1. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), 1–2.
2. Daniel M. Fox, The Discovery of Abundance: Simon Patten and the Transformation of Social Theory (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967).
1. Daniel M. Fox, The Discovery of Abundance: Simon Patten and the Transformation of Social Theory (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967), 88.
2. For a meditation on social obligations to strangers, see Michael Ignatieff, The Needs of Strangers: An Essay on Privacy, Solidarity, and the Politics of Being Human (New York: Penguin Books, 1984). On the early history of social welfare policies in America, see Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press, 1984), 1–46; David J. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the Early Republic (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971); Benjamin J. Klebaner, “Public Poor Relief in America, 1790-1860,” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1952; and Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 3–35.
3. For examples of criticism of settlement practices, see “Report of the Secretary of State [of New York], 1824, on the Relief and Settlement of the Poor,” reprinted in David J. Rothman, ed., The Almshouse Experience: Collected Reports (New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1971), 967, 952. For contemporary evidence that there is little relation between the generosity of welfare benefits and the size of AFDC roles, see Kirsten A. Gronbjerg, Mass Society and the Extension of Welfare 1960-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 51–54. Cybelle Fox, Three Worlds of Relief: Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012) documents the reluctance to provide assistance to Mexican immigrants.
4. [Josiah Quincy] “Report on the Committee on the Pauper Laws of this Commonwealth [1821],” in Rothman, Almshouse Experience, 4.
5. Philadelphia Board of Guardians, “Report of the Committee Appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia and Salem [1827],” in Rothman, Almshouse Experience, 26.
6. Charles Burroughs, “A Discourse Delivered in the Chapel of the New Alms-House, in Portsmouth, N.H…” (Portsmouth, N.H.: J.W. Foster, 1835), in David J. Rothman, ed., The Jacksonians on the Poor (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 9.
7. Walter Channing, “An Address on the Prevention of Pauperism” (Boston: Office of the Christian World, 1843), in Rothman, Jacksonians, 20.
8. On the relation between concepts of poverty, welfare, and the labor market, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Vintage, 1971); on the history of the work ethic in America, see Daniel Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978). For an example of the connections between poverty and the structure of social existence in antebellum America, see Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1869 (New York: Knopf, 1986). Stansell also emphasizes the moralization of poverty in the early nineteenth century. See also, Billy G. Smith, The “Lower Sort”: Philadelphia’s Laboring People, 1750–1900 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990). On the link between the development of capitalism, wage labor, poverty, and poor relief in early America, see, Seth Rockman, Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival in Early Baltimore (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
9. For reanalysis of data collected in the nineteenth century, see Michael B. Katz, Poverty and Policy in American History (New York: Academic Press, 1983), 55–182.
10. Robert Hunter, Poverty (Harper and Row, 1965, first published, New York: Macmillan, 1904), 3, 63. On scientific charity, see Katz, Shadow, 58–84, and Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978). Also relevant are James T. Patterson, America’s Struggle against Poverty, 1900–1980 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), and Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985).
11. Lilian Brandt, “The Causes of Poverty,” Political Science Quarterly 23, no. 4 (December 1908): 642–645.
12. E. Wight Bakke, The Unemployed Worker: A Study of the Task of Making a Living Without a Job (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940); Bonnie Fox Schwartz, The Civil Works Administration: The Business of Emergency Employment in the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 227–228; Josephine Chapin Brown, Public Relief 1929–1939 (New York: Henry Holt, 1941), 317.
13. Cybelle Fox, Three Worlds of Relief: Race.
14. Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965). On how the Social Security Administration preserved the distinction between social insurance and public assistance, see Jerry R. Cates, Insuring Inequality: Administrative Leadership in Social Security, 1935–1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983).
15. Michael B. Katz, The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State, Updated Edition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 1–8.
16. Michael B. Katz, Poverty and Policy in American History (New York: Academic Press, 1983), 120–125; Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in an Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
17. Michael Harrington, The Other America (New York: Macmillan, 1962; republished by Penguin Books, 1963), 9.
18. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 102–107.
19. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 113–117.
20. Oscar Lewis, The Children of Sanchez (New York: Random House, 1961); La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty—San Juan and New York (New York: Random House, 1966); “The Culture of Poverty,” Scientific American 215 (1966): 19–25; “The Culture of Poverty,” in Daniel P. Moynihan, ed., On Understanding Poverty: Perspectives from the Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 187–220. For useful comments on the origins of the culture of poverty concept in American social science, see Lee Rainwater, “The Problem of Lower Class Culture,” Journal of Social Issues 26 (1970): 133–137. Rainwater points to the growing emphasis on lower-class culture as one stream in social science since the 1930s. Oscar Lewis, he contends, developed his definition “somewhat independently.”
21. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 117.
22. Lewis, La Vida, xliii.
23. Lewis, La Vida, xliii–xlv.
24. Lewis, La Vida, xlv.
25. Lewis, La Vida, xxlv–xlvii.
26. Lewis, La Vida, xlvii–xlviii.
27. Lewis, La Vida, xlviii–xlix.
28. Lewis, La Vida, li–lii.
29. Lewis, La Vida, xiii.
30. Lewis, La Vida, xlviii, lii.
31. Lewis, La Vida, xlii. For biographical background on Harrington, see Maurice Isserman, The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington (New York: Public Affairs, 2000).
32. Harrington, The Other America, 22–23.
33. Harold Meyerson, “Seeing What No One Else Could See,” American Prospect, July/August 2012, 68.
34. Frank Riessman, The Culturally Deprived Child (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 2–3. For criticisms of cultural deprivation as a concept in education, see Murray L. Wax and Rosalie H. Wax, “Cultural Deprivation as an Educational Ideology,” and Mildred Dickeman, “The Integrity of the Cherokee Student,” in Eleanor Burke Leacock, The Culture of Poverty: A Critique (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), 127–139 and 140–179. For an extension of the culture of poverty to cultural deprivation and its application to social work, see Jerome Cohen, “Social Work and the Culture of Poverty,” Social Work 9 (January 1964): 3–11.
35. Riessman, Culturally Deprived Child, 30–35.
36. Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation, rev. and enlarged ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 51, 120–212; 125.
37. John W. Cell, The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 236; Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional Life, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
38. Alyosha Goldstein, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action in the American Century (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012).
39. I am indebted to a conversation with Ivar Berg for the hypothesis that the popularity of the culture of poverty rested in part on liberal dissatisfaction with the concept of false consciousness.
40. “Remarks of the President at Howard University, June 4, 1965,” in Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1967), 127–128.
41. For the history of the report and the controversy following its preparation, the definitive source is James T. Patterson, Freedom is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle Over Black Family Life from LBJ to Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010).
42. The full text of the report is included in Rainwater and Yancey, The Moynihan Report, 39–125.
43. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 6–7; Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States (New York: Macmillan, rev. ed., 1957), esp. 636–637.
44. Eleanor Burke Leacock drew the connection among nineteenth-century ideas about poverty, Lewis’s version of the culture of poverty, and Moynihan’s report in the introduction to her edited volume, The Culture of Poverty, 11.
45. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 27, 29. Rainwater and Yancey analyze the principal criticisms of the Moynihan report in detail and show precisely where distortions existed. See, for instance, Moynihan Report, 220–244.
46. Patterson, Freedom Is Not Enough, 19.
47. “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action,” in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 43.
48. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 45.
49. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 20.
50. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 51.
51. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 75.
52. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 62.
53. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 17.
54. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 66–67. Emphasis in original.
55. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 67 and 71.
56. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 74–75.
57. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 76–78.
58. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 75.
59. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 80–90.
60. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 93–94.
61. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 31.
62. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 142, 22–244.
63. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 238.
64. See the major attacks on the report by Benjamin F. Payton and William Ryan. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 396, 463.
65. Edward C. Banfield, with the assistance of Laura Fasano Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (New York: Free Press, 1958). Lewis introduced the culture of poverty in The Children of Sanchez, published in 1961.
66. Banfield, Moral Basis, 83.
67. Banfield, Moral Basis, 8, 18–32, 40–41, 115.
68. Banfield, Moral Basis, 155; 66.
69. Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), and The Unheavenly City Revisited (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974).
70. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 2–3.
71. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 53.
72. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 56.
73. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 54.
74. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 78.
75. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 84, 96.
76. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 47–48.
77. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 128–131.
78. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 135. Emphasis in original.
79. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 141.
80. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 143.
81. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 235.
82. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 240–259.
83. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 281.
84. Charles E. Lindblom and David K. Cohen, Usable Knowledge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 58.
85. Second Annual Report of the [Massachusetts] Board of State Charities to which are added the Reports of the Secretary and the General Agent of the Board, Public Document 19, January 1866, xxii–xxiii.
86. Michael B. Katz, The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Massachusetts (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968; reissued with a new introduction New York: Teachers College Press, 2001), 115–160, 170–185.
87. Harold Schwartz, Samuel Gridley Howe, Social Reformer, 1801–1876 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956), 271–272, 275–276.
88. Norm Dain, Concepts of Insanity in the United States, 1987–1865 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1964), 110; W. David Lewis, From Newgate to Dannemora: the Rise of the Penitentiary in New York, 1796-1848 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965), 231; David Brion Davis, Homicide in American Fiction, 1978-1860: A Study in Social Values (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957), 43–44; State Board of Charities, Second Annual Report, xxii–xxxvii.
89. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Genetics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), ix, 14.
90. Kevles, In the Name of Genetics, 20; Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, revised edition (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955).
91. Quoted in Bender, American Abyss: Savagery and Civilization in the Age of Industry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009), 202.
92. Daniel E. Bender, American Abyss, 6–7.
93. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 3.
94. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 72.
95. Bender, American Abyss, 8.
96. Quoted in Bender, American Abyss, 9.
97. Bender, American Abyss, 194–195.
98. Quoted in Bender, American Abyss, 179.
99. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 45–47, 54–55.
100. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 78–79. Quotations in Kevles.
101. Stephen J. Gould, The Panda’s Thumb: More Reflections on Natural History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), 162.
102. Paula S. Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 46.
103. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 82–83.
104. Fass, Outside In, 50.
105. Terman’s remarks were reprinted in School and Society, XIX, No. 483 (March 29, 1924): 359–364 and excerpted in Clarence J. Karier, ed., Shaping the American Educational State: 1900 to the Present (New York: Free Press, 1975, quotation, 188).
106. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 110–111.
107. Bender, American Abyss, 178, 198–199.
108. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 117–118, 251; Bender, American Abyss, 235, 251.
109. Keveles, In the Name of Eugenics, 269; “Arthur R. Jensen Dies at 89; Set Off Debate Around IQ,” New York Times, November 2, 2012 [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/science/arthur-r-jensen-who-set-off-debate-on-iq-dies].
110. Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement,” Harvard Educational Review, 39, No. 1 (1969): 2, 3.
111. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement,” 5, 19, 28, 51; Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 281.
112. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), 9.
113. Richard Herrnstein, “I.Q.,” The Atlantic, 228 (September 1971): 63–64; Shockley quoted in Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 271.
114. Edward O. Wilson, “Human Decency is Animal,” The New York Times Magazine, October 12, 1975, 39.
115. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, 22–23.
116. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, 118, 127, 270, 371.
117. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, 341, 509, 518 (quotation page 518).
118. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 11–12.
119. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 32, 75–75, 85–86, 125.
120. http://www.pioneerfund.org/ [accessed October 29, 2012].
121. Edward M. Stricker, “2009 Survey of Neuroscience Graduate, Postdoctoral, and Undergraduate Programs.” http://www.sfn.org/Careers-and-Training/Higher-Education-and-Training/~/media/SfN/Documents/Survey%20Reports/2009%20Survey%20Report%20 FINAL/2009%20Survey%20Report%20FINAL.ashx], accessed April 7, 2013.
122. Barbara Wolfe, William Evans, and Teresa E. Seeman, editors, The Biological Consequences of Socioeconomic Inequalities (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2012).
123. See, for instance, Jamie Hanson, Nicole Hair, Amitabh Chandra, Ed Moss, Jay Bhattacharya, Seth D. Polk, and Barbara Wolfe, “Brain Development and Poverty: A First Look,” in Wolfe, et al., Biological Consequences, 208.
124. Michael Rutter, “Achievements and Challenges in the Biology of Environmental Effects,” PNAS, 109, Supplement 2, 17151.
125. Carey, The Epigenetics Revolution: How Modern Biology is Rewriting Our Understanding of Genetics, Disease, and Inheritance (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 7.
126. These numbers are based on the result of a search in the Thomson Reuters “Web of Knowledge” database for “achievement gap” performed on November 1, 2012. My thanks to Nick Okrent of the University of Pennsylvania library staff.
127. For two important interpretations of the achievement gap, see Heather Ann Thompson, “Criminalizing Kids: The Overlooked Reason for Failing Schools” and Pedro Nogeura, “The Achievement Gap and The Schools We Need: Creating the Conditions Where Race and Class No Longer Predict Student Achievement” in Michael B. Katz and Mike Rose, Public Education Under Siege (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).
128. Carey, Epigenetics Revolution, 250.
129. W. Thomas Boyce, Maria B. Sokolowski, and Gene E. Robinson, “Toward a New Biology of Social Adversity,” PNAS 109, Supplement 2, 17143.
130. Rutter, “Achievement and Challenges,” 17152.
131. James J. Heckman, “Schools, Skills, and Synapses,” Econ. Inq. 46, No. 3 (June 2008): 289. See also, James Heckman, “Promoting Social Mobility,” Boston Review, September/October 2012 [http://www.bostonreview.net/BR37.5/ndf_james_heckman_social_mobility.php].
132. Jack P. Shonkoff, “Leveraging the Biology of Adversity To Address the Roots of Disparities in Health and Development,” PNAS, 109, suppl. 2 (October 16, 2012): 17302.
133. Rutter, “Achievements and Challenges,” 17150.
134. Michelle C. Carlson, Christoher L. Seplaki, and Teresa E. Seeman, “Reversing the Impact of Disparities in Socioeconomic Status over the Life Course on Cognitive and Brain Aging,” in Wolfe et al., Biological Consequences, 233–234.
135. Dorothy Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-create Race in the Twenty-first Century (New York: New Press, 2011), 91.
136. Jesse J. Prinz, Beyond Human Nature: How Culture and Experience Shape the Human Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012), 4.
1. For a general criticism of the politics of the culture of poverty, see Hylan Lewis, “Culture of Poverty? What Does It Matter?” in Eleanor Burke Leacock, The Culture of Poverty: A Critique (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), 345–363.
2. Randolf S. David, “The Sociology of Poverty or the Poverty of Sociology? A Brief Note on Urban Poverty Research,” Philippine Sociological Review 25 (1977): 145–146, 149. Emphasis in original.
3. Alessio Colombis, “Amoral Familism and Social Organisation in Montegrano: A Critique of Banfield’s Thesis,” Domination et Dependance: Situations Peuples Mediterraneans 25 (1983): 24.
4. Alejandro Portes, “Rationality in the Slum: An Essay on Interpretive Sociology,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 14 (1972): 269.
5. Portes, “Rationality in the Slum,” 274, 272. In Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-Dictatorship Chile (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001), Julia Paley shows how poor residents of a Chilean shantytown developed an indigenous social science that formed the basis of local political mobilization.
6. Colombis, “Amoral Familism,” 33.
7. David, “The Sociology of Poverty,” 148–149.
8. Walter B. Miller, “Subculture, Social Reform, and the ‘Culture of Poverty,’” Human Organization 30 (1971): 112.
9. Chandler C. Davidson, “On the ‘Culture of Shiftlessness,’” Dissent 23 (1976): 355.
10. Eleanor Leacock, “Distortions of Working-Class Reality in American Social Science,” Science and Society 31 (1967): 3–4.
11. See, for example, Audrey James Schwartz, “A Further Look at ‘Culture of Poverty:’ Ten Caracas Barrios,” Sociology and Social Research 59 (July 1975): 362–386.
12. Leonard Davidson and David Krackhardt, “Structural Change and the Disadvantaged: An Empirical Test of Culture of Poverty/Situational Theories of Hard-Core Work Behavior,” Human Organization 36 (1977): 308.
13. Frederick S. Jaffe and Steven Polgar, “Family Planning and Public Policy: Is the ‘Culture of Poverty’ the New Cop-Out?” Journal of Marriage and the Family 30 (1968): 228–235.
14. Harland Padfield, “New Industrial Systems and Cultural Concepts of Poverty,” Human Organization 29 (1970): 33. Some other examples of empirical studies are: Victor S. D’souza, “Socio-Cultural Marginality: A Theory of Urban Slums and Poverty in India,” Sociological Bulletin 28 (1979): 9–23; Seymour Parker and Robert J. Kleiner, “The Culture of Poverty: An Adjustive Dimension,” American Anthropologist 72 (1970): 516–527; David B. Miller, “A Partial Test of Oscar Lewis’s Culture of Poverty in Rural America,” Current Anthropology 17 (1976): 720–723; Hyman Rodman, Lower-Class Families: The Culture of Poverty in Negro Trinidad (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); Schwartz, “A Further Look”; Gordon Ternowetsky, “Work Orientations of the Poor and Income Maintenance,” Australian Journal of Sociology 12 (1977): 266–279; and Sonia R. Wright and James D. Wright, “Income Maintenance and Work Behavior,” Social Policy 6 (1975): 24–32.
15. Rodman, Lower-Class Families, 195. Rodman developed his concept from his field work in Trinidad.
16. Elliot Liebow, Tally’s Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), 213, 208, 209, 222.
17. The discussion that follows draws on the following sources: Davidson and Krackhardt, “Structural Change;” Davidson, “‘Culture of Shiftlessness;’” David Elesh, “Poverty Theories and Income Maintenance: Validity and Policy Relevance,” Social Science Quarterly 54 (1973): 359–373; Lola M. Irean, Oliver C. Moles, and Robert M. O’Shea, “Ethnicity, Poverty, and Selected Attitudes: A Test of the ‘Culture of Poverty’ Hypothesis,” Social Forces 47 (June 1969): 405–413; Miller, “Subculture”; Padfield, “New Industrial Systems”; Jack L. Roach and Orville R. Gursslin, “An Evaluation of the Concept of ‘Culture of Poverty,’” Social Forces 45 (March 1967): 383–393; Hyman Rodman, “Culture of Poverty: The Rise and Fall of a Concept,” The Sociological Review 25, new series (1977): 867–876; Charles A. Valentine, Culture and Poverty: Critique and Counter-Proposals (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1968), and “Models and Muddles Concerning Culture and Inequality: A Reply to Critics,” Harvard Educational Review 42 (1972): 97–108; Lee Rainwater, “The Problem of Lower Class Culture,” Journal of Social Issues 26 (1970): 133–148; J. Allen Winter, ed., The Poor: A Culture of Poverty or a Poverty of Culture? (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1971); Leacock, Culture of Poverty.
18. Orlando Patterson, “A Poverty of the Mind,” New York Times, March 26, 2006.
19. William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: Norton, 2009), 3.
20. Wilson, More Than Just Race, 4.
21. Mario Luis Small, David J. Harding, and Michèle Lamont, “Reconsidering Culture and Poverty,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 629 (May 2010): 6–8. Emphasis in original.
22. Small, Harding, and Lamont, “Reconsidering,” 9–12.
23. Small, Harding, and Lamont, “Reconsidering,” 14, 20.
24. Small, Harding, and Lamont, “Reconsidering,” 19.
25. For a history of response to the report, see James T. Patterson, Freedom is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle Over Black Family Life from LBJ to Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010).
26. Lee Rainwater and William Yancey, The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), 217–218.
27. Quoted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 130.
28. Quoted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 200.
29. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 202.
30. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 16.
31. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 271.
32. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 175–176.
33. Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 177–178; 133–135.
34. Elizabeth Herzog, “Is There a ‘Breakdown’ of the Negro Family?” reprinted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 347.
35. William Ryan, “Savage Discovery: ‘The Moynihan Report,’” reprinted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 459–464.
36. Office of Policy Planning and Research, United States Department of Labor, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, March 1965, 13, 14. One partial exception among critics was Laura Carper, “The Negro Family and the Moynihan Report,” reprinted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 469. On the rise in AFDC rolls, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Vintage, 1971), 183–199, and Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1982), 264–362. See also James T. Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1980 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 171–184.
37. Herbert J. Gans, “The Negro Family: Reflections on the Moynihan Report,” reprinted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 455–456.
38. Christopher Jencks, “The Moynihan Report,” reprinted in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 444.
39. Kathryn Edin and Maria Kefalas, Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage, 3d revised edition (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2011).
40. Carol Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), 28, 30, 31, 90.
41. Benjamin F. Payton, “New Trends in Civil Rights,” in Rainwater and Yancey, Moynihan Report, 399 and 401.
42. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Vintage Books, 1976); Theodore Hershberg, ed., Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience: Essays Toward an Interdisciplinary History of the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); Stewart E. Tolnay, The Bottom Rung: African American Family Life on Southern Farms (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
43. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Vintage Books, 1976); Frank F. Furstenberg, Jr., Theodore Hershberg, and John Modell, “The Origins of the Female-Headed Black Family: The Impact of the Urban Experience,” in Theodore Hershberg, ed., Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 435–454; Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Cybelle Fox, Three Worlds of Relief: Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012); Jacqueline Jones, The Dispossessed: America’s Underclasses from the Civil War to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1992); James N. Gregory, Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
44. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 621 (January 2009).
45. Thomas Sowell, “Racial Censorship; ‘PC’ Atmosphere Paralyzes? Sincerity,” Human Events Online, October 13, 2003.
46. Maris Vinovskis, An “Epidemic” of Adolescent Pregnancy? Some Historical and Policy Considerations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
47. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967), 167.
48. Conventional historiography places the origins of the civil rights movement in the South, with the movement spreading north. Recent historical writing, however, has shown that an active and parallel movement dates from an early point in the North as well. The definitive study is Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008).
49. On the early civil rights movement, see Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984).
50. Peniel E. Joseph, “Introduction: Toward a Historiography of the Black Power Movement,” in Peniel E. Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil-Rights-Black Power Era (New York and London: Routledge, 2006), 8.
51. Robert L. Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America: An Analytic History (Garden City: Doubleday, 1969), 27–28; see also Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, 50; and Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1987), 164–179. For contrasting comments on Allen, see Martin Kilson, “Militant Rhetoric and the Bourgeoisie,” New York Times Book Review, February 22, 1971, 28, and Anne Kelley, [review], Black Scholar 3 (1971): 50–54.
52. Thomas H. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).
53. Martin Luther King, Jr., “President’s Address to the Tenth Anniversary Convention of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, August 16, 1967,” in Robert L. Scott and Wayne Brockriede, eds., The Rhetoric of Black Power (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 147–148.
54. King, “President’s Address,” 155–158.
55. Martin Luther King, Jr., Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968), 169, 177–178.
56. Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002), 62–63.
57. King, “President’s Address,” 159–160. On the riots, see Robert M. Fogelson, Violence as Protest: A Study of Riots and Ghettos (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1971).
58. Cleveland Sellers, The River of No Return: The Autobiography of a Black Militant and the Life and Death of SNCC (New York: Morrow, 1965), 166; and Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement, 208–209. On the history of SNCC, see also Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981).
59. Donna Jean Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 72. See, also, Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 12.
60. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 218.
61. Harold Cruse, “Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afro-American,” Studies on the Left 2, no. 3 (1962).
62. Especially important were: Harold Cruse, Kenneth Clark, and Malcolm X. Allen, Black Awakening, 6; Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, 2.
63. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, 16–31. For an insightful analysis of the lack of political power in cities, its implications, and its relation to urban political programs, see Joyce Ladner and Walter W. Stafford, “Black Repression in the Cities,” Black Scholar 1 (April 1970): 39–52.
64. Frank G. Davis, The Economics of Black Community Development: An Analysis and Program for Autonomous Growth and Development (Chicago: Markham, 1972): 6–7; Guy C. Z. Mhone, “Structural Oppression and the Persistence of Black Poverty,” Journal of Afro-American Issues 3 (1975): 406; Charles Sackrey, “The Economics of Black Poverty,” The Review of Black Political Economy 1 (1971): 48, 50; Wilfred L. David, “Black America in Development Perspective, Part I,” The Review of Black Political Economy 3 (1973): 99–100; Ron Bailey, “Economic Aspects of the Black Internal Economy,” Review of Black Political Economy 6 (1973): 62–63; Robert Heilbroner, “Introduction,” in Thomas Vietorisz and Bennett Harrison, The Economic Development of Harlem (New York: Praeger, 1970): xxiii; and on growth as an idea underlying post-World War II domestic and foreign policy, Alan Wolfe, America’s Impasse: The Rise and Fall of the Politics of Growth (Boston: South End Press, 1981). For a useful comment on Davis, see the review by Carolyn Shaw Bell, Journal of Negro History 57 (1972): 437–439.
65. Andre Gunder Frank, “The Development of Underdevelopment,” in Charles K. Wilbur, comp., The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment (New York: Random House, 1973), 94–95; Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 60; Wilfred L. David, “Black America in Developmental Perspective,” Review of Black Political Economy 3 (1973): 87; Donald J. Harris, “The Black Ghetto as Colony: A Theoretical Critique and Alternative Formulation,” Review of Black Political Economy 2 (1972): 26; Joseph N. Seward, “Developmental Economics and Black America: A Reply to Professor David,” Review of Black Political Economy 5 (1975): 11–12; Thaddeus H. Spratlen, “Ghetto Economic Development,” Review of Black Political Economy 1 (1971): 43–71, is a useful review of the literature.
66. Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 44; Paul A. Baran and Paul M. Sweezy, Monopoly Capital: An Essay on the American Economic and Social Order (New York: Monthly Review Press), 285–287. Baran and Sweezy’s book generated considerable comment and controversy. See, for instance, Karl de Schweinitz, Jr., “Who Decides?—Economics and Politics,” Public Administration Review 28 (1968): 84–90; James O’Connor, “Marxist Heavyweight Division,” Nation 202 (1966): 749–750; Howard J. Sherman, “Economic Systems: Planning and Reform; Cooperation,” American Economic Review 55 (1966): 919–921; Henry Pachter, “The Political Economy of Fidelism,” Dissent 14 (1967): 358–361; Harvey Magdoff, [review], Economic Development and Cultural Change 16 (1967): 145–149; and Myron E. Sharpe, Maurice Dobb, Joseph M. Gillman, Theodore Praeger, and Otto Nathan, “Marxism and Monopoly Capital: A Symposium,” Science and Society 30 (1966): 461–496.
67. David, “Black America… Part II,” 82; Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 59–64; Robert Allen, “A Historical Synthesis: Black Liberation and World Revolution,” The Black Scholar 3 (1972): 8; William K. Tabb, The Political Economy of the Black Ghetto (New York: Norton, 1970), 21–24. For comments on Tabb’s book, see the reviews by Joseph L. Arnold, Journal of Negro History 56 (1971): 294–296, and Morris Levitt, American Political Science Review 65 (1971): 1176–1178.
68. Davis, Economics of Black Community Development, 5–8; Kenneth H. Parsons, “Poverty as an Issue in Development Policy: A Comparison of United States and Undeveloped Countries,” Land Economics 45 (February 1969): 60–61; David, “Black America… Part II,” 85–86.
69. Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 64–66; Allen, “A Historical Synthesis,” 11–12; Baran and Sweezy, Monopoly Capital, 273; Tabb, Political Economy, 27; Seward, “Developmental Economics,” 11; Joyce Ladner and Walter W. Stafford, “Black Repression in the Cities.” James Turner, “Blacks in the Cities: Land and Self-Determination,” The Black Scholar 1 (1970): 11, argues that the movement toward metropolitan government had as its purpose depriving blacks of effective political power.
70. Ralph H. Metcalf, Jr., “Chicago Model Cities and Neocolonization,” The Black Scholar 1 (April 1970): 23; David, “Black America…Part I,” 91; Turner, “Blacks in the Cities,” 10; Allen, “A Historical Synthesis,” 8; Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 4–6; Tabb, Political Economy, 23.
71. Michael Omni and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, second edition (New York and London: Routledge, 1994), 110.
72. J. H. O’Dell, “Colonialism and the Negro American Experience,” Freedomways 6 (1966): 300; David, “Black America… Part II,” 98; Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 47; Allen, “A Historical Synthesis,” 9–10.
73. Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 55–56; James Turner, “Blacks in the Cities: Land and Self-Determination,” The Black Scholar 1 (1970): 25; Kwame Nkrumah, “The Mechanics of Neocolonialism,” chapter 18 in Nkrumah, Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism, reprinted in Freedomways 6 (1966): 139.
74. Bailey, “Economic Aspects,” 45–46, 57–58; Harris, “The Black Ghetto as Colony,” 11–12.
75. Thomas Sowell, “Economics and Black People,” Review of Black Political Economy 1 (1971): 16–17.
76. Seward, “Developmental Economics,” 198–199.
77. Sowell, “Economics and Black People,” 16.
78. Davis, Economics of Black Community Development, 19; Guy C. Z. Mhone, “Structural Oppression and the Persistence of Black Poverty,” Journal of Afro-American Issues 3 (1975): 417–418.
79. Turner, “Blacks in the Cities,” 12–13; Sackrey, “Economics and Black Poverty,” 59.
80. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 512; H. Paul Friesema, “Black Control of Central Cities: The Hollow Prize,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners (March 1969): 75.
81. Omi and Winant, Racial Formation, 108.
82. Murch, Living for the City, 193. On intercommunalism see also, Self, Babylon, 301.
83. There are many accounts of law enforcement agencies’ assaults on civil rights leaders and on black power, especially the Black Panthers. See, for example, Yohuru Williams, “‘A Red, Black and Green Liberation Jumpsuit’: Roy Wilkins, the Black Panthers, and the Conundrum of Black Power” in Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement, 175–180.
84. Kelley, Freedom Dreams, 95.
85. For a trenchant critique of internal colonialism from a politically Left perspective, see Omi and Winant, Racial Formation, 44–47.
87. See the journal’s home page on the Sage Publications website.
88. My definition of cultural authority is taken from Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 13: “the probability that particular definitions of reality and judgments of meaning and value will prevail as valid and true.”
89. Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981), esp. 179–180.
90. One discussion of the decline in household manufacture is Nancy Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: “Woman’s Sphere” in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).
91. A good statistical overview of women’s employment is Lynn Y. Weiner, From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), which has a very useful bibliography. See also Michael B. Katz, Michael J. Doucet, and Mark J. Stern, The Social Organization of Early Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 97–101 and Seth Rockman, Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival in Early Baltimore (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 132–157.
92. For examples of women’s poverty, see Stansell, City of Women, and Katz, Poverty and Policy, 17–54. Michael B. Katz, “Surviving Poverty in Early Twentieth-Century New York City,” in Arnold Hirsch and Raymond Mohl, eds., Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1973), 46–62.
93. Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 58–109, and Poverty and Policy, 57–89.
94. The most immediate political consequence of granting suffrage to women in 1920 was the Sheppard-Towner Act, which created federally sponsored free medical clinics for mothers and children. Despite the program’s success, the hostility of the organized medical profession killed it late in the decade. On the Sheppard-Towner Act, see Sheila M. Rothman, Woman’s Proper Place: A History of Changing Ideas and Practices, 1870 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 136–141; on veterans’ pensions, see Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol, “Why Not Equal Protection? Explaining the Politics of Public Social Welfare in Britain and the United States, 1880s-1920s,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Detroit, Michigan, September 2, 1983, 49–55, and Ann Shola Orloff, “The Politics of Pensions: A Comparative Analysis of the Origins of Pensions and Old Age Insurance in Canada, Britain, and the United States, 1880s-1930s,” Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1985; a useful survey of Progressive-era policies for children is Susan Tiffin, In Whose Best Interest? Child Welfare Reform in the Progressive Era (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982); a good discussion of mothers’ pensions is Roy Lubove, The Struggle for Social Security 1900-1935 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), 91–112; see also Katz, Shadow, 113–145.
95. Fox, Three Worlds of Relief; Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965).
96. On AFDC, see Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor; Bell, AFCD; Patterson, America’s Struggle; on the NWRO, see Guida West, The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women (New York: Praeger, 1981); Larry R. Jackson and William A. Johnson, Protest by the Poor: The Welfare Rights Movement in New York City (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1974), and Piven and Cloward, Poor People’s Movements, 264–361; an extremely useful source on trends in spending for social welfare programs is Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of Representatives, Background Material and Data on Programs Within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means (Washington, DC: GPO, 1985). See also Michael B. Katz and Lorrin R. Thomas, “The Invention of Welfare in America,” Journal of Policy History 10, no. 4 (1998): 399–418.
97. On the expansion of social welfare, see Patterson, America’s Struggle, 157–209, and Katz, Shadow, 261–272. On the EITC, see Christopher Howard, The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 64–74, 139–160. On the child tax care credit, see, IRS, “Ten Things to Know About the Child and Dependent Care Credit,” IRS Tax Tip 20-46, March 7, 2011 [http://www.irs.gov/uac/Ten-Things-to-Know-About-the-Child-and-Depend ent-Care-Credit].
98. Michael B. Katz, Mark J. Stern, and Jamie J. Fader, “Women and the Paradox of Economic Inequality in the Twentieth-century,” Journal of Social History 39, no. 1 (2005): 65–88.
99. Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, “1940s to Present,” in Gwendolyn Mink and Alice O’Connor eds., Poverty in the United States: An Encyclopedia of History, Policy and Politics, v. 1, (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004), 33–48.
100. Harrell R. Rodgers, Jr., Poor Women, Poor Families: The Economic Plight of America’s Female-Headed Households (Armonk, N.Y. and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1986), 16–36; Irwin Garfinkle and Sara S. McLanahan, Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press, 1986), 45–85; Robert Pear, “Poverty Rate Dips,” New York Times, July 31, 1987, A12; Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, “The Contemporary Relief Debate,” in Fred Block et al., The Mean Season: The Attack on the Welfare State (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 55–57.
101. Sar A. Levitan and Isaac Shapiro, Working But Poor: America’s Contradiction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Community Service Society of New York, Poverty in New York City; Marian Wright Edelman, Families in Peril: An Agenda for Social Change (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 48; see also 25-29. Edelman is director of the Children’s Defense Fund, which has played a major role in publicizing children’s poverty.
102. For examples of the literature describing the feminization of poverty, see Rodgers, Poor Women, and Mary Corcoran, Greg J. Duncan, and Martha S. Hill, “The Economic Fortunes of Women and Children: Lessons from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics;” Roslyn L. Feldberg, “Comparable Worth: Toward Theory and Practice in the United States;” and Sheila B. Kammerman, “Women, Children, and Poverty: Public Policies and Female-Headed Families in Industrialized Countries,” in Barbara C. Gelpi, Nancy C. M. Hartsock, Clare C. Novak, and Myra H. Strober, eds., Women and Poverty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 1–24, 163–180, 41–64; and Diane Pearce, “The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work and Welfare,” Urban and Social Change Review 10 (1978): 28–36. The latter is the article that introduced the phrase “feminization of poverty.” For a criticism of the feminization of poverty literature from the political Left, see Wendy Savasy and Judith van Allen, “Fighting the Feminization of Poverty: Socialist-Feminist Analysis and Strategy,” Review of Radical Political Economics 16, no. 4 (1984): 89–110.
103. Diana M. Pearce, “Toil and Trouble: Women Workers and Unemployment Compensation,” in Gelpi et al., Women and Poverty, 146. On the institutionalization of the split between public assistance and social insurance in the 1930s, see Katz, Shadow, 234–245. On the origins of the split between social insurance and public assistance, see Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, eds., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). See also Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: The Free Press, 1994).
104. “History of the Organization,” Triple Jeopardy, no. 1, September 1971. See also, Stephen Ward, “The Third World Women’s Alliance: Black Feminist Radicalism and Black Power Politics,” in Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement, 119–144; Kimberly Springer, Living For The Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968-1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 47–50.
105. Triple Jeopardy, September 1971, unpaginated.
106. “Sterilization of BLACK Women Is Common in the U.S.,” Triple Jeopardy 3, no. 1 (Sept.-Oct. 1973).
107. Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon Books, 1997), 90.
108. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment, second edition (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), 241.
109. Beverly Guy-Sheftall, “Introduction: The Evolution of Feminist Consciousness Among African American Women,” in Guy-Sheftall, ed., Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought, 15.
110. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 113.
111. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York and London: Penguin, 2000), 282.
112. Guy-Sheftall, 2.
113. See, e.g., Guy-Sheftall, “Introduction,” 2–14; Springer, Living for the Revolution, 8–9.
114. Linda La Rue, “The Black Women’s Liberation Movement,” in Guy-Sheftall, ed., Words of Fire, 71; Collins, Black Feminist Thought, 75–76.
115. Furstenberg et al., “The Origins of the Female-Headed Black Family: The Impact of the Urban Experience.” Hershberg, ed., Philadelphia.
116. Louis R. Harlan, Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States, 1901-1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1958).
117. Jones, Labor of Love.
118. Fox, Three Worlds of Relief.
119. Collins, Black Feminist Thought, 241.
120. Pauli Murray, “The Liberation of Black Women,” in Guy-Sheftall, ed., Words of Fire, 195.
121. Collins, Black Feminist Thought, 209.
122. Rosen, The World Split Open, 285.
123. Springer, Living for the Revolution, 92.
124. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 315. Morrison quoted in Jones.
125. Felicia Kornbluh, The Battle for Welfare Rights: Politics and Poverty in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 10.
126. Annelise Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005), 308.
127. Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace, 306.
128. Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace, 174–175.
129. Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace, 307.
130. Singer, Living for the Revolution, 50.
131. Singer, Living for the Revolution, 140.
132. Singer, Living for the Revolution, 156.
133. Collins, Black Feminist Thought, 3.
134. Springer, Living for the Revolution, 9–10.
135. “M.I.T. Conference: Final Resolutions,” Black Scholar 24, no. 1 (Winter 1994): 6.
136. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review (1991): 1241–1299.
137. Quotations in Debra Henderson and Ann Tickamyer, “The Intersection of Poverty Discourses: Race, Class, Culture, and Gender,” in Bonnie Thornton Dill and Ruth End Zambrana, eds., Emerging Intersections: Race, Class, and Gender in Theory, Policy, and Practice (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 56.
138. Bonnie Thornton Dill and Ruth Enid Zambrana, “Critical Thinking About Inequality: An Emerging Lens,” in Dill and Zambrana, eds., Emerging Intersections, 5.
139. Patricia Hill Collins, “Forward,” in Dill and Zambrana, eds., Emerging Intersections, ix, xii.
140. Eileen Boris and Jennifer Klein, Caring for America: Home Health Workers in the Shadow of the Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 11, 13, 22–23, 39, 69, 83, 125–126, 207 (quotation).
141. Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
142. National Women’s Law Center, “Poverty Among Women and Families,” 2.
143. National Women’s Law Center, “Poverty Among Women and Families, 2000-2010: Extreme Poverty Reaches Record Levels as Congress Faces Critical Choices,” September 2011, 8. Daniel Trisi and La Donna Pavetti, “TANF Weakening as a Safety Net for Poor Families,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, March 13, 2012, http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=3700, accessed December 8, 2012.
144. Rebecca Thiess, “The Future of Work: Trends and Challenges for Low-Wage Workers,” Economic Policy Institute, April 27, 2012, Briefing Paper, #341, 2, 4.
145. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 14, Employed Persons by Detailed Industry and Sex, 2010, bls.gov/csp/wlf table 14-2010.pdf, accessed December 8, 2012.
146. Collins, Black Feminist Thought, 232.
147. Rhonda Y. Williams, “Black Women, Urban Politics, and Engendering Black Power,” in Joseph, ed., Black Power Movement, 100.
1. There are several useful books that deal with the War on Poverty and Great Society. They include: Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978); Daniel Knapp and Kenneth Polk, Scouting the War on Poverty: Social Reform in the Kennedy Administration (Lexington, Mass.: Heath/Lexington Books, 1971); Daniel Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty (New York: Free Press, 1969); The Politics of a Guaranteed Income: The Nixon Administration and the Family Assistance Plan (New York: Random House, 1973); ed., On Understanding Poverty: Perspectives from the Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 1969); Robert A. Levine, The Poor Ye Need Not Have With You: Lessons from the War on Poverty (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970); James L. Sundquist, ed., On Fighting Poverty: Perspectives from Experience (New York: Basic Books, 1969); Sar A. Levitan, The Great Society’s Poor Law: A New Approach to Poverty (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).
2. Alyosha Goldstein, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action during the American Century (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2012), 108.
3. Henry Cohen in “Poverty and Urban Policy: Conference Transcript of 1973 Group Discussion of the Kennedy Administration Urban Poverty Programs and Policies,” Kennedy Archives, 51. See also 46, 91, 93. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1962); John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958); Dwight McDonald, “Our Invisible Poor,” New Yorker, January 19, 1963, 82–132.
4. “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 359.
5. Frederick Hayes, Richard Boone, and Adam Yarmolinsky, “Poverty and Public Policy,” 164, 255, 242.
6. Interview with Paul Ylvisaker for the Ford Foundation Oral History Project, Cambridge, Massachusetts, September 27, 1973. Interviewer: Charles T. Morrissey, Session Number One, 54.
7. William Capron in “Poverty and Public Policy,” 176; see also 139.
8. “Mobilization for Youth, Inc. General Support,” in Ford Foundation, Grant No. 62-369, accepted proposals, docket excerpts, June 21-22, 1962, 1; Ylvisaker interview, Session Number Two, October 27, 1973, 58.
9. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 193.
10. Richard Cloward and William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 160–161.
11. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 162–163.
12. William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 167–168.
13. David Zarefsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty: Rhetoric and History (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 43–44.
14. Frances Fox Piven and David Hackett in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 198 and 202; and Piven, “Great Society,” 275–276, in Richard A. Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, eds., The Politics of Turmoil: Essays on Poverty, Race, and the Urban Crisis (New York: Pantheon, 1972).
15. Frances Fox Piven and Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 392, 395.
16. Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964-1980 (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 15.
17. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 3.
18. Amy Jordan, “Fighting for the Child Development Group of Mississippi: Poor People, Local Politics, and the Complicated Legacy of Head Start,” in Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty, 280.
19. Laurie B. Green, “Saving Babies in Memphis: The Politics of Race, Health, and Hunger during the War on Poverty,” in Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty, 133.
20. Robert Bauman, “Gender, Civil Rights Activism, and the War on Poverty in Los Angeles,” in Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., The War on Poverty, 209.
21. David Austin in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 184.
22. The five-part PBS video series, The War on Poverty, by the great filmmaker Henry Hampton, provides a superb overview of the program that illustrates both grassroots mobilization and the local- and federal-level opposition that curbed the War on Poverty’s impact. Unfortunately, this video series is impossible to obtain and must be sought in the relatively few libraries that have copies.
23. William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 170.
24. David Hackett in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 260–262.
25. Zarefsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty, 22–23.
26. Zarefsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty, 23–24.
27. [Council of Economic Advisors], “The Problem of Poverty in America,” in Economic Report of the President, 55, 57, 76.
28. Robert Lampman quoted in Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 220; Zarefsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty, xi–xii.
29. David Austin in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 147.
30. [Lyndon Johnson], Economic Report of the President Transmitted to the Congress January 1964 Together with the Annual Report of the Council of Economic Advisors (Washington: GPO, 1964), 14–17; William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 140.
31. [Council of Economic Advisors], “The Problem of Poverty in America,” in Economic Report of the President, 55, 57, 76.
32. “The Problem of Poverty in America,” 62–69.
33. “The Problem of Poverty in America,” 72–78.
34. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 148–149.
35. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 149; Thomas H. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).
36. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 144.
37. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 140–143.
38. Alan Wolfe, America’s Impasse: The Rise and Fall of the Politics of Growth (Boston: South End Press, 1981), 10.
39. Andrew L. Yarrow, Measuring America: How Economic Growth Came to Define American Greatness in the Late Twentieth Century (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010), 36–37.
40. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 286–288.
41. Richard A. Clowen and Lloyd Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1964), 194–211.
42. William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 149–150; W. Willard Wirtz, memorandum to Honorable Theodore Sorenson, January 23, 1964, Sorenson papers, Kennedy Library.
43. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 286–288. I discuss the outcome of the income maintenance plan (Heineman Commission) below.
44. David Austin, “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 147.
45. Gretchen Aguiar, “The Roots of Head Start: Defining the Public Purposes of Preschool,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2012), 105–163; Johnson quote, 157.
46. David Hackett in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 24; Frances Fox Piven, “The New Urban Programs: The Strategy of Federal Intervention,” in Richard A. Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, eds., The Politics of Turmoil, 311, fn. 14; Alyosha Goldstein, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action during the American Century (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2012), 119–121.
47. Clowen and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity, x. On the panic over juvenile delinquency in the 1950s, see James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
48. Clowen and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity, 20–32.
49. Clowen and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity, 33, 78, 86.
50. Clowen and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity, 194–211.
51. Two case studies of how community action became a new form of social control are Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981), and Joseph H. Helfgot, Professional Reforming: Mobilization for Youth and the Failure of Social Science (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1981).
52. Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 220.
53. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 34.
54. Mobilization for Youth, “A Proposal for the Prevention and Control of Delinquency by Expanding Opportunities,” June 10, 1962 (mimeo, Ford Foundation Archives, grant 62–369), 3–4.
55. O’Connor, 160.
56. O’Connor, 168.
57. O’Connor, 168.
58. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 284–285. See also 153–154 and 238–239.
59. William Cannon and William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 178, 146–147. See also 144 and 244–245.
60. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 285.
61. Lloyd Ohlin and Fred Hayes in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 270; see also 285.
62. Zarefsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty, 45–46; William Cannon in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 244.
63. William Capron in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 144 and 148.
64. Adam Yarmolinsky in “Poverty and Urban Policy,” 248 and 260; see also 149, 218–219, 252–253, 275–278.
65. Piven, “The Great Society,” 311.
66. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 182.
67. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 135.
68. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 135.
69. Quoted in Office of Economic Opportunity, As the Seed Is Sown: Fourth Annual Report (Washington, 1969), 9 (italics in original).
70. As the Seed Is Sown, 11.
71. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 153.
72. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 18–19.
73. Felicia Kornbluh, The Battle for Welfare Rights: Politics and Poverty in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).
74. As the Seed Is Sown, 14.
75. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 18–20.
76. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 20.
77. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 20.
78. Orleck and Hazirjian, eds., War on Poverty, 20.
79. Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), 22, 29, 36.
80. Piven and Cloward, Poor People’s Movements, 33, 34–35, 37.
81. John Atlas, Seeds of Change: The Story of ACORN, America’s Most Controversial Antipoverty Community Organizing Group (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2010), 20.
82. Atlas, Seeds of Change, tells this story in detail.
83. PICO National Network, http://www.piconetwork.org.
84. William P. Quigley, Ending Poverty as We Know It: Guaranteeing a Right to a Job at a Living Wage (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 117–136; Michael B. Katz, The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State, Updated Edition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 391–395.
85. Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981).
86. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
87. See Robert Fisher, Let the People Decide: Neighborhood Organizing in America (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1944), for a sympathetic history of community organizing.
88. Scott W. Allard, Out of Reach: Place, Poverty, and the New American Welfare State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 3.
89. Brian Steensland, The Failed Welfare Revolution: America’s Struggle Over Guaranteed Income Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 3, 116.
90. Vincent J. Burke and Lee Burke, Nixon’s Good Deed: Welfare Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), 14.
91. Robert H. Haveman, Poverty Policy and Poverty Research: The Great Society and the Social Sciences (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 82.
92. Ben W. Heineman, Poverty Amid Plenty (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), 48.
93. Katz, Price of Citizenship, 292–298.
94. Heineman, Poverty Amid Plenty, 72, 52–55, 62–63.
95. Burke and Burke, Nixon’s Good Deed, 92–93.
96. The debate continues to this day. For a view criticizing the NWRO for opposing the FAP, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Poor People’s Movements; for a view supporting NWRO’s opposition, see Felicia Kornbluh, The Battle for Welfare Rights. My own view is closer to Piven and Cloward’s on this point.
97. Katz, Price of Citizenship, 260–261.
98. Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Poor People’s Movements, 264–361; Poverty amid Plenty, 121–122; Guida West, The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women (New York: Praeger, 1981); Larry R. Jackson and William A. Johnson, Protest by the Poor: The Welfare Rights Movement in New York City (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1974); James T. Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1980 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Isaac Shapiro and Robert Greenstein, Holes in the Safety Net: Poverty Programs and Policies in the States (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 1988); C. R. Winegarden, “The Welfare ‘Explosion’: Determinants of the Size and Recent Growth of the AFDC Population,” American Journal of Economic Sociology 32 (1973): 244–256; R. Richard Ritti and Drew W. Hyman, “The Administration of Poverty: Lessons from the ‘Welfare Explosion’ 1967-1973,” Social Problems 25 (December 1977): 158–175; Gilbert Y. Steiner, “Reform Follows Reality: The Growth of Welfare,” Public Interest 34 (1974): 47–65.
99. Rand E. Rosenblatt, “Legal Entitlement and Welfare Benefits,” in David Kairys, ed., The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 263; Martha F. Davis, Brutal Need: Lawyers and the Welfare Rights Movement, 1960-1973 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
100. Rosenblatt, “Legal Entitlement,” 266, 269–270.
101. Charles Reich, “The New Property,” Yale Law Journal 73 (April 1964): 771, 738, 734–737, 733; William H. Simon, “The Invention and Reinvention of Welfare Rights,” Maryland Law Review 44 (1985): 28.
102. Reich, “The New Property,” 785–786.
103. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 11.
104. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 60 and 75.
105. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 73–74, 100–101.
106. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 275.
107. Goldstein, Poverty in Common, 249.
108. These are explained in Katz, The Price of Citizenship, Chapter 1.
109. See John E. Schwarz, America’s Hidden Success: A Reassessment of Twenty Years of Public Policy (New York: Norton, 1983); Social Security Administration, 2013 Budget Overview, 4; Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families FY 2012 Budget, 3; Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, Policy Basics: The Earned Income Tax Credit, February 22, 2012; Nada Eissa and Hilary Haynes, Redistribution and Tax Expenditures: The Earned Income Tax Credit, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 14307, 2008.
110. Katz, Price of Citizenship, 261.
111. Peter Marris and Martin Rein, Dilemmas of Social Reform: Poverty and Community Action in the United States (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967); Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper and Row, 1984); Sanford Kravitz, “The Community Action Program,” in Sundquist, ed., On Fighting Poverty, 52–69; Sar A. Levitan and Robert Taggart, The Promise of Greatness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 169–187; Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding; Paul E. Peterson and J. David Greenstone, “Racial Change and Citizen Participation: The Mobilization of Low Income Communities through Community Action,” in Robert Haveman, ed., A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs: Achievements, Failures, and Lessons (New York: Academic Press, 1971), 263; West, The National Welfare Rights Program. On CETA, see Grace A. Franklin and Randall B. Ripley, CETA: Politics and Policy, 1973-1982 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 37; see also 189-200 for their evaluation of CETA, which includes a favorable analysis of its economic impact on participants. William Mirengoff et al., CETA: Assessment of Public Service Employment Programs (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1980), 4–5; Weir, Politics and Jobs, 100. For an overview of work and training programs in the late 1970s, see U.S. Department of Labor and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Employment and Training Report of the President, 1978 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1978).
112. Orleck and Hazirijan, War on Poverty, 440–441.
113. Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
114. France Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Poor People’s Movements; The New Class War: Reagan’s Attack on the Welfare State and Its Consequences (New York: Pantheon, 1982); Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty, 180–184; Jack L. Roach and Janet K. Roach, “Mobilizing the Poor: Road to a Dead End,” Social Problems 26 (December 1978): 160–167; Larry Isaac and William R. Kelly, “Racial Insurgency, the State and Welfare Expansion: Local and National Level Evidence from the Post-war United States,” American Journal of Sociology 86 (May 1981): 1348–1386; Edward T. Jennings, “Racial Insurgency, the State, and Welfare Expansion: A Critical Comment and Reanalysis,” American Journal of Sociology 88 (May 1983): 1220–1236; Joyce Gelb and Alice Sardell, “Strategies for the Powerless: The Welfare Rights Movement in New York City,” American Behavioral Scientist 17 (March-April 1974): 507–530; Michael Betz, “Riots and Welfare: Are They Related?” Social Problems 21 (June 1974): 345–355. Peter Dreier, “Glen Beck’s Attacks on Frances Fox Piven Trigger Death Threats,” Huff Post Media, January 23, 2011.
115. Mollie Orshansky, “Counting the Poor: Another Look at the Poverty Profile,” first published in the Social Security Bulletin, 1965, reprinted in Mollie Orshansky, The Measure of Poverty: Technical Paper I Documentation of Background Information and Rationale for Current Poverty Matrix (Washington, DC: GPO, 1977), 19–20.
116. Mollie Orshansky, “Children of the Poor,” first published in the Social Security Bulletin, July 1963, reprinted in Orshansky, The Measure of Poverty, 10; Orshansky, “Memorandum for Dr. Daniel P. Moynihan Subject: History of the Poverty Line,” July 1, 1970, 234; “Who’s Who Among the Poor: A Demographic View of Poverty,” first published in the Social Security Bulletin, July 1965, reprinted in The Measure of Poverty, 50, 68–69; “Perspectives on Poverty 2: How Poverty is Measured,” Monthly Labor Review (February 1969), reprinted in The Measure of Poverty, 245.
117. Orshansky, “Counting the Poor,” 24; “Who’s Who Among the Poor,” 50; “Perspectives on Poverty 2,” 245; “Poverty Thresholds,” in The Measure of Poverty, 276.
118. Mollie Orshansky, “Measuring Poverty: A Debate,” Public Welfare (Spring 1978): 47. On the measurement of poverty, see Michael Harrington, The New American Poverty (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984), 69–71 and 84–85; Harrell R. Rodgers, Jr., The Cost of Human Neglect (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharp, Inc., 1982), 15–30; Sidney E. Zimbalist, “Replacing Our Obsolete Poverty Line,” Public Welfare 35 (Fall 1977): 36–41 and “Drawing the Poverty Line,” Social Work 9 (July 1964): 19–26; John B. Williamson and Kathryn M. Hyer, “The Measurement and Meaning of Poverty,” Social Problems 22 (June 1975): 652–663; Marie Withers Osmond and Mary Durkin, “Measuring Family Poverty,” Social Science Quarterly 60 (June 1979): 87–95; James H. Hauver, John A. Goodman, and Marc A. Grainer, “The Federal Poverty Thresholds: Appearance and Reality,” Journal of Consumer Research 8 (June 1981): 1–10; Theo Goehart, Victor Halberstadt, Arie Kapteyn, and Bernard Van Praag, “The Poverty Line: Concept and Measurement,” Journal of Human Resources 12 (1977): 503–520; Sheldon Danziger and Peter Gottschalk, “The Measurement of Poverty: Implications for Antipoverty Policy,” American Behavioral Scientist 26 (July-August 1983): 739–756; Donald E. Chambers, “Another Look at the Poverty Lines in England and the United States,” Social Service Review 55 (September 1981): 472–483, and “The U.S. Poverty Line: A Time for Change,” Social Work 27 (July 1982): 354–358; Leonard Beeghley, “Illusion and Reality in the Measurement of Poverty,” Social Problems 31 (February 1984): 322–333; and Christopher Jencks, “The Politics of Income Measurement,” in William Alonso and Paul Starr, eds., The Politics of Numbers (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1987), 83–131. The entire book is an excellent and authoritative source on the politics of numbers in contemporary American social science.
119. Patricia Ruggles, Drawing the Line: Alternative Poverty Measures and Their Implications for Public Policy (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1990); Constance F. Citro and Robert T. Michael, eds., Measuring Poverty: A New Approach (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995); also National Academy of Sciences, “Summary and Recommendations [1995]” and U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty – Experimental Measures,” [March 2012] http://www.census.gov/hhes/povmeas. New York City Commission for Economic Opportunity, “Increasing Opportunity and Reducing Poverty in New York City” (report to Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg, September 2006; New York City Commission for Economic Opportunity, “Increasing Opportunity and Reducing Poverty in New York City” (report to Mayor Michael Bloomberg, September 2006), 8–9. For a brief, lucid overview of the poverty line, see Mark Levinson, “Mismeasuring—and its Consequences,” American Prospect, July/August 2012, 42–43.
120. “Inequality and Poverty Key Figures,” LIS Cross-National Data Center in Luxembourg, http://www.lisdatacenter.org/lis-ikf-webapp/app/search-ikf-figures, accessed October 1, 2012.
121. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 167.
122. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 51–52. For an excellent discussion of the use of research in the War on Poverty and the rising importance of economists, see O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 166–195.
123. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 32–34.
124. “Robert S. McNamara, January 21, 1961-February 1, 1968,” Department of Defense, http://www.defense.gov/specials/secdef_histories/bios/mcnamara.htm.
125. Elizabeth Evanson, “A Brief History of the Institute for Research on Poverty,” Focus 9 (Summer 1986): 2–7; [anon.], A Description (University of Wisconsin-Madison: Institute for Research on Poverty, 1986).
126. See Greg Duncan et al., Years of Poverty, Years of Plenty: The Changing Economic Fortunes of American Workers and Families (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1984).
127. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 192; Philip K. Robins et al., A Guaranteed Annual Income: Evidence from a Social Experiment (New York: Academic Press, 1980).
128. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 167.
129. Haveman, Poverty Policy, 236. See also Charles E. Lindblom and David K. Cohen, Usable Knowledge: Social Science and Social Problem Solving (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979).
1. This discussion of urban transformation is based on Chapter 1, “What is an American City?” in Michael B. Katz, Why Don’t American Cities Burn? (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 19–46. For figures on “eds” and “meds,” see 165, fn. 19, 47.
2. James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
3. Kevin Fox Gotham, Race, Real Estate, and Uneven Development: The Kansas City Experience, 1900-2000 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), provides a vivid account of how realtors promoted racial segregation. Camilo J. Vergara, The New American Ghetto (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995). Laura J. Lawson, City Bountiful: A Century of Community Gardening in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005) and Dominic Vitiello, “Growing Edible Cities,” in Eugenie L. Birch and Susan L. Wachter, Growing Greener Cities: Urban Sustainability in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 259–78. Michael B. Katz, Mathew Creighton, Daniel Amsterdam, and Merlin Chowkwanyun, “Immigration and the New Metropolitan Geography,” Journal of Urban Affairs 32, no. 5 (2010): 523–47.
4. Douglas S. Massey, New Faces in New Places: The Changing Geography of Immigration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008).
5. Testimony of Jonathan Bowles, director, Center for an Urban Future, Before City Council Committees on Small Business and Immigration, “Creating Greater Opportunities for Immigrant Entrepreneurs,” December 14, 2007. See www.nycfuture.org. Mamie Marcuss with Ricardo Borgos, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, “Who Are New England’s Immigrants?” http://www.bostonfed.org/commdev/c&b/2004/fall/Immigrants.pdf.
6. Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); Carl H. Nightingale, Segregation: A Global History of Divided Cities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 295–322.
7. Kevin Fox Gotham, Race, Real Estate, and Uneven Development: The Kansas City Experience, 1900-2000 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002); Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 46–48, 64, 74, 85–87, 332–333; Dolores Hayden, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820-2000 (New York: Pantheon, 2003), 14.
8. Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 153-170.
9. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid. 10. David W. Bartelt, “Housing the Underclass,” in The “Underclass” Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael B. Katz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 118-157.
11. Brookings Institution, “The Re-Emergence of Concentrated Poverty: Metropolitan Trends in the 2000s,” Metropolitan Opportunity Series, November 3, 2011, http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2011/11/03-poverty-kneebone-nadeau-berube.
12. Douglas Massey, Jonathan Rothwell, and Thurston Domina, “The Changing Bases of Segregation in the United States,” Annals AAPSS 626 (November 2009): 74–90; Peter Dreier, John Mollenkopf, and Todd Swanstrom, Place Matters: Metropolitics for the Twenty-First Century, rev. 2nd ed. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 18, 48.
13. Dreier et al., Place Matters, 130–132.
14. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 190.
15. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 195–199.
16. I have described the components of the war on welfare in In the Shadow of the Poorhouse (New York: Basic Books, 1986), ch.
10. There are now many books and articles on the rise of the political Right. A good overview is Kim Phillips-Fein, “Conservatism: a State of the Field,” Journal of American History 98, no. 3 (December 2011): 723–743.
17. Katz, Shadow, 278; on the sources of conservatism, I have found useful: Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Ramesh Mishra, The Welfare State in Crisis: Social Thought and Social Change (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984); Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: Norton, 1984); Thomas Ferguson and Joel Rogers, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, The New Class War: Reagan’s Attack on the Welfare State and Its Consequences (New York: Pantheon, 1982); Daniel Stedman Jones, Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).
18. Robert Wuthnow and Matthew P. Lawson, “Sources of Christian Fundamentalism in the United States,” in Accounting for Fundamentalism, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 32; Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up: A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 175–184; Nancy T. Ammerman, “North American Fundamentalism,” in Fundamentalisms Observed, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 43–44; Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States (New York: Guilford Press, 1995), 311; Albert J. Menendez, Evangelicals at the Ballot Box (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1996), 176–177.
19. Chuck Lane, “The Manhattan Project,” New Republic, 25 March 1985, 14–15; James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991), 192, 194; Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up, 282; Jean Stefancic and Richard Delgado, No Mercy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), 89–90, app. tables 1, 2, 3; Vince Stehle, “Righting Philanthropy,” Nation, June 30, 1997, 16; David M. Ricci, The Transformation of American Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 166; Karen M. Paget, “Lessons of Right-Wing Philanthropy,” American Prospect 40 (September-October 1998): 91; National Committee for a Responsive Philanthropy, “Moving a Public Policy Agenda: The Strategic Philanthropy of Conservative Foundations,” July 1997; and “Conservative Foundations Prevail in Shaping Public Policies” [http://www.ncrp.org/publications].
20. Stefancic and Delgado, No Mercy, 140–146; Smith, Idea Brokers, 203.
21. Gareth Stedman Jones, An End to Poverty? A Historical Debate (London: Profile Books, 2004), 9-10, 225-226.
22. Lilian Brandt, “The Causes of Poverty,” Political Science Quarterly, 23, No. 4 (December, 1908): 643.
23. Martin Anderson, Welfare: The Political Economy of Welfare Reform in the United States (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1978).
24. Michael Harrington, The New American Poverty (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1984), 77, 79–80.
25. Harrington, New American Poverty, 81–84.
26. George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty (New York: Basic Books, 1981; Bantam edition, 1982), xi, 221–222; Leonard Silk, “A Walk on the Supply Side,” Harvard Business Review (November-December 1981): 44; Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1963). For other commentary on Gilder, see Robert Lekachman, “Right Wisdom,” Dissent 29 (Summer 1981): 373–374; Joseph Sobran, “The Economy of Faith,” National Review 33 (February 6, 1981): 104–105; Michael Kinsley, “Tension and Release,” New Republic, February 7, 1981, 25-31; Gordon Tullock, “Two Gurus,” Policy Review (Summer 1981 -Spring 1982): 137–144; Kendall P. Cochran, [review], Social Science Quarterly 63 (December 1982): 793–794; Robert Higgs, [review], Journal of Economic History 41 (December 1981): 957–959; [anon.], “Blessed Are the Money-Makers,” The Economist, March 7, 1981, 87–88; Vera Shlakman, [review], Social Work (March 1982): 198; Richard N. Farmer, [review], Business Horizons 24 (July–August 1981): 90–93; Alan Ryan, “Three Cheers for Capitalism,” Partisan Review 50 (Spring 1983): 300–303; Barry Gewen, “Gilder’s Capitalism Without Tears,” New Leader, March 23, 1981, 17–19; Ronald A. Krieger, “Supply-Side Economics,” Choice 19 (November 1981): 341–347.
27. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty; Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
28. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 23, 34, 103–106, 278–279.
29. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 82, 87, 89, 90–91, 153.
30. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 82, 87, 89, 90–91, 153.
31. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 135–136.
32. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 153, 155, 90, 139–140.
33. Gilder, Wealth and Poverty, 304–315.
34. George R. Geiger, [review], Antioch Review 36 (Summer 1978): 377; Ernest Van Den Haag, “The Libertarian Argument,” National Review 27 (July 4, 1975): 729; Michael Sean Quinn, “Defense of a Minimal State,” Southwest Review 60 (Summer 1975): 312; Sheldon Wolin, [review], The New York Times Book Review, May 11, 1975, 31. For other comments on Nozick, see: Virginia Held, “John Locke on Robert Nozick,” Social Research 43 (Spring 1976): 169-195; R.P.M., [review], Review of Metaphysics 30 (Spring 1976): 134–135; Francis Canavan, “False Individualism, Reasons for Hope, Backward Glances,” America, July 19, 1975, 37; Tibor R. Machan, “The Minimal State,” Modern Age (Fall 1975): 434–435; George Kateb, “The Night Watchman State,” American Scholar 45 (Winter 1976): 816-826; Raziel Abelson, “Is There a Public Interest,” The New Leader, April 14, 1975, 19–21; Douglas Rae, [review], The American Political Science Review 70 (1976): 1289–1291; Steven Lukes, “State of Nature,” New Statesman, March 14, 1975, 343–344; Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, “Hard Book That Must Be Read,” New York Times, August 5, 1975, 29; Michael Harrington, “Misconception of Society,” Commonweal, November 7, 1975, 534–536; Bernard Williams, “The Minimal State,” Times Literary Supplement, January 17, 1975, 46-47; Peter Witonski, “New Argument,” New Republic 172 (April 26, 1975): 29–30; Peter Singer, “The Right to Be Rich or Poor,” New York Review of Books 22 (March 6, 1975): 19–24.
35. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, ix–xii.
36. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 31.
37. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 153, 169.
38. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 231.
39. Murray, Losing Ground, 196.
40. Murray, Losing Ground, 233, 177.
41. Chuck Lane, “The Manhattan Project,” New Republic, March 25, 1985, 14–15.
42. Lane, “The Manhattan Project.”
43. Robert Greenstein, “Losing Faith in Losing Ground,” New Republic, March 25, 1985, 14; Christopher Jencks, “How Poor Are the Poor?” New York Review of Books 32 (May 5, 1985): 41.
44. Jencks, “How Poor Are the Poor?”, 46; Greenstein, “Losing Faith,” 14.
45. Greenstein, “Losing Faith,” 12–13.
46. Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement (New York: The Free Press, 1986), 1, ix.
47. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 7.
48. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 12. Mead’s central themes—distrust of human nature, the need for lowered expectations, a more authoritarian government, and a rejection of equality of condition—are precisely those ascribed by Peter Steinfels to contemporary “neoconservatives.” Steinfels, The Neoconservatives: The Men Who Are Changing America’s Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), passim.
49. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 7, 9, 10, 18–19, 24, 74, 69.
50. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 13, 84–85.
51. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 200, 6, 10, 87.
52. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 67, 9, 12.
53. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 62–63, 41.
54. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 60. On community action, see Chapter 3.
55. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 18–21, 49.
56. Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America, tenth anniversary edition, revised and updated (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 107-113; Tracy L. Steffes, School, Society, and State: A New Education to Govern Modern America, 1890-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
57. Fred Block, “Rethinking the Political Economy of the Welfare State,” in Fred Block et al., The Mean Season: The Attack on the Welfare State (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 109-160; “The Obligation to Work and the Availability of Jobs: A Dialogue between Lawrence M. Mead and William Julius Wilson,” Focus 10 (Summer 1987): 11–19. On the work ethic in American history, see Daniel Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).
58. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 6–7.
59. Mead, Beyond Entitlement, 24–43.
60. Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage, 1973).
61. For the idea that welfare policy assumes a psychology differentiated by class, I am indebted to Piven and Cloward, The New Class War, 39.
62. Lawrence Mead, The New Politics of Poverty: The Non-Working Poor in America (New York: Basic Books, 1992). I critically examined Mead’s arguments in Michael B. Katz, “The Poverty Debate,” Dissent (Fall 1992): 548–553. The summary list of Mead’s argument is from 548–549.
63. See, for example, Ronald Dworkin, “Why Liberals Should Believe in Equality,” New York Review of Books 30 (February 3, 1983): 57. Amartya Sen, On Economic Inequality, expanded edition with a substantial annex by James E. Foster and Amartya Sen (Delhi, Oxford, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 104–105, 210–211.
64. Frank I. Michelman, “On Protecting the Poor Through the Fourteenth Amendment,” Harvard Law Review 83: 7 (1969): 9, 13; “Welfare Rights in a Constitutional Democracy,” Washington University Law Quarterly 3 (Summer 1969): 678. The latter includes an appendix summarizing important Supreme Court decisions bearing on welfare rights and a commentary on Michelman’s argument by other scholars.
65. Raymond Plant, “So You Want to be a Citizen?” New Statesman 127, no. 4371 (6 February 1998): 30; Jocelyn Pixley, Citizenship and Employment: Investigating Post-Industrial Options (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 201.
66. Linda Kerber, “The Meanings of Citizenship,” Dissent (Fall 1997): 35; see also Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998); Kuttner, Everything for Sale: The Virtues and Limits of Markets (New York: Knopf, 1997), 351. See also Bruce E. Tonn and Carl Petrich, “Everyday Life’s Constraints on Citizenship in the United States,” Futures 30, no. 8 (1998): 783–813; Ralf Dahrendorf, “On the Origin of Inequality Among Men,” Social Inequality (1969): 39; Anthony Giddens, “T. H. Marshall, the State, and Democracy,” in Citizenship Today: The Contemporary Relevance of T. H. Marshall, eds. Martin Bulmer and Anthony M. Rees (London: University College of London, 1996), 66–67, 80. For an alternative concept of democracy, see the interesting and provocative C. Douglas Lummis, Radical Democracy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
67. Amy Gutmann, “Introduction,” 6, and J. Donald Moon, “The Moral Basis of the Democratic Welfare State,” 28–29, in Democracy and the Welfare State, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). See also J. Donald Moon, ed., Responsibility, Rights and Welfare: The Theory of the Welfare State (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1988).
68. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 92, 31, 62.
69. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 278, 84, 92–93.
70. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 92–93. See also Walzer, “Socializing the Welfare State,” in Gutmann, Democracy and the Welfare State, 13–26.
71. National Conference of Catholic Bishops [hereafter cited as NCCB], Economic Justice for All: Pastoral Letter on Catholic Social Teaching and the U.S. Economy (United States Catholic Conference, Washington, DC, 1986), 93.
72. NCCB, Economic Justice, xi, 8. I am indebted to David Hollenbach for an explanation of the background and intent of the pastoral letter.
73. NCCB, Economic Justice, 12, ix, 32.
74. NCCB, Economic Justice, 36–37; Dworkin, “Why Liberals Should Believe in Equality,” 33–34.
75. NCCB, Economic Justice, 57–58, 4–5, 62, 51, 153.
76. Michael B. Katz, The Price of Citizenship: Redefining the American Welfare State (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001; updated edition, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 26.
77. Jamie Peck, Workfare States (New York and London: The Guilford Press, 2001), 9.
78. Peck, Workfare States, 85.
79. Peck, Workfare States, 81.
80. Richard Nathan, “Will the Underclass Always Be with Us?” Society 24 (March-April 1987): 61.
81. Nathan, “Underclass,” 61.
82. Fred Block and John Noakes, “The Politics of New-Style Workfare,” unpublished paper prepared for PARSS Seminar on Work and Welfare, January 1988, 14–19.
83. Nathan, “Underclass,” 61–62.
84. Block and Noakes, “Politics of New-Style Workfare,” 33, Table III; 34; 36, Table IV.
85. Katz, Price of Citizenship, 57–76.
86. Robert Rector and William F. Lauber, America’s Failed $5.4 Trillion War on Poverty (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 1995). For an authoritative criticism, see Sharon Parrott, “How Much Do We Spend on Welfare?” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 1995.
87. Martin Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
88. Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare, 102–153; US House of Representatives, 1996 Green Book, 474, table 8–28; 483–484, table 8–33.
89. Robert Pear, “Republicans Finish with Welfare Measure, Clinton Ambivalent,” New York Times, 31 July 1996; Vanessa Gallman, “Republicans Offer Welfare Bill Compromise,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 31 July 1996; Robert Pear, “Clinton Says He’ll Sign Bill Overhauling Welfare System,” New York Times, 1 August 1996; R. Kent Weaver, “Ending Welfare as We Know It,” in The Social Divide: Political Parties and the Future of Activist Government, ed. Margaret Weir (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution; New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), 375, table 9-1; Congressional Record—House, 31 July 1996, H9396.
90. Lester M. Salamon, “Holding the Center: America’s Nonprofit Sector at a Crossroads,” (New York: Nathan Cummings Foundation, 1997); Nina Bernstein, “Giant Companies Entering Race to Run State Welfare Programs,” New York Times, September 15, 1996. Bernstein also wrote about the galloping privatization in the foster care system in “Welfare Bill Has Opened Foster Care to Big Business,” New York Times, May 4, 1997. See also Barbara Ehrenreich, “Spinning the Poor into Gold: How Corporations Seek to Profit from Welfare Reform,” Harper’s, August 1997, 44; Sam Howe Verhovek, “White House Rejects Texas Plan for Business Role in Welfare,” New York Times, May 11, 1997; Steven Thomma, “Privatization Jackpot Eyed: Takeover of Texas Welfare,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 24, 1997; William D. Hartung and Jennifer Washburn, “Lockheed Martin: From Warfare to Welfare,” Nation, March 2, 1998; Nina Bernstein, “Squabble Puts Welfare Deal under Spotlight in New York,” New York Times, February 22, 2000.
91. Jason DeParle, “Tougher Welfare Limits Bring Surprising Results,” New York Times, December 30, 1997; see also Massing, “The End of Welfare?” New York Review of Books, October 7, 1999, 25–26.
92. Barbara Ehrenreich, Nickel and Dimed: On (not) Getting By in America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2001); David K. Shipler, The Working Poor: Invisible in America (New York: Knopf, 2004).
93. Mark Rank, One Nation, Underprivileged: Why American Poverty Affects Us All (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 92, 95.
1. On the origins of the term “underclass,” the definitive account is Herbert J. Gans, The War Against the Poor: The Underclass and Antipoverty Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 27–57.
2. “The American Underclass,” Time, August 29, 1977, 1, 15.
3. Isabel Wilkerson, “New Studies Zeroing in on Poorest of the Poor,” New York Times, December 20, 1987, 26.
4. “The American Underclass,” 14, 16.
5. David Whitman and Jeannye Thornton, “A Nation Apart,” U.S. News and World Report, March 17, 1986, 18; Myron Magnet, “America’s Underclass: What to Do?” Fortune, May 11, 1987, 130.
6. Lee Rainwater, “Looking Back and Looking Up,” Transaction 6 (February 1969): 9. A very good discussion of the origins of the underclass concept in American social science is Robert Aponte, “Conceptualizing the Underclass: An Alternative Perspective,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, August 26, 1988. The Aponte paper is also one of the two best criticisms of the concept I have read. The other is Nicky Gregson and Fred Robinson, “The Casualties of Thatcherism,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers, March 20, 1989. For a summary of the most recent social science research on the underclass, see William J. Wilson, ed., “The Ghetto Underclass: Social Science Perspectives,” special issue, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 501 (January 1989).
7. Douglas G. Glasgow, The Black Underclass: Poverty, Unemployment, and Entrapment of Ghetto Youth (New York: Random House, 1980), 3, 4. Glasgow is a former dean of the School of Social Work at Howard University and vice president of the National Urban League’s Washington Operations Office. For his later formulation of the issue, see his “The Black Underclass in Perspective,” in National Urban League, The State of Black America 1987 (Washington: National Urban League, 1987), 129–144.
8. Ken Auletta, The Underclass (New York: Random House, 1982), xvi.
9. For a similar example from the nineteenth century, see Michael B. Katz, Poverty and Policy in American History (New York: Academic Press, 1983), 134–156.
10. Auletta, The Underclass, 260–268.
11. Nicholas Lemann, “The Origins of the Underclass,” The Atlantic Monthly 257 (June 1986): 31–61, and 258 (July 1986): 54–68. Quotations from 257, 32–33, 35, 258, 59, 61. William J. Wilson points out Lemann’s belatedly acknowledged debt to his work in William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 197–198, fn. 72.
12. Lemann, Underclass, 40, 60, 257–258.
13. Lemann, Underclass, 35, 257.
14. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 55.
15. Gerald Jaynes, seminar comments, PARSS seminar on the city, University of Pennsylvania, December 15, 1986. See also, Andrew Billingsley, “Black Families in a Changing Society,” and Glasgow, “Black Underclass,” in National Urban League, State of Black America, 105–106 and 132–133.
16. Janice Madden, seminar comments, PARSS seminar on the city, University of Pennsylvania, December 15, 1986.
17. Marian Wright Edelman, Families in Peril: An Agenda for Social Change (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 73.
18. Martha A. Gephart and Robert W. Pearson, “Contemporary Research on the Urban Underclass,” Items 42 (June 1988): 3.
19. Wilkerson, “New Studies;” Erol R. Ricketts and Isabel V. Sawhill, “Defining and Measuring the Underclass,” unpublished manuscript, December 1986.
20. Douglas S. Massey and Robert J. Sampson, “Moynihan Redux: Legacies and Lessons,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621 (2009): 18.
21. William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978; 2nd edition, 1980). On the controversy, see Joseph R. Washington, ed., The Declining Significance of Race? A Dialogue among Black and White Social Scientists (Philadelphia: Joseph R. Washington, Jr., 1979).
22. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York: Scribner’s, 1992); Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation Indivisible (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997); Michael B. Katz, Mark J. Stern, and Jamie J. Fader, “The New African American Inequality,” Journal of American History 92 (June 2005): 75–108.
23. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged vii-viii; William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996); William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: Norton, 2009).
24. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 7–8.
25. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 7–8.
26. Wilson, When Work Disappears, 243–251.
27. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 33–37; Stanley Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie: Black and White Immigrants Since 1880 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980).
28. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 49–56.
29. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 46, 55.
30. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 56. See also Elijah Anderson, “Of Old Heads and Young Boys: Notes on the Urban Black Experience,” unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, 1986.
31. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 60–61.
32. Martha A. Gephart and Robert W. Pearson, “Contemporary Research on the Urban Underclass,” Items 42 (June 1988): 1–10. The committee’s first major “product” was Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1991). For an excellent brief history of the SSRC committee see Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 277–283. I served as archivist to and ex-officio member of the committee, which funded the volume, The “Underclass” Debate: The View from History, which I edited.
33. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 277.
34. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 278.
35. Quotation in O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 278, fn. 133.
36. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 280.
37. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 280.
38. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 281.
39. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 282.
40. William Julius Wilson, “Social Theory and Public Agenda Research: The Challenge of Studying Inner-City Social Dislocations” (Presidential Address, Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, August 12, 1990). For a sophisticated attempt to arrive at a more satisfactory definition, see Martha Van Haitsma, “A Contextual Definition of the Underclass,” Focus 12 (Spring and Summer 1989): 27–31.
41. William Julius Wilson, “Studying Inner-City Dislocations: The Challenge of Public Agenda Research,” American Sociological Review 56, no. 1 (Feb. 1991): 1–14. Quotations pp. 4–6.
42. Steve Sailer, “Analysis: Unwed Moms’ Birth Rate Up,” United Press International, July 2, 2003.
43. James T. Patterson, Freedom is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle Over Black Family Life—from LBJ to Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 130.
44. Adam Clymer, “Daniel Patrick Moynihan is Dead,” New York Times, March 27, 2003, A1; Robert Stacey McCain, “Ex-Sen. Moynihan Dies at 76,” Washington Times, March 27, 2003, A03.
45. George Will, “Farewell to a Giant Among Public Servants,” The Times (Albany, NY), March 27, 2003, A11.
46. Peter Edelman, So Rich, So Poor: Why It’s So Hard to End Poverty in America (New York: New Press, 2012), 37.
47. Edelman, So Rich, So Poor, 38.
48. Edelman, So Rich, So Poor, 38.
49. Michael B. Katz and Mark J. Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
50. Katz and Stern, One Nation Divisible, 135.
51. Edelman, So Rich, So Poor, 39.
52. Edelman So Rich, So Poor, 36–37.
53. Sara McLanahan and Christine Percheski, “Family Structure and the Reproduction of Inequality,” Annual Review of Sociology 34 (2008): 257–276. Quotation 264.
54. Charles A. Donovan, A Marshall Plan for Marriage: Rebuilding Our Shattered Homes, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder, No. 2567, June 7, 2011, 1, 12–13.
55. Charles Murray, Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960-2010 (New York: Crown Publishing, 2012), quotation, 148.
56. Sara McLanahan, “Should Government Promote Marriage?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 26, no. 4 (2007): 951–964. Quotation 951.
57. Kathryn Edin and Maria Kefals, Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 6.
58. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 83.
59. Paul Tough, Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America (New York: Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008), 9–17.
60. Katz and Stern, One Nation Divisible, 162–163.
61. Elijah Anderson, ed., Up Against the Wall: Poor, Young, Black, and Male (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 3.
62. Anderson, Up Against the Wall, ix.
63. Anderson, Up Against the Wall, ix.
64. Anderson, Up Against the Wall, 3. See also, Elijah Anderson, Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City (New York: Norton, 1999).
65. Anderson, Up Against the Wall, 6.
66. Anderson, Up Against the Wall, 8.
67. Harry J. Holzer, “The Labor Market and Young Black Men: Updating Moynihan’s Perspective,” Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science 621, no. 1 (January 2009): 47.
68. Katz and Stern, One Nation Divisible, 88–89.
69. Holzer, “Labor Market and Young Black Men.”
70. Katz and Stern, One Nation Divisible, 88–89. See also, Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
71. Holzer, “Labor Market and Young Black Men.”
72. Arline Geronimus, John Bound, and Cynthia Colen, “Excess Black Mortality in the United States and in Selected Black and White High-Poverty Areas, 1980-2000,” American Journal of Public Health 101, no. 4 (April 2011): 720–729.
73. Bill Cosby, “Address at the NAACP on the 50th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education,” May 17, 2004, American Rhetoric, http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/billcosbypoundcakespeech.htm.
74. Michael Eric Dyson, Is Bill Cosby Right (Or Has The Black Middle Class Lost Its Mind?) (New York: Basic Books, 2005), xiii–xv.
75. Dayo Olopade, “Tough Love From the Father-in-Chief,” The Root, June 19, 2008, http://www.theroot.com/views/tough-love-father-chief, accessed August 11, 2012.
76. Rossi, “First Out, First In,” unpublished lecture, August, 1988; 2, 9–16. Mark J. Stern, “The Emergence of Homelessness as a Public Problem,” in Erickson and Wilhelm, Housing the Homeless, 113.
77. US Department of Housing and Urban Development, “At a Glance: Criteria and Recordkeeping Requirements for Definition of Homeless,” http://www.hudhre.info/index.cfm?do=viewResource&ResourceID=4579, accessed 12 December 2012.
78. Mark J. Stern, “Housing and Community Development,” in Stern, Engaging Social Welfare.
79. Michele Dauber, The Sympathetic State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 87–88.
80. Mark J. Stern, “The Emergence of Homelessness,” 118–119; Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 253.
81. Stern, “The Emergence of Homelessness.”
82. Barrett A. Lee, Kimberly A. Tyler, and James D. Wright, “The New Homelessness Revisited,” Annual Review of Sociology 36 (2010): 501–21.
83. Teresa Gowan, Hobos, Hustlers and Backsliders: Homeless in San Francisco (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 27–28.
84. Martha Minow, Making All the Difference: Inclusions, Exclusion, and American Law (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
85. Dennis P. Culhane and Stephen Metraux, “Rearranging the Deck Chairs or Reallocating the Lifeboats?: Homelessness Assistance and Its Alternatives,” Journal of the American Planning Association 74. 1 (2008): 111–121. Available at: http://works.bepress.com/dennis_culhane/51; National Center on Family Homelessness, “The Characteristics and Needs of Families Experiencing Homelessness,” update December 2011. On the history of homelessness, see, Kenneth L. Kusmer, Down & Out, On the Road: The Homeless in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
86. Culhane and Metraux, “Rearranging the Deck Chairs.”
87. Mark J. Stern, Engaging Social Welfare: An Introduction to Policy Analysis (Boston: Pearson Education, forthcoming 2013).
88. Culhane and Metraux, “Rearranging the Deck Chairs.”
89. US Department of Housing and Urban Development, HUD Strategic Plan FY 2010-2015 (May 2010), 10, http://www.HUD.gov/strategicplan.
90. HUD, Strategic Plan, 10.
91. Culhane and Metraux, “Rearranging the Deck Chairs,” 112.
92. Mark J. Stern, Engaging Social Welfare: An Introduction to Policy Analysis (Boston: Pearson Education Publishing, forthcoming 2013).
93. Dennis P. Culhane, Edmond F. Dejowski, Julie Ibañez, Elizabeth Needham, and Irene Macchia, “Public Shelter Admission Rates in Philadelphia and New York City: The Implications of Turnover for Sheltered Population Counts,” Housing Policy Debates 5, no. 2 (1994): 107–140; Dennis P. Culhane, Chang-Moon Lee, and Susan M. Wachter, “Where the Homeless Come From: A Study of the Prior Address Distribution of Families Admitted to Public Shelters in New York City and Philadelphia,” Housing Policy Debate 7, no. 2 (1996): 327–365.
94. Annie Lowrey, “Homeless Rates in U.S. Held Level Amid Recession, Study Says, but Big Gains Are Elusive,” New York Times, December 10, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/10/us/homeless-rates-steady-despite-recession-hud-says.html?ref=us.
95. Office of Special Needs Assistance Programs. Office of Community Planning and Development. US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Homeless Prevention and Rapid Re-Housing Program: Year 1 Summary, June 2011; Alfred Lubrano, “Shelter and Food Needs Soaring,” Philadelphia Inquirer, December 12, 2012; U.S. Conference of Mayors, Housing and Homeless Survey: A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America’s Cities. A 25-City Report. December 2012 http://usmayors.org/pressreleases/uploads/2012/1219-report-HH.pdf, accessed April 19, 2013.
96. Susan Saulny, “After Recession, More Young Adults Are Living on Street,” New York Times, December 18, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/19/us/since-recession-more-young-americans-are-homeless. html?hp&_r=0.
97. Joseph A. Slobodzian, “Parkway Feeding Programs Can Remain—The Judge’s Reaffirmation of his Earlier Oral Order Said the Meals ‘Benefit the Public Interest.’ He Calls for Sides to Settle,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 11, 2002; Troy Graham, “Nutter Says He’ll Act on Homeless Feeding Report,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 29, 2012.
98. Dan Frosch, “Homeless Are Fighting Back Against Panhandling Bans,” New York Times, October 5, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/06/us/homeless-are-fighting-back-in-court-against-panhandling-bans.html.
99. Katherine Beckett and Steve Herbert, Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Gowan, Hobos, 232–282.
100. Audrey Singer, “Immigrants, Welfare Reform and the Coming Reauthorization Vote,” Migration Information Source, August 2002.
101. Steven A. Camarota, Immigrants in the United States: A Profile of America’s Foreign-Born Population (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, August 2012).
102. Camarota, Immigrants in the United States.
103. Audrey Singer, Domenic Vitiello, Michael Katz, David Park, Recent Immigration to Philadelphia: Regional Change in a Re-Emerging Gateway (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, November 2008).
104. John M. MacDonald and Robert J. Sampson, “Don’t Shut the Golden Door,” New York Times, June 19, 2012.
105. See, for instance, Cybelle Fox, Three Worlds of Relief: Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).
106. Max Page, The Creative Destruction of Manhattan, 1900-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 79.
107. Harvey Warren Zorbaugh, The Gold Coast and the Slum: A Sociological Study of Chicago’s Near North Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), 151.
108. Christopher Jencks and Susan E. Mayer, “The Social Consequences of Growing Up in a Poor Neighborhood” in Inner City Poverty in the United States, eds. L. Lynn and M. McGreary (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1990).
109. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 55, 58.
110. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 118.
111. Robert J. Sampson, Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 22, 29.
112. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 282.
113. Leila Fiester, Building a Community of Community Builders: The National Community Building Network 1993-2005 (Oakland, Calif.: Urban Strategies Council, 2007), 4–5; Kristina Smock, “Comprehensive Community Initiatives: A New Generation of Urban Revitalization,” COMM-ORG: The On-Line Conference on Community Organizing, 1997. http://comm-org.wisc.edu/papers97/smock/smockintro.htm.
114. Smock, “Comprehensive Community Initiatives.”
115. Prudence Brown and Sunil Garg, “Comprehensive Community Initiatives: The Challenges of Partnership,” Chapin Hall Center for Children, 1997.
116. Smock, “Comprehensive Community Initiatives.”
117. Brown and Garg, “Comprehensive Community Initiatives.”
118. Helen Zelon, “Hope or Hype in Harlem?” City Limits (March 2010): 15, 30–31. For background on Geoffrey Canada and the HCZ, see Paul Tough, Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008).
119. Zelon, “Hope or Hype,” 13–14.
120. Zelon, “Hope or Hype,” 28. For a vivid account of the role of test preparation in the daily life of one of the schools, see Tough, Whatever It Takes.
121. Zelon, “Hope or Hype,” 29.
122. Zelon, “Hope or Hype,” 37.
123. Nowak et al., Religious Institutions and Community Renewal, I-8-9; Alvis C. Vidal, Rebuilding Communities: A National Study of Urban Community Development Corporations (New York: New School for Social Research, Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy, Community Development Research Center, 1992), 34, 87; Robert O. Zdenek, Taking Hold: The Growth and Support of Community Development Corporations (Washington, DC: National Congress for Community Economic Development, 1990), 2–6; National Congress for Community Economic Development, Tying It All Together (Washington, DC: NCCED, 1995), 1, 19.
124. Zdenek, Taking Hold, 7–8; Neal R. Peirce and Carol F. Steinbach, Enterprising Communities: Community-Based Development in America, 1990 (Washington, DC: Council for Community-Based Development, 1990), 27–30; Randy Stoecker, “The CDC Model of Urban Redevelopment: A Critique and an Alternative,” Journal of Urban Affairs 19, no. 1 (1997): 1–22; Rachel G. Blatt, “CDCs: Contributions Outweigh Contradictions: A Reply to Randy Stoecker,” Journal of Urban Affairs 19, no. 1 (1997): 23–38; see also W. Dennis Keating, “The CDC Model of Urban Development: A Reply to Randy Stoecker,” and Randy Stoecker, “Should We… Could We… Change the CDC Model? A Rejoinder,” Journal of Urban Affairs 19, no. 1 (1997): 29–33, 35–44.
125. David J. Erickson, The Housing Policy Revolution: Networks and Neighborhoods (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2009), xii, xix; Christopher J. Walker and Mark Weinheimer, “Community Development in the 1990s” (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1998).
126. Jeremy Nowak, “Neighborhood Initiative and the Regional Economy,” Economic Development Quarterly 11, no. 1 (February 1997): 3–10.
127. Leonard S. Rubinowitz and James E. Rosenbaum, Crossing the Class and Color Lines: From Public Housing to White Suburbia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 187, 189.
128. Xavier de Souza Briggs, Susan J. Popkin, and John Goering, Moving to Opportunity: The Story of an American Experiment to Fight Ghetto Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 13–14.
129. Xavier de Souza Briggs, Susan J. Popkin, and John Goering, Moving to Opportunity: The Story of an American Experiment to Fight Ghetto Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 13–14.
130. Jens Ludwig, Greg J. Duncan, Lisa A. Gennetian, Lawrence F. Katz, Ronald C. Kessler, Jeffrey R. King, Lisa Sanbonmatsu, “Neighborhood Effects on the Long-Term Well-Being of Low-Income Adults,” Science 337, no. 6101 (September 21, 2012): 1505–1510; Sabrina Taverenise, “Intangible Dividend of Antipoverty Effort: Happiness,” New York Times, September 21, 2012.
131. Michael B. Katz, Why Don’t American Cities Burn? (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 101–150.
132. David J. Bartelt, “Housing the Underclass,” in “Underclass” Debate, ed., Katz, 118–157.
133. Michael E. Porter, “The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City,” Harvard Business Review 73, 3 (May 1955): 55–71; Initiative for a Competitive Inner City online, www.icic.org; Initiative for a Competitive Inner City, “State of the Inner City Economies: Small Businesses in the Inner City,” Small Business Research Summary 260 (October 2005); Julia Sass Rubin and Gregory M. Staniewicz, “The New Markets Tax Credit Program: A Midcourse Assessment,” Community Development Investment Review 1, no. 1 (March, 2005): 1–11.
134. Ananya Roy, Poverty Capital: Microfinance and the Making of Development (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).
135. Muhammad Yunus, Creating a World Without Poverty (New York: Public Affairs, 2007); Muhammad Yunus, Banker to the Poor: Micro-Lending and the Battle Against World Poverty (New York: Public Affairs, 1999); Alex Counts, Small Loans, Big Dreams: How Nobel Prize Winner Muhammad Yunus and Microfinance Are Changing the World (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008).
136. For the operations of Grameen in the United States, see the Grameen America website, www.grameenamerica.com. Kristina Shevory, “With the Squeeze on Credit, Microlending Blossoms,” New York Times, July 28, 2010. Yunus quoted in Neil MacFarquhar, “Banks Making Big Profits from Tiny Loans,” New York Times, April 13, 2010. G. S. Radhakrishna, “Suicide Shock for Loan Sharks,” Telegraph (Calcutta, India), November 23, 2010; Linda Polgreen and Vikas Bajaj, “India Microcredit Sector Faces Collapse from Defaults,” New York Times, November 17, 2010.
137. Asif Dowla and Dipal Barua, The Poor Always Pay Back: The Grameen II Story (Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, 2006).
138. Michael Sherraden, Assets and the Poor: A New American Welfare Policy (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1991).
139. Reid Cramer, Mark Huelsman, Justin King, Alejandra Lopez-Fernandini, and David Newill, “The Assets Report 2010: An Assessment of President Obama’s Budget and the Changing Policy Landscape for Asset Building Opportunities,” New America Foundation, 2010; Thomas Shapiro, Tatjana Meschede, and Sam Orso, “Why the Racial Wealth Gap Is Increasing and How to Close It,” draft working paper, May 2012.
140. Mark Schreiner and Michael Sherraden, Can the Poor Save? Saving and Asset Building in Individual Development Accounts (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2007); Reed Cramer, “The Big Lift: Federal Policy Efforts to Create Child Development Accounts,” Center for Social Development, George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University, St. Louis, CSD Working Papers No. 09-43, 2009; Ford Foundation, “Building Assets to Reduce Poverty and Inequality” (2002); Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010 Global Savings Forum, November 16-17, Seattle Washington; CFED, “The SEED Initiative,” http://cfed.org/programs/abc/initiatives/seed/key_lessons_from_seed/index.htmls
141. New York City Commission for Economic Opportunity, “Increasing Opportunity and Reducing Poverty in New York City” (report to Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg, September 2006), www.Nyd.gov.html/om/pdf/MayorsCommissiononPovertyReport2006.pdf; Laura B. Rawlings, “A New Approach to Social Assistance: Latin America’s Experience with Conditional Cash Transfer Programmes,” International Social Security Review 58, 2–3 (2005): 134; Ariel Fizbein and Norbert Schady, Conditional Cash Transfers: Reducing Present and Future Poverty (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2009).
142. James A. Riccio, Nadine DeChuasay, David Greenberg, Cynthia Miller, Zawadi Rucks, and Nandita Verma, Toward Reduced Poverty Across Generations: Early Findings from New York City’s Conditional Cash Transfer Program (New York: MDRC, 2010); MDRC, “Opportunity NYC Demonstrations,” http://www.mdrc.org/project/opportunity-nyc-demonstrations#featured_content; Julie Bosman, “Disappointed, City Will Stop Paying Poor for Good Behavior,” New York Times, March 31, 2010; Sam Roberts, “New York’s Poverty Rate Rises, Study Finds,” New York Times, April 17, 2012.
143. David Harvey, Social Justice and the City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); A Brief History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution (New York: Verso, 2012).
144. For an excellent example of the work of geographers applied to poverty, see Jamie Peck, Workfare States (New York and London: Guilford Press, 2001).
145. Loïc Wacquant, Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality (Cambridge, England and Malden, Mass.: Polity Press, 2008), 3–4.
146. Wacquant, Urban Outcasts, 262.
147. Wacquant, Urban Outcasts, 233–253.
148. See, for instance, Anderson, Code of the Streets, 110–111.
149. Katz and Stern, One Nation Divisible, 92–93.
150. Arnold B. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
151. Michael B. Katz, ed., The “Underclass” Debate: Views from History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
152. Robert P. Fairbanks II and Richard Lloyd, “Critical Ethnography and the Neoliberal City: The US Example,” Ethnography 12, no. 1 (2011): 3–11.
153. Robert P. Fairbanks II, How It Works: Recovering Citizens in Post-Welfare Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
154. Philippe Bourgois and Jeff Schonberg, Righteous Dopefiend (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009), 16, 17.
155. Teddy Cruz, “Latin American Meander. In Search of a New Civic Imagination,” Architectural Design 81 no. 3 (May/June 2011): 110–118, quotation 111–112.
156. I realized these ambiguities in Wacquant’s use of advanced marginality in the course of discussing the book in a graduate seminar with a group of smart, sharp students.
157. Michael D. Shear and Michael Barbaro, “Romney Calls 47% of Voters Dependent in Leaked Video,” New York Times, September 18, 2012.
158. http://www.povertytour.smileyandwest.com/.
159. Alfred Lubrano, “Poverty Up in City, Suburbs, U.S. Says,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 20, 2012, A1.
160. Mark Robert Rank, One Nation, Underprivileged: Why American Poverty Affects Us All (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 12.
161. Peter Edelman, So Rich, So Poor: Why It’s So Hard To End Poverty in America (New York: New Press, 2012), xvi–xviii.
162. Martha F. Davis, “The Pendulum Swings Back: Poverty Law in the Old and New Curriculum,” Fordham Urb. L.J. 34, no. 4 (2007): 1391.
163. Jeffrey D. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities For Our Time (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 211–213, 218, 335.
164. Thomas Pogge, ed., Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right: Who Owes What to the Very Poor? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), vii.
165. Davis, “Pendulum Swings Back,” 1413–1414. For information on the advocacy organizations, see www.cesr.org; www.splcenter.org; www.amnestyusa.org; www.economichumanrights.org.
1. Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York: Crown Business Books, 2012). For an informative discussion of this book and the issues it addresses, see Jared Diamond, “What Makes Countries Rich or Poor?” New York Review of Books, June 7, 2012, 70–75.
2. Linda Giaonnorelli, Kye Lippold, and Michael Martinez-Schiferl, “Reducing Poverty in Wisconsin: Analysis of the Community Advocates Public Policy Institute Policy Package.” Urban Institute. June 2012, 33. The four measures are: senior and disability income tax credit, transitional jobs, minimum wage increase, earnings supplement reform.
3. Bruce D. Meyer and James X. Sullivan, “Dimensions of Progress: Poverty from the Great Society to the Great Recession,” conference draft presented at the fall 2012 Brookings Panel on Economic Activity, September 13–14, 2012.
4. Amartya Sen, “Conceptualizing and Measuring Poverty” and Martha C. Nussbaum, “Poverty and Human Functioning: Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements,” in David B. Grusky and Ravi Kanbur, eds., Poverty and Inequality (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), 30–75; Jeffrey D. Sachs, The Ends of Poverty: Economic Possibilities For Our Time (New York: Penguin Books, 2005).
5. Ananya Roy and Nezar Alsayad, Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004); Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, Off the Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006).
6. Lilian Brandt, “The Causes of Poverty,” Political Science Quarterly 23, no. 4 (December 1908): 639, 642–645.
7. Edward T. Devine, Misery and Its Causes (New York: MacMillan, 1911), 12.