v.) in Los Angeles (q.v.). In March 1846, Castro forced Lt. John C. Frémont (q.v.) to retire to Oregon (q.v.). With news of the declaration of war between the United States and Mexico and the uprising of pro-American forces in Sonoma, however, General Castro abandoned Monterey and joined Governor Pico at Los Angeles. Commo. Robert F. Stockton (q.v.) moved against Castro, demanding that his army surrender to U.S. controls. Castro declared his intention to oppose the demand on August 10, 1846, but, aware of the superior force against him, abandoned southern Upper California for Sonora, accompanied by Governor Pico.
CASTRO, MAURICIO. When Gov. Francisco Palacio Mirranda took steps to surrender to the United States in February 1847, Mauricio Castro headed a rebellion in Baja California (q.v.), which rejected that move. In April of 1848, however, Castro’s small force was defeated by Lt. Col. Henry S. Burton (q.v.).
CATANA, MASSACRE OF (February 10, 1847). The Catana Massacre took place near Agua Nueva (q.v.) when elements of the Arkansas volunteers opened fire on Mexican civilians suspected of being involved in the murder of one of their comrades. Following the event, Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) ordered the two companies involved to return to the mouth of the Rio Grande, but that order was later canceled.
CEBOLLETA, NEW MEXICO. Cebolleta was a settlement on the northern frontier of New Mexico where Gen. Stephen W. Kearny (q.v.) met with Navajo (q.v.) leaders in October 1846 in an effort to bring an end to fighting. Kearny’s efforts were successful, at least in the short run.
CENOBIO, MARIANO. Col. Mariano Cenobio headed Mexican guerrilla forces in the state of Veracruz (q.v.) following the landing by Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) in March 1847. Based at his hacienda of San Juan, Cenobio disrupted the American lines of communication, but his effectiveness was hampered by his quarrel with Celedonio Dómeco Jarauta (q.v.), a Roman Catholic priest who commanded another guerrilla army in the same region.
CENTRALISTS. Following Mexican independence in 1821, a major problem arose between those elements that favored a highly centralized government based in Mexico City (q.v.) and factions that insisted upon a federalized structure along the lines of the United States. Although many centralists were conservative and favored a close alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, the situation was made more complex by the presence of many specific interest groups, including the professional military officers. Mexican efforts to oppose the U.S. invasion were often disrupted by the constant internal bickering, in part due to the conflict between centralists and federalists. See also MODERADOS and PUROS.
CENTRE DIVISION. On June 11, 1846, Brig. Gen. John E. Wool (q.v.) was ordered by Secretary of War William Marcy (q.v.) to organize a military force to move against the important Mexican city of Chihuahua (q.v.). Designated as the Centre Division but called the Army of Chihuahua, it was separate from Gen. Zachary Taylor’s (q.v.) Army of Occupation (q.v.) and was formed in San Antonio, Texas (q.v.), during the summer of 1846. Although its original objective was Chihuahua, Wool soon realized that it was not practical to march over the very difficult desert region to that location. He requested permission to move to Parras, Coahuila (q.v.), and the Centre Division became an important part of the American force that met Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) at the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.) in late February 1847. See also ARMY OF CHIHUAHUA, BUENA VISTA, BATTLE OF.
CERRALVO, NUEVO LEON. The division of Brig. Gen. William J. Worth (q.v.) occupied Cerralvo, a settlement of 1,800 inhabitants on the route from Camargo (q.v.) to Monterrey (q.v.), on August 25, 1846. A well-watered town with a delightful climate, Cerralvo served as an important station during the march of Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) from Camargo to Monterrey. Taylor departed the attractive little town on September 11, 1846, but it continued to be important in the supply route between the Rio Grande (q.v.) and Monterrey.
CERRO FRIJOLES, CHIHUAHUA. Cerro Frijoles (“Bean Hill”) was the site of a Mexican fortification just south of the Sacramento River in Chihuahua and was one of the positions attacked by Col. Alexander Doniphan (q.v.) in the course of the battle of Sacramento (q.v.) (February 28, 1847).
CERRO GORDO, VERACRUZ. The village of Cerro Gordo is a small settlement on the National Highway (q.v.) between Veracruz (q.v.) and Jalapa (q.v.), near the hacienda of El Encero (q.v.). El Telégrafo (q.v.), a prominent mountain just east of the town, also called “Cerro Gordo,” was selected by Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) as the primary defensive position against the invading army of Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) in April 1847. See also CERRO GORDO, BATTLE OF.
CERRO GORDO, BATTLE OF (April 17–18, 1847). Anxious to escape the unhealthy coastal region following the capture of Veracruz (q.v.), Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) initiated his march along the National Highway (q.v.) to the interior of Mexico on April 2, 1847. By April 11, his lead division, commanded by Brig. Gen. David Twiggs (q.v.), reached the small settlement of Plan del Rio (q.v.) at the foot of a steep incline that led to the village of Cerro Gordo (q.v.), five miles to the west. Twiggs made immediate preparations to attack the Mexican force blocking his path.
Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna’s (q.v.) Army of the East (q.v.), with approximately 12,000 men and 19 artillery pieces, established its primary defensive position on Telegraph Hill (q.v.) (called Cerro Gordo by most U.S. accounts). The position was extremely strong; Lt. Col. Manuel M. Robles (q.v.) fortified several positions on El Telégrafo and nearby Atalaya (q.v.) and placed artillery batteries to guard the road from Plan del Rio. Although Santa Anna expressed optimism, the Mexican troops were ill trained, and their morale was very low.
Lt. P. G. T. Beauregard (q.v.) suggested a flanking attack against Atalaya, but General Twiggs prepared to make a frontal assault against the primary Mexican position early on the morning of April 13. He delayed the movement to give the newly arrived units time to rest before the attack. Then Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson (q.v.) ordered a further delay, awaiting the arrival of General Scott. Scott reached Plan del Rio on April 14 and ordered additional reconnaissance of the enemy position. This was carried out by the engineers under the supervision of Capt. Robert E. Lee (q.v.), who used the previous intelligence of Beauregard, then explored a path to the Mexican left that would give access to Atalaya, allowing El Telégrafo to be flanked. Scott accepted that recommendation and on April 17, 1847, launched the attack. General Twiggs pushed along the path that had been marked by Lee and then sent a brigade under Lt. Col. William S. Harney (q.v.) against the Mexican position on Atalaya; some of Harney’s men reached El Telégrafo but were forced back by heavy Mexican fire. At the end of the day Santa Anna, pleased that his guns had repelled the American attack, sent reinforcements to strengthen the center of his line. At the same time, Twiggs ordered artillery emplacements to be prepared on Atalaya, anticipating a continuation of the battle on the following day.
On the second day of the battle (April 18) at 0700 hours, General Harney’s brigade moved from Atalaya against the defensive emplacements on El Telégrafo, this time with success. In the close fighting, Brig. Gen. Ciriaco Vásquez (q.v.), one of Santa Anna’s most able officers, was killed, and many of his troops retreated in disorder. By 1000 hours, additional fresh troops under Brig. Gen. James Shields (q.v.) and Brig. Gen. Bennet Riley (q.v.) pushed to the rear of Atalaya and Telégrafo and struck Santa Anna’s camp at the village of Cerro Gordo, also taking control of the National Road that ran west to Jalapa. With the exception of a blow against a Mexican artillery position well in front of El Telégrafo that was badly mismanaged by Maj. Gen. Gideon Pillow (q.v.), the attack went according to plan; within three hours Santa Anna’s army was in flight. The Mexican Army of the East was completely routed, and Santa Anna barely missed being captured before escaping to Orizaba (q.v.). Losses for the American army were 63 killed and 368 wounded, many of them among Pillow’s Tennessee volunteers. Scott’s victory at Cerro Gordo was a significant one, not only because it shattered the Mexican army but also because it allowed the American force to move to Jalapa, a beautiful city with food and water, located well above the dreaded coastal zone of yellow fever (q.v.).
CHALCO, LAKE. Lake Chalco was one of three large, shallow lakes in the Valley of Mexico (q.v.) at the time of the war, though today much of the area is no longer under water. In August 1847, Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) decided to avoid a frontal assault against the strong position of Santa Anna at El Peñón (q.v.) and moved east, then south around Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco (q.v.) to attack Mexico City from the south.
CHALCO, STATE OF MEXICO. Chalco was a small village to the east of Lake Chalco (q.v.), on the route selected by Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) on August 15, 1847, for a flanking movement to the south of Mexico City (q.v.).
CHAMBERLAIN, SAMUEL EMERY (1829–1908). Samuel Chamberlain was an enlisted participant in the war who served with Gen. John Wool’s Army of Chihuahua (q.v.) and participated in the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.). He is best known for his very colorful commentary on the war, its participants, and especially the beautiful señoritas he seemed to find at every town and ranch. His Confessions, published long after the end of the struggle, is often questioned by the serious historian, but Chamberlain’s social commentary and the delightful illustrations, published in Life magazine in 1957, have been widely circulated.
CHAPITA. Chapita was a Mexican spy employed by Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) during his occupation of Corpus Christi (q.v.) in August and September 1845.
CHAPLAINS, ROMAN CATHOLIC. Secretary of War William Marcy (q.v.) arranged for the appointment of several Roman Catholic chaplains to accompany the U.S. invasion forces in Mexico. This was in part to counter the charges of militant Protestantism being made by the Mexican government against the policy of Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.).
CHAPULTEPEC, BATTLE OF (September 13, 1847). During the truce after the battle of Churubusco (q.v.), Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) and his staff studied the various approaches to Mexico City (q.v.). The American army could strike from the south along one of the four causeways or could attack Chapultepec, thought to be a formidable defensive position to the west of the city. The castle, commanded by Maj. Gen. Nicolás Bravo (q.v.), had a force of only about 1,000 men, including a number of young cadets who refused to go home in the face of the enemy. Its defenses were further weakened when Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) shifted some of the artillery from the castle to other positions along his line.
After the battles of Casa Mata (q.v.) and Molino del Rey (q.v.) (September 8, 1847), a number of reconnaissances were carried out by Scott’s engineers. On September 11, 1847, the General in Chief convened a council of war to discuss the plan of action. Although most of the general officers spoke in favor of an attack from the south against the San Antonio Gate (q.v.), Lt. P. G. T. Beauregard (q.v.) strongly advocated the western approach, which included an attack on Chapultepec. General Scott, having earlier spoken in favor of such a plan, decided that Chapultepec would be the next key objective. To confuse Santa Anna, Gen. John Quitman’s (q.v.) troops advanced along the southern route against the village of Piedad but then moved under cover of darkness to Tacubaya (q.v.), just south of Chapultepec.
On September 12, 1847, General Scott directed an artillery bombardment against the castle, causing considerable destruction and inflicting heavy casualties on the small force commanded by General Nicolás Bravo (q.v.). Among the defenders were some 50 young cadets who refused to abandon the position. Santa Anna hesitated to send reinforcements, however, still expecting the primary attack to come along the southern causeways. On the following day, September 13, 1847, the assault was launched; Gen. Gideon Pillow’s (q.v.) volunteers, led by the brigade of Franklin Pierce (q.v.), moved from Molino del Rey (q.v.), through the swampy Cyprus grove, and against the western side of Chapultepec. At the same time, forces under the command of General Quitman attacked from the south. Despite delays in providing the scaling ladders, the American troops, including a small detachment of Marines, mounted the walls and seized the castle.
The fall of Chapultepec opened the way for Scott’s forces to push into the Mexican capital. More than any other single action in the war, this battle at the “Halls of Montezuma,” came to be identified with the U.S. victory. At the same time, the bravery of the young cadets at Chapultepec, the niños héroes (q.v.), provided a symbol for Mexican national pride and, in the long run, a step toward national unity.
CHAPULTEPEC, CASTLE OF. Chapultepec (“Place of the Grasshopper”) is a fortified castle located on an imposing hill, approximately 200 feet above the valley floor, west of Mexico City. This wooded hill was occupied in the time of the Aztec Empire and later served as a residence for the viceroys of New Spain. At the time of the U.S. invasion, the castle was utilized as a military academy and dominated the western approaches to the city. It became the site of one of the key battles in the campaign of Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) in the Valley of Mexico. See also CHAPULTEPEC, BATTLE OF.
CHASE, ANNA. Anna Chase, a British citizen and wife of Franklin Chase, U.S. consul at Tampico (q.v.), remained at the port city following the departure of her husband. On October 27–28, 1846, she informed Commo. David Conner (q.v.) that Mexican forces had abandoned the port. As American troops occupied Tampico, they were greeted by the Stars and Stripes hoisted by Mrs. Chase.
CHASE, FRANKLIN. Franklin Chase was U.S. consul at Tampico (q.v.) at the time of the outbreak of hostilities and left his post at that time.
CHAVEZ, PABLO (d. 1847). Pablo Chávez was one of the principal organizers of the rebellion in Taos, New Mexico (q.v.), against the authority of the United States. This uprising was crushed February 3, 1847, and Chávez was killed during the fighting.
CHI, CECILIO. Cecilio Chi, leader of a militant Maya faction in Yucatán (q.v.), was involved in the outbreak of the Caste War (q.v.) against Yucatecan state authorities in 1847. See also CASTE WAR OF YUCATAN.
CHIHUAHUA, ARMY OF. Gen. John Wool (q.v.) organized a military force at San Antonio, Texas (q.v.), in the summer of 1846. The primary objective at that time was the capture of Chihuahua (q.v.), and Wool’s came to be called the Army of Chihuahua. The original mission was abandoned, however, and Wool joined Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) in time to play an important part in the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.).
CHIHUAHUA, CHIHUAHUA. Chihuahua is the capital city of the northwestern Mexican state of the same name, located 200 miles south of El Paso, Texas (q.v.). In 1846, it had a population of 14,000 and had an important trade connection with St. Louis, Missouri, via the Camino Real and Santa Fe Trail (q.v.). An expedition to capture Chihuahua, considered to be an important military objective, was organized under the command of Gen. John E. Wool (q.v.) in June 1846. That army was diverted to the region of Saltillo (q.v.), however, and played an important role in the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.). The city was occupied by Col. Alexander Doniphan (q.v.) on March 1, 1847, following the battle of Sacramento (q.v.). Doniphan left, but in March 1848, another regiment of Missouri volunteers marched from El Paso under Col. Sterling Price (q.v.), occupying Chihuahua for a second time.
CHILDS, THOMAS (1796–1853). Lt. Col. Thomas Childs commanded an artillery battalion in the first brigade at the battle of Palo Alto (q.v.). His troops, known as the red-legged infantry because of the red stripes on their trousers, played an important role in the battle for Monterrey (q.v.), especially in the capture of Independence Hill (q.v.). Childs later served with Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.), commanding the garrison at Jalapa (q.v.), and then that at Puebla (q.v.) during the course of the American campaign in the Valley of Mexico. Following the surrender of Mexico City (q.v.), General Santa Anna (q.v.) attacked Puebla, placing the small force commanded by Colonel Childs under siege from September 13 to October 12, 1847. The Mexican commander, Brig. Gen. Joaquín Rea (q.v.), demanded the surrender of the city, but Childs refused, thus holding control of that strategic point until reinforced by Gen. Joseph Lane (q.v.).
CHINA, NUEVO LEON. A small village east of Monterrey, Nuevo León (q.v.), China served as a base for Mexican guerrilla (q.v.) operations throughout much of the war.
CHURCHILL, SYLVESTER (d. 1862). Col. Sylvester Churchill was commander of two Illinois regiments at San Antonio (q.v.) following the departure of Gen. John Wool (q.v.) for the Rio Grande (q.v.) in August 1846. He joined Wool in the march to Monclova (q.v.), Parras (q.v.), and eventually the region of Saltillo (q.v.). Churchill played an effective role during the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.). He was also a member of the court-martial panel that tried Capt. John C. Frémont (q.v.) in November 1847.
CHURCHILL, WILLIAM H. (1819–1847). Lt. William H. Churchill was an artillery officer under Capt. Samuel Ringgold (q.v.) and provided significant supporting fire for Gen. Zachary Taylor’s (q.v.) army during the battle of Palo Alto (q.v.).
CHURUBUSCO, BATTLE OF. See CONTRERAS AND CHURUBUSCO, BATTLES OF.
CHURUBUSCO, DISTRITO FEDERAL. In 1847, Churubusco was a small settlement south of Mexico City (q.v.) located on the Churubusco River, a sluggish stream flowing into the western end of Lake Xochimilco (q.v.). At the time of the American invasion, it was dominated by the Franciscan Convent of San Mateo (q.v.), occupied by some 1,500 men, including the San Patricio Battalion (q.v.). Today Churubusco is a part of the urban region of Mexico City, and the river has been covered by a wide avenue. The convent has been converted into a museum displaying a number of items related to foreign intervention in Mexico.
CIMARRON CUTOFF. The Cimarron Cutoff was a branch of the Santa Fe Trail (q.v.) that turned southwest from the Arkansas River near the present town of Cimarron, Kansas, to the Cimarron River, and eventually to Las Vegas, New Mexico. It was shorter and less mountainous, but Col. Stephen W. Kearny (q.v.) chose the longer route to Bent’s Fort (q.v.) because it had better forage and water for his army and the many accompanying animals.
CITADEL (Mexico City). Following the capture of Chapultepec Castle (q.v.) Gen. John A. Quitman (q.v.) pushed forward to the Belén Gate (q.v.), facing heavy fire from the troops of General Andrés Terrés (q.v.). As Quitman’s men reached the garita (q.v.), their progress was blocked by very heavy fire from a fortified position to the northeast known as the ciudadela (citadel). Quitman did not seize that fortified position, but on the following day it was surrendered as a part of the general surrender of the city to Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.). The citadel played an important role in the era of the Mexican Revolution after 1910 and today is utilized as a museum and library.
CITADEL (Monterrey, Nuevo León). As Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) initiated the battle of Monterrey (q.v.), one of the most important obstacles was a fortification that had been constructed on the foundation of an old church, just to the north of the city. Known as the ciudadela by the Mexican defenders, it came to be called the Black Fort (q.v.) because of its dark color. On September 21, 1846, General Taylor directed an attack against the position as a part of a general movement on the eastern area of Monterrey, in part to distract the attention of Gen. Pedro de Ampudia (q.v.) from the attack by Gen. William Worth (q.v.) to the west of the city. Although other strong points were taken by the American assault, the citadel did not fall. With the general surrender of Monterrey on September 23, 1846, however, the Mexican flag over the strong point was lowered. See also MONTERREY, BATTLE OF.
CLARK, MERIWETHER LEWIS (1809–1881). Maj. Meriwether Lewis Clark was commander of the Missouri volunteer artillery in Gen. Stephen Kearny’s (q.v.) Army of the West (q.v.). In February 1847, Clark joined Col. Alexander Doniphan (q.v.) in his march from El Paso (q.v.) to Chihuahua (q.v.). His artillery force played a key role in the victory over the Mexican army in the battle of Sacramento (q.v.), February 28, 1847.
CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888). James Freeman Clarke was an abolitionist clergyman who spoke at an antiwar rally at Faneuil Hall in Boston, February 1847, along with Charles Sumner. See also ABOLITIONISTS.
CLARKE, NEWMAN S. (d. 1860). Following the fall of Veracruz (q.v.) on March 29, 1847, Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) reorganized his army. Col. Newman S. Clarke was assigned command of one of the two brigades in the regular division of Gen. William Worth (q.v.). During the battle of Churubusco (q.v.) he led his brigade from San Agustín (q.v.) to San Antonio and then assaulted the bridgehead over the Churubusco River, suffering very heavy casualties. Clarke also played a major role in the attack on the Casa Mata (q.v.), again with the loss of many of his men. He led an attack against Chapultepec Castle (q.v.) and into Mexico City (q.v.) via the San Cosmé Gate (q.v.).
CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810–1903). Capt. Cassius Marcellus Clay commanded a Kentucky cavalry unit that carried out a scouting mission south of Agua Nueva (q.v.) and Encarnación (q.v.) before the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.). Joining the force of Maj. Solon Borland (q.v.), Clay and his men were captured by Col. Miguel Andrade.
CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852). Henry Clay, distinguished senator from Kentucky, held many top offices in the U.S. government and was for many years leader of the Whig Party. He clashed with Pres. John Tyler over a number of issues, including policy toward Mexico and the annexation of Texas. When the Whigs nominated Clay for president in the election of 1844, he took a moderate position relating to the Texas question and was defeated by the Democratic candidate James K. Polk (q.v.). During the war with Mexico, Clay continued to serve in the Senate and was one of the harshest critics of President Polk, opposing extensive annexation of Mexican territory. In 1848, he lost the Whig presidential nomination to Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) but continued to play an important role in national politics.
CLAY, HENRY JR. (1811–1847). Lt. Col. Henry Clay, Jr., son of Sen. Henry Clay (q.v.), was the deputy commander of the Second Kentucky Volunteer Regiment in the campaign of northern Mexico and was killed in the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.).
CLAYTON, THOMAS (1777–1854). Thomas Clayton was a Whig senator from Delaware who cast one of the two votes against Pres. James K. Polk’s (q.v.) War Bill on May 13, 1846.
CLIFFORD, NATHAN (1803–1881). Nathan Clifford, attorney general in the cabinet of Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.), favored the annexation of an extensive part of Mexican territory. Clifford was a member of the commission sent to Mexico to seek ratification of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.) after it had been passed by the U.S. Senate. The commissions exchanged official ratification on May 30, 1848, in Querétaro (q.v.).
COAHUILA. The state of Coahuila in north-central Mexico was combined with Texas during the Spanish rule and the early period of Mexican independence into the single state of Coahuila y Tejas. Disputes relating to the capital of the combined state influenced the Anglo-American rebellion in Texas that resulted in its independence (1836). When Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) invaded northern Mexico, the capital of Coahuila was Saltillo (q.v.), some 60 miles west of Monterrey (q.v.). The battle of Buena Vista (q.v.), a key event in the struggle for northern Mexico, was fought south of Saltillo (February 22–23, 1847).
COLEGIO MILITAR. At the time of the invasion of the Valley of Mexico (q.v.) by the army of Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.), the Castle of Chapultepec (q.v.) served as a military school, the Colegio Militar. Among the defenders of the position were a number of young cadets, and, according to some accounts, six leaped to their deaths rather than surrender to the Americans. They came to be known as the niños héroes (q.v.).
COLLADO BEACH. Collado Beach, some two and one-half miles south of the city of Veracruz (q.v.), was recommended by Commo. David Conner (q.v.) as the best landing point for the invading army of Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.). See also VERACRUZ, VERACRUZ.
COLLINGWOOD. The British flagship HMS Collingwood departed from the Mexican port of Mazatlán (q.v.) on May 20, 1846, under the command of Rear Adm. Sir George F. Seymour (1787–1870). When he reached Monterey, California (q.v.), on July 23, Seymour made no attempt to block U.S. efforts to take control of that port and other positions along the Pacific coast.
COLLINS, JOHN L. John L. Collins, a Chihuahua trader who led a small party from that city to Saltillo (q.v.), delivered Col. Alexander Doniphan’s (q.v.) message to Gen. John Wool (q.v.) indicating that his Missouri volunteer force was available to assist in the campaign for northern Mexico. Collins carried out the 1,000-mile journey to Saltillo and back to Chihuahua (q.v.) in 32 days.
CONCEPCION, FORT. See FORT CONCEPCION.
CONDOR. The Mexican vessel Condor was destroyed in the port of Guaymas (q.v.) on October 6, 1846, by Comdr. Samuel F. DuPont (q.v.).
CONGRESS. Commo. Robert F. Stockton (q.v.) arrived in Monterey Bay, California (q.v.), on July 15, 1846, aboard the flagship USS Congress. The ship was involved in the military action along the California coast in the following months, supplying a number of landing parties to carry out operations ashore. In the fall of 1847, at the time of the capture of Mexico City, the Congress and other U.S. vessels occupied key ports on the Pacific coast, including Guaymas (q.v.) and Mazatlán (q.v.). See also BLOCKADE.
CONNER, DAVID E. (1792–1856). Commo. David E. Conner, commander of the Home Squadron (q.v.), was at Veracruz (q.v.) on May 3, 1846, when he received word of the declaration of a defensive war by the Mexican government. He moved with most of his vessels to Point Isabel (q.v.), near the mouth of the Rio Grande (q.v.). Reaching that point on May 8, 1846, Conner supported Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) along the Rio Grande line and cooperated with the army to cross into Mexico at Barita (q.v.).
Within a short time, Conner turned his major attention to the blockade (q.v.) of the Mexican coast from the Rio Grande to Yucatán (q.v.). Establishing his base at Antón Lizardo (q.v.), 12 miles south of Veracruz, the commodore blocked the major ports of entry throughout the Gulf. He was continually aware of dangers from sudden northers (q.v.) that threatened the ships and tropical diseases that plagued the men during the warm season. To break the monotony of the boring blockading duties, Conner conducted a number of raids against port cities, using light draft steamers to cross the shoals. Most of these efforts were unsuccessful, but, on November 14, 1846, he seized the port of Tampico (q.v.). Even before that move, he had advised Pres. James K. Polk (q.v.) that it would be possible to seize Veracruz and use it as a base to attack Mexico City. In early 1847, Conner and his naval force cooperated with Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) in organizing the invasion force against Veracruz and San Juan de Ulúa (q.v.). The landing of some 8,600 men at Collado Beach (q.v.) on March 9, 1847, has been recognized as one of the most successful amphibious operations in history, being carried out without the loss of a single life. Throughout the landing, Commodore Conner played a significant role. Ironically, he was replaced in command of the Home Squadron by Commo. Matthew C. Perry (q.v.) shortly after the successful operation. This was not due to any dissatisfaction with his role in the naval operations of the war but had been planned for several months before the actual change of command.
CONTRERAS, DISTRITO FEDERAL. In 1847, Contreras was a small village southwest of Mexico City, just to the west of the pedregal (q.v.). The battle fought at Padierna (q.v.), about a mile to the north, on August 20, 1847, was labeled by American soldiers and writers as the “Battle of Contreras,” though no action in the battle touched the settlement. Today Contreras retains some of the characteristics of a small Mexican town but is greatly affected by the urban expansion from the national capital. See also CONTRERAS AND CHURUBUSCO, BATTLES OF.
CONTRERAS AND CHURUBUSCO, BATTLES OF (August 20, 1847). The two intertwined battles that took place on August 20, 1847, marked the initial clash between Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) and Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) in the Valley of Mexico (q.v.). The first action, taking place early in the morning, was actually fought at Padierna (q.v.) and given that name by Mexican authorities, but it came to be called Contreras in the United States owing to a mistake related to the location of the village approximately two miles south of the struggle.
Following his victory over Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo (q.v.), General Scott advanced to Puebla (q.v.) but was then forced to delay his movement to Mexico City (q.v.) because many of his volunteers returned home at the end of their one-year enlistment. By August 7, 1847, however, new recruits increased the American army to over 10,000 men, and on that day Gen. David Twiggs (q.v.) led his division from Puebla, followed by Gen. William Worth (q.v.), Gen. John Quitman (q.v.), and Gen. Gideon Pillow (q.v.). Passing in the shadow of the magnificent Popocatépetl volcano and into the Valley of Anahuac without opposition, Scott’s army reached the village of Ayotla (q.v.), 25 miles from the heart of Mexico City (q.v.), on August 11.
Santa Anna returned to Mexico City after his crushing defeat at Cerro Gordo and was able to pull together a new force of some 30,000 to defend the capital, though many men were poorly trained and some officers were unreliable. Mexico City seemed ideally suited for a defensive stand; located in an elevated valley, it was guarded on the east and south by three large shallow lakes, Texcoco (q.v.), Chalco (q.v.), and Xochimilco (q.v.). Much of the rest of the surrounding terrain was soft, wet, and marshy. A series of causeways led through the lakes and across the marshlands, channeling any opposing force into a few narrow gateways, or garitas (q.v.). Santa Anna assumed that Scott would take the road northwest from Ayotla, that being the most direct route into the capital, and centered his defense on El Peñón (q.v.), a hill rising 450 feet out of the marshlands south of Texcoco. Gen. Nicolás Bravo (q.v.) concentrated a second force at Mexicalzingo (q.v.). Between those two strong points, Santa Anna placed the Army of the North (q.v.), commanded by his bitter rival, Gen. Gabriel Valencia (q.v.). The cavalry, for all practical purposes the personal army of Gen. Juan Alvarez (q.v.), was poised to strike Scott’s column on the march and to cut its communications.
With his army backed up along the road into Ayotla, General Scott was aware that he was in a vulnerable position. His engineers, led by Capt. James L. Mason (q.v.) and Capt. Robert E. Lee (q.v.), examined the route to El Peñón and reported that the road would support the advancing army but that an assault would most likely be very costly. The road from Ayotla to Mexicalzingo was also considered but dismissed. Scott wished to avoid a direct assault on either of the strongly held positions, realizing that his artillery and wagons would be confined to the narrow roadways. The General in Chief sought detailed reports on the route that cut south to the village of Chalco (q.v.), skirted Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco to the south, and joined the Acapulco Road (q.v.) at the village of San Agustín (q.v.). On August 14, Col. James Duncan (q.v.) of General Worth’s division examined the route and reported that the road was quite good and that there did not seem to be any major defensive barriers. With this report, Scott was ready to act; on the following day (August 15), he ordered Worth to initiate the move, and by August 16, the covering force at Ayotla, commanded by General Twiggs, pulled out of its blocking position and joined the march to the south, facing only light opposition from the cavalry of General Alvarez. This maneuver shifted the focus of Scott’s army to the village of San Agustín, some 10 miles south of the capital on the road to Acapulco.
Santa Anna was reluctant to abandon the magnificant fortifications at El Peñón but realized that he would have to shift his force of some 20,000 men to meet the challenge. On August 17, he moved his headquarters to the village of Churubusco and advanced Gen. Nicolás Bravo (q.v.) south to San Antonio (q.v.), about halfway between Churubusco and the American position at San Agustín. Gen. Francisco Pérez (q.v.) established his new position at Coyoacán (q.v.), a half-mile southwest of Churubusco. Santa Anna instructed General Valencia to center his army of some 6,000 men on the western end of the defensive line, near the town of San Angel (q.v.). On the 18th, Valencia advanced south from San Angel, establishing a strong position at Padierna (q.v.), protected by a steep ravine. Santa Anna ordered him to pull back, but the intrepid commander refused to listen. The Mexican defensive position, spread out to the south of Mexico City, was further strengthened by natural barriers; not only were the marshlands to the east of the Acapulco Road (q.v.) a special problem for the movement of the American army, but the pedregal (q.v.), an oval-shaped field of lava considered to be virtually impenetrable, seemed to prevent any flanking movements to the west of the approach from San Agustín.
On the morning of August 18, General Worth dispatched the dragoons of Col. William S. Harney (q.v.) north toward San Antonio, accompanied by members of the engineers. They not only encountered heavy fire but also reported that the marshes east of the road and the pedregal to the west would severely limit their ability to bring force to bear on the objective. Scott halted the advance. At about the same time, another probe was carried out to the west of San Agustín under Capt. Robert E. Lee and Lt. P. G. T. Beauregard (q.v.). From Zacatepec Mountain (q.v.), near the western edge of the pedregal, they observed Valencia’s troops around San Gerónimo (q.v.). Lee reported that the pedregal was very rugged, but with effort a road could be prepared to support the movement of both infantry and artillery.
On August 19, Scott instructed Gen. Gideon J. Pillow (q.v.) to advance to the west, supported by Gen. David Twiggs (q.v.). Lee and his engineers supervised a work detail to prepare a road across the southern edge of the pedregal, Pillow occupied Padierna and set up an artillery battery commanded by Capt. John B. Magruder (q.v.). The battery opened fire but then was forced to retreat by the heavier and more numerous guns of the Army of the North (q.v.). Pillow prepared to attack Valencia’s position; he ordered Brig. Gen. Persifor Smith (q.v.) to launch a frontal assault across the ravine at the middle of the Mexican defensive line and despatched Brig. Gen. Bennet Riley (q.v.) of Twiggs’s division to occupy the village of San Gerónimo. Riley advanced, encountering light opposition from Santa Anna’s forces, which had shifted to San Angel. Gen. Persifor Smith was unable to advance, shifted north and also moved toward San Gerónimo. With three brigades at the rear of Valencia’s position, Pillow was in a vulnerable position as Santa Anna moved with some 5,000 men to San Angel on the afternoon of the 19th. Valencia felt that he would be able to crush the Americans and initiated a premature celebration, at the same time failing to post adequate security.
During the night, General Riley informed General Smith of a ravine that would allow his troops to move to the rear of Valencia’s position without detection. Smith issued orders to move at 0300 hours the following morning and requested that General Scott provide a diversionary attack against Valencia’s front.
In the dark hours of the early morning of August 20, Smith directed General Riley and Brig. Gen. George Cadwalader (q.v.) to move south, leaving Brig. Gen. James Shields (q.v.) near San Gerónimo to guard against an attack by Santa Anna. At 0500 hours, the men under Brig. Gen. Franklin Pierce (q.v.) opened fire from the western edge of the Pedregal against Valencia’s front. By the time Riley and Cadwalader arrived at his rear, the sun had risen; they were not detected, however, until General Smith’s men rushed with fixed bayonets against the rear of the Mexican defensive position. In only 17 minutes, Valencia’s army fled in panic, rushing north toward San Angel; they were subject to flanking fire from General Shields’s brigade near San Gerónimo. Valencia lost 700 men killed and 850 captured, along with most of his artillery and supplies. By contrast, the attacking force of Persifor Smith lost only 60 killed and wounded.
The battle of Contreras was an overwhelming American victory; the way seemed open for a strike at the gates of the Mexican capital. Scott, though elated, was aware that he must not rush directly toward Tacubaya (q.v.), leaving General Worth’s division and his supply train at San Agustín exposed to the 20,000-man army that Santa Anna might still be able to amass. The General in Chief did not wish to allow the moment of Mexican confusion to go unexploited, however, and turned his attention on Churubusco, destined to be the scene of the second major battle of that very long day.
At midmorning, with the taste of victory still strong, General Scott decided to converge on his objective from two directions. He ordered General Worth to move from San Agustín, up the Acapulco Road against San Antonio, and then toward the bridge over the Churubusco River. At the same time, Scott would personally direct the victorious troops of Persifor Smith and David Twiggs in an advance through Coyoacán to Churubusco. Uncharacteristically, the General in Chief did not make a careful study of the targeted area and was unaware of the defensive forces being massed there.
Santa Anna, aware of the negative impact of the defeat of Valencia, moved quickly to reposition his remaining units. He ordered Brig. Gen. Francisco Pérez (q.v.) to strengthen the fortification (tête de pont) at the bridge across the Churubusco River. The second concentration at Churubusco was at the ancient Franciscan Convent of San Mateo (q.v.), where some 1,600 men with seven artillery pieces were commanded by Maj. Gen. Manuel Rincón (q.v.). One of the most seasoned units in the convent was the San Patricio Battalion (q.v.), made up in large part of deserters from the U.S. ranks. To further concentrate his strength, Santa Anna instructed Gen. Nicolás Bravo (q.v.) to pull back from San Antonio and ordered Gen. Antonio Gaona (q.v.) to shift his troops from Mexicalzingo (q.v.) to a position closer to Churubusco.
At about 1100 hours, General Worth sent Col. John Garland (q.v.) from San Agustín toward San Antonio, accompanied by the artillery battery of Col. James Duncan (q.v.). At the same time, he ordered Col. Newman S. Clarke (q.v.) to lead his brigade through the eastern edge of the pedregal to approach San Antonio from the flank. General Bravo had already initiated his withdrawal toward Churubusco when Garland entered San Antonio; the narrow, muddy road over which the Mexican army retreated was very crowded, creating chaos and confusion. Garland and Clarke joined forces and struck them before they could reach the tête de pont, scattering many of Bravo’s troops. The general was able, however, to reach the fortified position with a sizable percentage of his men, strengthening the position of General Pérez. General Worth posted Colonel Clarke’s brigade directly in front of the fortified bridgehead, then ordered the elite Sixth Infantry Regiment, commanded by Maj. Benjamin L. E. Bonneville (q.v.), to assault the position. Colonel Duncan attempted to support the attack, but his flying artillery was severely limited by the muddy road and surrounding marshlands. Bonneville’s initial thrust was repulsed, but after protracted hand-to-hand fighting and heavy casualties on both sides, the defenders began to retreat. The withdrawal was brought about in part by an attack led by Brig. Gen. James Shields (q.v.) from Coyoacán across the Churubusco River, to the rear of the Mexican defensive positions. That diversion created confusion in Mexican ranks and weakened the tête de pont. By 1600 hours, Garland and Lt. Col. C. F. Smith (q.v.) were able to cross the river and turn the Mexican line. Worth’s division suffered heavy casualties but by the end of the day could claim a victory.
The second central thrust against Churubusco was also initiated around 1100 hours on the morning of August 20. General Scott led the victorious forces that had routed Valencia at Padierna and marched to Coyoacán, arriving around 1200 hours. At that position the General in Chief was informed of the struggle by Worth and his forces at the bridgehead. He assumed that the convent was not strongly defended and ordered General Twiggs to assault the position, with Persifor Smith’s brigade in the lead, supported by Capt. Francis Taylor’s (q.v.) artillery battery; the attack got under way at about 1300 hours. General Riley advanced with the Second and Seventh Infantries against the right of the convent, supported by Captain Taylor’s battery. Rincón’s defense was highly disciplined and tenacious; his men held their fire until the Americans were within musket range and then opened with great effect. Twiggs fell back with heavy casualties.
The dash by General Shields from Coyoacán across the Churubusco River to the rear of the Mexican position that had assisted Worth in his fight for the bridgehead was equally important for Twiggs to the west. Rincón was called upon to shift some of his forces to meet the threat, weakening his defensive perimeter. Twiggs ordered Capt. E. B. Alexander (q.v.) of the Third Infantry to assault San Mateo from the south. He was able to push the weakened Mexican defenders to the inner building of the convent. Worth’s success at the tête de pont enabled General Scott to call upon Col. Duncan to direct his battery’s fire against the convent. After additional close combat, Rincón surrendered. The Americans took 1,259 prisoners, including 85 members of the San Patricio Battalion.
With the fall of both the bridgehead and the convent, the way into Mexico City seemed open; Colonel Harney pushed up the causeway, and Capt. Philip Kearny (q.v.) dashed against a Mexican battery at the Garita de San Antonio (q.v.). General Scott decided, however, that it would be best to halt his troops short of the city gates. His losses had been severe, with 133 killed and 865 wounded (nearly 12 percent of the American force that had been engaged). Santa Anna lost about 10,000 men in the two battles, which greatly weakened his ability to continue an active campaign. An uneasy truce was arranged, lasting until the following month when the final assault was to be launched by Scott and the invading army.
COOKE, PHILIP ST. GEORGE (1809–1895). Lt. Col. Philip St. George Cooke was involved with events in New Mexico as early as 1829 and joined the Army of the West (q.v.) to assist Gen. Stephen W. Kearny (q.v.) as a guide and adviser as well as a commander of dragoons (q.v.). As Kearny’s army pushed into New Mexico, Cooke, with an escort of 12 dragoons, accompanied James W. Magoffin (q.v.) to Santa Fe (q.v.). Reaching that city on August 12, 1846, Cooke delivered a letter from General Kearny to Gov. Manuel Armijo (q.v.), advising the New Mexican official against violence.
Cooke was later assigned the task of leading the Mormon Battalion (q.v.) to California and cutting a road on the way. He set out on October 19, 1846, and reached San Diego, California (q.v.), at the end of January 1847. He came to play an important role in the confused state of affairs in that region. Cooke later served as a major general in the U.S. Army during the Civil War.
CORCORAN, WILLIAM W. (1798–1888). William W. Corcoran was a Washington banker who convinced Quartermaster Gen. Thomas S. Jesup (q.v.) to transfer $2 million to New Orleans for military purchases relating to the war. Corcoran used a part of those funds for stock speculation.
CORONA, ANTONIO. Gen. Antonio Corona was chief of artillery in the army of Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) during the campaign in Coahuila (q.v.), including the battle of Buena Vista (q.v.) in February 1847.
CORPS OF ENGINEERS. See ENGINEERS.
CORPS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS. See ENGINEERS.
CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS. Established in 1838 as a ranch and trading post by Col. Henry L. Kinney (q.v.), Corpus Christi by 1845 was a small settlement on the southern shore of the Nueces River (q.v.), near its mouth. Although claimed as a part of Texas territory, Mexico considered the settlement below the Nueces to be a rightful part of the state of Tamaulipas. Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) reached the town in late July 1845 and used it as a training base for his Army of Occupation (q.v.), a force of some 4,000 men. The town itself grew to a population of around 1,000 to meet the needs of the troops. On March 8, 1846, the army set out from Corpus Christi for the Rio Grande (q.v.), some 150 miles to the south.
CORWIN, THOMAS (1794–1865). Thomas Corwin was a Whig senator from Ohio who opposed the annexation of major regions of Mexican territory and bitterly attacked the Polk (q.v.) administration for its unwarranted invasion of Mexico. He continued to oppose the annexation of major regions of Mexican territory.
COS, MARTIN PERFECTO DE (1800–1854). In 1835, Brig. Gen. Martín Perfecto de Cos commanded an army sent by the central Mexican government to subdue the Texas rebellion. Besieged by the Texans and forced to surrender, Cos agreed to withdraw to the right bank of the Rio Grande (q.v.), thereby giving credence to the Texans’ claim that the river marked their border with Mexico. During the war with the United States, General Cos surfaced in the spring of 1847 as the commander at Tuxpán (q.v.) at the time Commo. Matthew C. Perry (q.v.) led a force against that port. Overwhelmed by the assault, Cos withdrew his troops, and the river port fell to the Americans.
COUNCIL GROVE, KANSAS. The last stand of hardwood trees on the Santa Fe Trail (q.v.) for those moving west was on the Neosho River at the site of present-day Council Grove, Kansas. It was an important stop for Gen. Stephen W. Kearny (q.v.) as he moved along the trail in 1846, the first stage of his campaign for New Mexico (q.v.).
COUTO, JOSE BERNARDO (1803–1862). A prominent Mexican lawyer, José Bernardo Couto was a member of the commission appointed to negotiate a peace settlement with U.S. agent Nicholas Trist (q.v.). The talks eventually led to the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.). Following the war, Couto had a distinguished career as an author and promoter of the arts.
COYOACAN, DISTRITO FEDERAL. In 1847, Coyoacán was a small settlement in the Valley of Mexico on the road between San Antonio (q.v.) and Tacubaya (q.v.), north of the pedregal (q.v.). As the American army approached Mexico City, Coyoacán was defended by Gen. Francisco Pérez (q.v.) with 3,500 men, a situation that influenced conditions during the battles of Contreras and Churubusco (q.v.). Following the fall of Churubusco, Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) moved his headquarters to Coyoacán in preparation for the next phase of the attack against Mexico City.
CRIOLLA. The Criolla was a Mexican schooner involved with blockade running from the port of Veracruz (q.v.) and also engaged in spy activity under the guidance of Commo. David Conner (q.v.). The Criolla was burned on November 26, 1846, by the brig USS Somers.
CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787–1863). John J. Crittenden was a Whig (q.v.) senator from Kentucky who in 1842 pressured the Tyler administration to take action against Mexico following the arrest of his son, who had participated in a Texas raid against the town of Mier (q.v.). The incident led to a deterioration of relations between the two countries. In the course of the war, however, Crittenden adhered to a policy of limiting the territorial acquisitions that might be gained in the settlement with Mexico.
CRITTENDEN, THOMAS LEONIDAS (1819–1893). Following the capture of Monterrey (q.v.) in September 1846, Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) was concerned that a supply link be retained between that forward position and Camargo (q.v.) on the San Juan River. Thomas L. Crittenden, a civilian volunteer, played an important role in keeping that line of communication open.
CROCKETT, DAVID (1786–1836). Raised in the frontier country of eastern Tennessee, David (“Davy”) Crockett won fame as a hunter, Indian fighter, and friend of the common man. He fought in the Creek Wars and rose to the rank of colonel in the militia. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives despite a lack of formal education, Crockett opposed Pres. Andrew Jackson’s policy of Indian removal. Defeated for reelection to Congress in 1835, he moved to Texas just as its movement for independence was under way. With the invasion of the new republic by Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) in 1836, Crockett moved to San Antonio (q.v.) to join a small band of defenders at the Alamo (q.v.). He was killed in the course of the battle, thus adding to the many legends surrounding his career.
CROSS, OSBORN (1803–1876). Maj. Osborn Cross was U.S. quartermaster in Veracruz (q.v.) at the time of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.). He played a key role in organizing the evacuation of troops and equipment.
CROSS, TRUEMAN (d. 1846). By early 1846, Col. Trueman Cross was chief quartermaster in charge of supplies of the Army of Occupation (q.v.) at Corpus Christi (q.v.). On April 10, 1846, Cross was killed during a horseback ride on the north bank of the Rio Grande (q.v.), leading to increased tensions with Mexican elements along the river. In the search for his body Lt. Theodoric Porter’s patrol was ambushed and Porter himself killed. These incidents helped to increase tensions on both sides in the weeks leading up to the outbreak of war.
CUEVAS, LUIS GONZAGO (1800–1867). Luis G. Cuevas was Mexican foreign minister under the government of Pres. José Joaquin Herrera (q.v.). In 1845, he negotiated with British envoy Charles Elliot (q.v.) relating to the independence of Texas, but that scheme fell through. On February 2, 1848, Cuevas met with Nicholas Trist (q.v.) at Guadalupe Hidalgo (q.v.) to sign the preliminary agreement to end the war.
CULLUM, GEORGE W. A graduate of West Point in 1833, Lt. George W. Cullum rose to the rank of captain in the engineers (q.v.) by 1838. During the war with Mexico, he was at West Point involved with the training of cadets in the field of engineering. During the American Civil War, he was brevetted brigadier general in the U.S. Volunteers, and was brevetted major general in 1865 for meritorious service. Retiring in 1874 at age 62, Cullum prepared the Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy in 1891.
CUMBERLAND. The USS Cumberland was the flagship of Commo. David Conner (q.v.) that, on July 28, 1846, ran aground off Antón Lizardo (q.v.), which brought the cancellation of plans to attack the Mexican port of Alvarado (q.v.). Commo. Matthew C. Perry (q.v.) later used the Cumberland as his flagship.
CURTIS, SAMUEL RYAN (1805–1866). A graduate of the West Point class of 1826, Samuel R. Curtis was appointed adjutant general for Ohio and organized three volunteer infantry regiments. As a colonel, Curtis took command of the Third Ohio Regiment and departed for Mexico on July 3, 1846. After reaching the Rio Grande (q.v.), his regiment did not join the forces of Gen. Zachary Taylor (q.v.) moving against Monterrey (q.v.) but remained in Matamoros (q.v.) and later Camargo (q.v.), guarding the line of supply and attempting to maintain order over the highly volatile civilian and military population. In February 1847, Curtis expressed fear that General Taylor had been defeated by the superior force of Antonio López de Santa Anna (q.v.) and appealed to the governor of Texas to raise additional forces to meet the threat. The voice of alarm sounded by Curtis was criticized by many political leaders, including President Polk (q.v.), and has remained a stigma against the Ohio officer.
CUSHING, CALEB (1800–1879). Caleb Cushing, a political leader in Massachusetts at the time of the outbreak of the war with Mexico, raised a regiment in spite of strong political opposition to the conflict in his state. Promoted to the rank of brigadier general, he served under Gen. John E. Wool (q.v.) in Coahuila (q.v.) and was later transferred to Mexico City (q.v.) after the fall of that capital. Cushing was appointed as a member of the Court of Inquiry in the dispute between Gen. Winfield Scott (q.v.) and his subordinates, including Gen. William Worth (q.v.) and Gen. Gideon Pillow (q.v.), which met in Mexico City April 13–22, 1848.
CUYLTI, GAVINO. Col. Gavino Cuylti was commander of the Mexican military force in El Paso (q.v.) at the time of the approach of the American army under Col. Alexander Doniphan (q.v.) in December 1846. Cuylti turned over command to Lt. Col. Luis Vidal, however, and fled to Chihuahua (q.v.). Doniphan marched into El Paso without opposition.
CYANE. The sloop of war USS Cyane, commanded by Capt. William Mervine (q.v.), moved from Mazatlán (q.v.) February 22, 1846, and became involved with the complex operations along the coast of California. Later, under the command of Comdr. Samuel F. DuPont (q.v.), the Cyane was involved in the efforts to expel Brig. Gen. José Maria Castro (q.v.) from southern California. Gen. Stephen Kearny (q.v.) also used the sloop in January 1847 in his California campaigns.