INTRODUCTION: THE POLITICS AND PASSIONS OF GARDENS
1. John Claudius Loudon, Encyclopedia of Architecture, 1839.
CHAPTER 1: FOUNDING GARDENS (1600–1826)
1. Ralph Griswold and Frederick Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1978), 126.
2. Thomas Jefferson, The Garden and Farm Books of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Robert C. Baron (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1987), 45.
3. Peter Loewer, Jefferson’s Garden (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2004), 14.
4. Jefferson, Garden and Farm Books, 46.
5. Peter Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia from Jamestown to Jefferson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 134.
6. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 69.
7. Joyce Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (New York: Times Books, 2003), 149.
8. Loewer, Jefferson’s Garden, 16.
9. Jefferson, Garden and Farm Books, 4.
10. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 109.
11. Denise Otis, Grounds for Pleasure: Four Centuries of the American Garden (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002), 14.
12. Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 15.
13. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 7–10.
14. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 20.
15. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 4.
16. Ann Leighton, American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century: “For Use or for Delight” (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1986), 42–43.
17. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 4.
18. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 148, 153.
19. David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 633–39.
20. Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 25.
21. Richard Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York: Knopf, 1992), vi.
22. Bushman, The Refinement of America, 15.
23. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 30.
24. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 37; John Reps, The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), 103–14.
25. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 3.
26. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 53.
27. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 53.
28. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 54.
29. John Dixon Hunt, Garden and Grove: The Italian Renaissance Garden in the English Imagination, 1600–1750 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 12, 81.
30. Hunt, Garden and Grove, 104–5.
31. Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971), 183–84.
32. Hunt, Garden and Grove, 113.
33. Jenny Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening (New York: North Point Press, 2004), 56–57, 82.
34. Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 104, 143; Hunt, Garden and Grove, 143.
35. Hunt, Garden and Grove, 177.
36. Hunt, Garden and Grove, 153.
37. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 9.
38. Fiske Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect: Original Designs in the Coolidge Collection of the Massachusetts Historical Society (New York: Da Capo, 1968), 24.
39. Margherita Azzi Vicentani, “Palladio in America, 1760–1820,” in Irma B. Jaffe, ed., The Italian Presence in American Art, 1860–1920 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1992), 232–39.
40. William Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden: Thomas Jefferson’s Vision of the Monticello Landscape,” Eighteenth Century Life 8 (January 1983), 170–88.
41. Jefferson specified that these lines, instructing the grotto’s resident nymph to keep quiet, be inscribed inside:
Nymph of the grot, these sacred springs I keep,
And to the murmur of these waters sleep;
Ah! spare my slumbers! gently tread the cave!
And drink in silence, or in silence lave!
Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 95.
42. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 172.
43. John Dixon Hunt, The Genius of the Place: The English Landscape Garden, 1620–1820 (London: Elek, 1965), 289.
44. Hunt, The Genius of the Place, 289–97.
45. John Dixon Hunt, The Picturesque Garden in Europe (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002), 25.
46. John Dixon Hunt, Gardens and the Picturesque: Studies in the History of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), 122.
47. Hunt, The Picturesque Garden in Europe, 14–16, 95.
48. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 80.
49. Hunt, The Genius of the Place, 337.
50. Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect, 34.
51. Hunt, Garden and Grove, 197.
52. Hunt, “Pope’s Twickenham Revisited,” Eighteenth Century Life 8 (January 1983): 26–35.
53. Hunt, The Genius of the Place, 293–94.
54. Hunt, Gardens and the Picturesque, 46.
55. Leighton, American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century, 144.
56. Arthur Weitzman, “An Eighteenth Century View of Pope’s Villa,” Eighteenth Century Life 8 (January 1983), 36–38.
57. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 174.
58. Roger G. Kennedy, Architecture, Men, Women, and Money in America, 1600–1860 (New York: Random House, 1985), 11.
59. James D. Kornwolf, “The Picturesque in the American Garden and Landscape before 1800,” Eighteenth Century Life 8 (January 1983): 96–99.
60. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 96.
61. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 139–40.
62. Frank O’Neill, “The Great Iconoclast,” Garden & Gun, Spring 2007, 77.
63. Peter Martin, “‘Long and Assiduous Endeavors’: Gardening in Early Eighteenth-Century Virginia,” Eighteenth Century Life 8 (January 1983): 114.
64. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 179.
65. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 138.
66. Joseph Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Knopf, 1997), 129, 134.
67. May Brawley Hill, On Foreign Soil: American Gardeners Abroad (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2005), 24–25.
68. Ellis, American Sphinx, 82.
69. An engraving of her hangs in the family sitting room at Monticello, while a painting of Jefferson by John Trumbull that she owned now hangs in the White House. Her brother, George Hadfield, worked on the U.S. Capitol building and was the architect of Arlington House, in Virginia, built for George Washington Park Custis, stepgrandson of the first president; the house was later owned by General Robert E. Lee, who married Custis’s daughter.
70. Ellis, American Sphinx, 110–12; Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 78.
71. Ellis, American Sphinx, 114.
72. Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect, 38.
73. Loewer, Jefferson’s Garden, 18.
74. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 77.
75. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 81.
76. Kornwolf, “The Picturesque in the American Garden and Landscape before 1800,” 100.
77. Martin, Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 147.
78. Loewer, Jefferson’s Garden, 21.
79. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 139.
80. Ellis, American Sphinx, 135.
81. Ellis, American Sphinx, 32.
82. Appleby, Thomas Jefferson, 15, 16.
83. Ellis, American Sphinx, 131.
84. Letter of August 1, 1816.
85. Appleby, Thomas Jefferson, 34.
86. Ellis, American Sphinx, 146–47.
87. Ellis, American Sphinx, 139–40.
88. Ellis, American Sphinx, 159.
89. Appleby, Thomas Jefferson, 135.
90. Ellis, American Sphinx, 163.
91. Ellis, American Sphinx, 164–65.
92. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 94.
93. Kennedy, Architecture, Men, Women, and Money in America, 1600–1860, 18–40.
94. Charles Quest-Ritson, The English Garden: A Social History (Boston: David R. Godine, 2003), 6.
95. Bushman, The Refinement of America, 198.
96. Ellis, American Sphinx, 100.
97. Ellis, American Sphinx, 181.
98. Appleby, Thomas Jefferson, 44–45.
99. Ellis, American Sphinx, 233.
100. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 107.
101. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 181.
102. Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect, 70.
103. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 183.
104. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 86.
105. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 161.
106. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 134.
107. O’Neill, “The Great Iconoclast,” 79, citing Peter Hatch, The Gardens of Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello (Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 1992).
108. Joan L. Horn and Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest: A Private Place (Forest, VA: Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, 2002), 85.
109. Beiswanger, “The Temple in the Garden,” 185.
110. O’Neill, “The Great Iconoclast,” 75.
111. Ellis, American Sphinx, 238–39.
112. Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, 27.
CHAPTER 2: A WALK IN THE PARK: SUBURBIA AND THE SUBLIME (1820–1890)
1. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Scribner, 1999), 43.
2. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 60.
3. David Schuyler, Apostle of Taste: Andrew Jackson Downing, 1915–1852 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 220.
4. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 72.
5. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 222.
6. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 107.
7. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 14–15.
8. Judith K. Major, To Live in the New World: A. J. Downing and American Landscape Gardening (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997), 3.
9. Published in New-York Farmer and Horticultural Repository 5 (September 1882): 329–30; Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 34, 264n20.
10. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1967), 72.
11. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 77.
12. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 97.
13. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 85.
14. John Stilgoe, Borderland: Origins of the American Suburb, 1820–1930 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 7.
15. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 54; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Phillips Bradley (New York: Knopf, 1945), 2: 144–45.
16. Stilgoe, Borderland, 93; Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 10, 54.
17. Major, To Live in the New World, 3.
18. Oliver Larkin, Art and Life in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960), 156–62.
19. Kornwolf, “The Picturesque in the American Garden and Landscape before 1800,” 101.
20. Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 129, 159.
21. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 170.
22. Hunt, Gardens and the Picturesque, 163.
23. Hunt, Gardens and the Picturesque, 157.
24. Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 172.
25. Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 171, 182–88, 220.
26. Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 161.
27. Ann Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century: “For Comfort and Affluence” (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 159.
28. Andrew Jackson Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture (New York: Dover, 1991), 46.
29. Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture, 47.
30. Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture, 53.
31. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 38, 74.
32. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 166.
33. George B. Tatum, introduction to Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture, xii.
34. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 45.
35. Tatum introduction to Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture, xiii.
36. Wayne Andrews, Architecture, Ambition, and Americans: A Social History of American Architecture (New York: Free Press, 1978), 102–114.
37. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 53.
38. Major, To Live in the New World, 9.
39. Major, To Live in the New World, 10.
40. Bushman, The Refinement of America, 240.
41. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 63.
42. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 75–76.
43. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 64.
44. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 74–75.
45. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 72.
46. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 72.
47. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 71–72.
48. Stilgoe, Borderland, 38.
49. Stilgoe, Borderland, 53.
50. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 113.
51. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 113–17.
52. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 92.
53. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 117; Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 148.
54. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), 71.
55. Tatum introduction to Downing, Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture, ix.
56. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 112.
57. Stilgoe, Borderland, 70.
58. Stilgoe, Borderland, 67, 76.
59. Stilgoe, Borderland, 99, 110.
60. Noël Kingsbury and Tim Richardson. Vista: The Culture and Politics of Gardens (London: Frances Lincoln, 2005), 88–89.
61. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 100.
62. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 104.
63. Stilgoe, Borderland, 33–34.
64. Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Knopf, 1977), 5, 6, 12.
65. Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 138.
66. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 91.
67. It is hard to distinguish between the two, since they bleed into one another. John Stilgoe called the latter “the borderland,” but the title of his great book Borderland: Origins of the American Suburb admits the difficulty. For my purposes, the suburb and the more-distant second home zone partake of the same motivations, effects, and structure—the one being only more dense than the other, so I will lump them together under “suburb.”
68. Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 49.
69. Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 17.
70. Stilgoe, Borderland, 24.
71. Stilgoe, Borderland, 31.
72. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 153.
73. Newton, Design on the Land, 220–24; Uglow, A Little History of British Gardening, 183.
74. Nathaniel Hawthorne, “Our Old Home: A Series of English Sketches,” in The Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York: Thomas Crowell, 1906), 201.
75. Eric Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of Nearly 400 Years of New York City’s History (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 71.
76. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 158.
77. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 160.
78. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 45.
79. Hawthorne, “Our Old Home,” 204.
80. John McPhee, Annals of the Former World (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1998), 161.
81. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 135.
82. Bushman, The Refinement of America, 165.
83. Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture, 210.
84. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 140.
85. Bender, Toward an Urban Vision, 161.
86. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 202.
87. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 20.
88. Homberger, The Historical Atlas of New York City, 70.
89. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 85.
90. Bender, Toward an Urban Vision, 164–66.
91. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 93.
92. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 98.
93. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 156.
94. Bender, Toward an Urban Vision, 179.
95. Bender, Toward an Urban Vision, 171.
96. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 261.
97. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 271.
98. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 283.
99. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 108.
100. Christian Zapatka, The American Landscape (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1995), 79.
101. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 76–77.
102. Susan Fenimore Cooper, Rural Hours (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 68.
103. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 81.
104. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 348.
105. Wade Graham, “The Grassman,” The New Yorker, August 19, 1996.
106. Virginia Scott Jenkins, The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 24.
107. Jenkins, The Lawn, 107.
108. Jenkins, The Lawn, 61.
109. Lewis Mumford, The Brown Decades: A Study of the Arts in America, 1865–1895 (New York: Dover, 1955), 88.
CHAPTER 3: THE GOLDEN AGE: MODERNITY AND ITS DISCONTENTS (1880–1915)
1. Barbara Babcock Millhouse, American Wilderness: The Story of the Hudson River School of Painting (Hensonville, NY: Black Dome, 2007), 159.
2. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 242.
3. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 175.
4. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 235, 239–40.
5. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 247.
6. Lewis Mumford, Sticks and Stones: A Study of American Architecture and Civilization (New York: Dover, 1955), 105.
7. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 245.
8. Keith N. Morgan, Charles A. Platt: The Artist as Architect (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 36–37.
9. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 23.
10. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 59.
11. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 13–14.
12. Robin Karson, The Muses of Gwinn: Art and Nature in a Garden Designed by Warren H. Manning, Charles A. Platt & Ellen Biddle Shipman (Sagaponack, NY: Sagapress, 1995), 15.
13. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 101.
14. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 21.
15. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 179.
16. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 36.
17. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 35.
18. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Modern Library, 1931), 89.
19. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 293.
20. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 22.
21. Karson, The Muses of Gwinn, 16–17.
22. Leland M. Roth, McKim, Mead & White, Architects (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), 33.
23. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 296–99.
24. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 78.
25. Charles A. Platt, Italian Gardens (Portland, OR: Sagapress/Timber Press, 1993), 15–16.
26. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 116.
27. Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 39.
28. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 52.
29. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 311.
30. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 385.
31. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 313.
32. Roth, McKim, Mead & White, 177.
33. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 311.
34. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 398.
35. Kenneth H. Cardwell, Bernard Maybeck: Artisan, Architect, Artist (Santa Barbara, CA: Peregrine Smith, 1977), 31.
36. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 315.
37. Adams, The Education of Henry Adams, 315.
38. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 387.
39. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 339–40.
40. Adams, The Education of Henry Adams, 339–40.
41. Stilgoe, Borderland, 114.
42. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 285.
43. Overall argument from Lears, No Place of Grace.
44. Mumford, Sticks and Stones, 127–28.
45. May Brawley Hill, Grandmother’s Garden: The Old-Fashioned American Garden, 1865–1915 (New York: Abrams, 1995), 66–67.
46. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 66.
47. Stilgoe, Borderland, 28.
48. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 35.
49. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 22.
50. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 61.
51. Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century, 81.
52. Celia Thaxter, An Island Garden (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 4.
53. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 65.
54. Martin, The Pleasure Gardens of Virginia, 140.
55. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 143.
56. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 66.
57. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 147.
58. Charles E. Aguar and Berdeana Aguar, Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 11.
59. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 311.
60. Vivian Russell, Edith Wharton’s Italian Gardens (London: Frances Lincoln, 1997), 9.
61. Russell, Edith Wharton’s Italian Gardens, 9–10.
62. Russell, Edith Wharton’s Italian Gardens, 11.
63. Russell, Edith Wharton’s Italian Gardens, 12.
64. John Dixon Hunt, introduction to Edith Wharton, Italian Villas and Their Gardens (New York: Century, 1903).
65. Hill, Grandmother’s Garden, 31.
66. John M. Bryan, Biltmore Estate: The Most Distinguished Private Place (New York: Rizzoli, 1994), 11.
67. Henry James, Italian Hours (New York: Horizon, 1968), 306–7.
68. Mac Griswold and Eleanor Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens: Proud Owners, Private Estates, 1890–1940 (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1991), 13.
69. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 101–2.
70. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 13.
71. R. W. B. Lewis, Edith Wharton: A Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 121.
72. Lewis, Edith Wharton, 312.
73. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 40; Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 176; Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 48–49.
74. Morgan, Charles A. Platt, 69.
75. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 338.
76. Lewis, Edith Wharton, 136.
77. James, Italian Hours, 224.
78. Andrews, Architecture, Ambition, and Americans, 145.
79. Larkin, Art and Life in America, 283.
80. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 28.
81. Mrs. Mariana Griswold Schuyler Van Rensselaer, Art Out-of-Doors: Hints on Good Taste in Gardening (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893), 175–76.
82. Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth (New York: New York University Press, 1977), 3.
83. Quest-Ritson, The English Garden, 220.
84. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 79, 90.
85. Bryan, Biltmore Estate, 16.
86. Bryan, Biltmore Estate, 41–42.
87. Bryan, Biltmore Estate, 94.
88. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 404.
89. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 410.
90. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 298.
91. Newton, Design on the Land, 413, 415.
92. Mumford, Sticks and Stones, 130.
93. Henry James, The American Scene (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968), 322.
94. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 89; Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 39–40.
95. Clay Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America (New York: W. H. Rawls, 1963), 4.
96. Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 44.
97. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 256.
98. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 60.
99. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 33–34.
100. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 256.
101. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 206.
102. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 36, 47, 137.
103. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 207.
104. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 97.
105. Kendall Brown, Japanese-Style Gardens of the Pacific West Coast (New York: Rizzoli, 1999), 19.
106. Gray Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 134.
107. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 97.
108. Kevin Starr, Material Dreams: Southern California Through the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 294.
109. Starr, Material Dreams, 252.
110. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 122.
111. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 123.
112. Starr, Material Dreams, 239.
113. Starr, Material Dreams, 290–91; Newton, Design on the Land, 418.
114. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 153.
115. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 145.
116. Newton, Design on the Land, 417.
117. Newton, Design on the Land, 416–17.
118. Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 314–16.
119. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 143.
120. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 157.
121. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 160.
122. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 206.
123. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 167.
124. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 274.
125. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco, 150.
CHAPTER 4: FORWARD TO THE PAST: THE LONG ROMANCE OF THE ARTS & CRAFTS GARDEN (1850–1945)
1. Mumford, Sticks and Stones, iii, 35.
2. Mumford, Sticks and Stones, 22.
3. Wendy Kaplan, The Arts and Crafts Movement in Europe & America: Design for the Modern World (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2004), 247, 273.
4. Kaplan, The Arts and Crafts Movement in Europe & America, 42.
5. Kaplan, The Arts and Crafts Movement in Europe & America, 247.
6. Lears, No Place of Grace, 74. “Craft ideologues tended to infer the social problem from its aesthetic effects.”
7. Derek Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright (London: Frances Lincoln, 2009), 29.
8. Mumford, Sticks and Stones, 118.
9. Judith B. Tankard, Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement: Reality and Imagination (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2004), 33.
10. Tankard, Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement, 38.
11. William Robinson, The Wild Garden (Portland, OR: Sagapress/Timber Press, 1994), 9.
12. Reginald Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England (London, Macmillan, 1901), 7.
13. Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England, 9.
14. Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England, 12.
15. Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England, 10.
16. Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England, 10.
17. Blomfield, The Formal Garden in England, 233.
18. Rick Darke, In Harmony with Nature: Lessons from the Arts & Crafts Garden (New York: Friedman/Fairfax, 2000), 13.
19. Judith Tankard, introduction to Robinson, The Wild Garden, xi.
20. Quoted by Jane Brown, introduction to Gertrude Jekyll and Sir Lawrence Weaver, Gardens for Small Country Houses (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1927), 11.
21. Aguar and Aguar, Wrightscapes, 13.
22. Kingsbury and Richardson, Vista, 15.
23. Darke, In Harmony with Nature, 80–81.
24. Diana Balmori, Diane Kostial McGuire, and Eleanor M. McPeck, Beatrix Farrand’s American Landscapes: Her Gardens and Campuses (Sagaponack, NY: Sagapress, 1985), 14.
25. Judith B. Tankard, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman (Sagaponack, NY: Sagapress, 1996), xv.
26. Balmori, McGuire, and McPeck, Beatrix Farrand’s American Landscapes, 24.
27. Balmori, McGuire, and McPeck, Beatrix Farrand’s American Landscapes, 22.
28. Balmori, McGuire, and McPeck, Beatrix Farrand’s American Landscapes, 24.
29. Van Rensselaer, Art Out-of-Doors, 160, 167.
30. Hill, On Foreign Soil, 106–7; Griswold and Weller, The Golden Age of American Gardens, 40.
31. Tankard, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman, 22.
32. Tankard, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman, 152.
33. Wharton, Italian Villas, 42.
34. Karson, The Muses of Gwinn, 11.
35. Nancy Fleming, Money, Manure & Maintenance: Ingredients for Successful Gardens of Marian Kruger Coffin, 1876–1957 (Weston, MA: Country Place, 1995), 9.
36. Fleming, Money, Manure & Maintenance, 61.
37. Fleming, Money, Manure & Maintenance, 5.
38. Tankard, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman, 3–4.
39. Tankard, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman, 7.
40. John Wedda, Gardens of the American South: Grace, Beauty, History and Romance in Text and Pictures (New York: Galahad, 1971), 48.
41. Wedda, Gardens of the American South, 22; Griswold and Nicholls, Thomas Jefferson, Landscape Architect, viii; Otis, Grounds for Pleasure, 46.
42. Frank Lloyd Wright, Testament (New York: Horizon, 1957), 19.
43. Marco Dezzi Bardeschi, Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Hamlyn, 1972), 12.
44. Wright, Testament, 17.
45. Wright, Testament, 33.
46. Wright, Testament, 16.
47. Wright, Testament, 22.
48. Wright, Testament, 21.
49. Wright, Testament, 219.
50. Tankard, Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement, 169.
51. Bardeschi, Frank Lloyd Wright, 35.
52. Bardeschi, Frank Lloyd Wright, 35.
53. Lancaster, The Japanese Influence in America, 85–88.
54. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 33.
55. Aguar and Aguar, Wrightscapes, 98–99.
56. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 33.
57. Aguar and Aguar, Wrightscapes, 100.
58. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 133–14.
59. Wilhelm Miller, The Prairie Spirit in Landscape Gardening (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), xiii.
60. Miller, The Prairie Spirit in Landscape Gardening, xvii.
61. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 111.
62. Wright, Testament, 227.
63. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 33.
64. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 38.
65. Fell, The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, 14, 18, 46–7.
66. Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., Fallingwater: A Frank Lloyd Wright Country House (New York: Abbeville, 1986), 38.
67. Aguar and Aguar, Wrightscapes, 178.
68. Kaufmann, Fallingwater, 36–49.
69. Kaufmann, Fallingwater, 31.
70. Kaufmann, Fallingwater, 22.
71. Kaufman, Fallingwater, 49.
72. Bardeschi, Frank Lloyd Wright, 12.
73. Wright, The Disappearing City, 1932, quoted in Catherine Howett, “Modernism and American Landscape Architecture,” in Marc Treib, ed., Modern Landscape Architecture: A Critical Review (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), 26.
74. Lucia Howard and David Weingarten, Ranch Houses: Living the California Dream (New York: Rizzoli, 2009) 8–11.
75. Romy Wyllie, Bertram Goodhue: His Life and Residential Architecture (New York: Norton, 2007), 40.
76. Wyllie, Bertram Goodhue, 47.
77. Seth Lerer, Children’s Literature: A Reader’s History, from Aesop to Harry Potter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 254.
78. Lerer, Children’s Literature, 257.
79. Virginia Hayes, “The Other Men,” Santa Barbara Independent, March 5, 2009.
CHAPTER 5: CALIFORNIA AND THE MODERN GARDEN (1920–1960S)
1. Thomas Dolliver Church, Gardens Are for People: How to Plan for Outdoor Living (New York: Reinhold, 1955), 7.
2. Church, Gardens Are for People, xi.
3. Church, Gardens Are for People, xii.
4. Church, Gardens Are for People, xii.
5. Marc Treib, The Donnell and Eckbo Gardens: Modern California Masterworks (San Francisco: William Stout, 2005), 22.
6. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 190.
7. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 162–63, 175.
8. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 248.
9. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 164.
10. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 172.
11. Jere Stuart French, The California Garden: And the Landscape Architects Who Shaped It (Washington, DC: Landscape Architecture Foundation, 1993), 153.
12. French, The California Garden, 146.
13. Jane Brown, The Modern Garden (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2000), 29.
14. Treib, The Donnell and Eckbo Gardens, 24–25.
15. David Gebhard, Schindler (New York: Viking, 1971), 9.
16. Pamela Burton, Private Landscapes: Modernist Gardens in Southern California (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002), 8.
17. Gebhard, Schindler, 32.
18. William J. R. Curtis, Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms (London: Phaidon, 1986), 102.
19. Reyner Banham, Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Ecologies (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 164.
20. Esther McCoy, Richard Neutra (New York: Braziller, 1960), 9.
21. Barbara Mac Lamprecht, Richard Neutra: Complete Works (New York: Taschen, 2000), 12.
22. Gebhard, Schindler, 62.
23. Richard Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site (Scarsdale, NY: Morgan & Morgan, 1951), 60; Lamprecht, Richard Neutra, 18.
24. Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site, 40.
25. Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site, 51.
26. Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site, 55.
27. Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site, 24.
28. Neutra, Mysteries and Realities of the Site, 62.
29. Arthur Drexler, head of design, Museum of Modern Art, in The Architecture of Richard Neutra, quoted in Lamprecht, Richard Neutra, 11.
30. Sylvia Lavin, Form Follows Libido: Architecture and Richard Neutra in a Psychoanalytic Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 30–32.
31. Lavin, Form Follows Libido, 79.
32. Neutra, Nature Near, quoted in Lamprecht, Richard Neutra, 10.
33. Treib, The Donnell and Eckbo Gardens, 29.
34. French, The California Garden, 160.
35. Marc Treib and Dorothée Imbert, Garrett Eckbo: Modern Landscapes for Living (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 73.
36. Treib and Imbert, Garrett Eckbo, 33.
37. Garrett Eckbo, Landscapes for Living (New York: Architectural Record with Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1950), 1.
38. Brown, Japanese-Style Gardens of the Pacific West Coast, 87.
39. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 179, 250.
40. French, The California Garden, 168.
41. The main beneficiary of $119 billion in FHA loans and mortgage insurance in the agency’s first four decades was suburbia; half of all housing in the suburbs had FHA or VA financing, whereas the inner cities saw very little. These agencies lowered down-payment requirements from 30 to 50 percent or more to 10 percent or less, and extended the repayment period to twenty-five to thirty years. The tax subsidy to homeowners, concentrated in the suburbs, through the property tax and mortgage interest deductions, amounted to four to five times the actual outlay of all the housing programs combined—$53 billion in 1984 alone. It has been calculated that average housing subsidies in affluent suburbs are several times higher than the subsidies extended to welfare recipients in the cities. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 203–18.
42. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 205, 241.
43. The structure of loan programs encouraged single-family homes—that is, mostly suburban—but discouraged the multifamily projects typical in denser city cores by making it easier to build new than to fix old structures. “Redlining” by lenders, the classification of neighborhoods by racial/ethnic composition and the likelihood of change, discriminated against multiple use, higher densities, and older structures. Such racist policies stoked white flight, accelerating the hollowing out of huge areas of cities like Detroit and accelerating ghettoization in communities large and small across the country. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 195–203.
44. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 241.
45. Diane Harris, “Race, Class, and Privacy in the Ordinary Postwar House, 1945–1960,” in Richard H. Schein, ed., Landscape and Race in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2006), 136.
46. Harris, “Race, Class, and Privacy,” 136.
47. Harris, “Race, Class, and Privacy,” 138–39.
48. Howard and Weingarten, Ranch Houses, 12.
49. Howard and Weingarten, Ranch Houses, 12.
50. “The Politics of Plenty,” Economist, May 26, 2007, 33.
51. Sven A. Kirsten, The Book of Tiki: The Cult of Polynesian Pop in Fifties America (Koln: Taschen, 2000), 230.
CHAPTER 6: ART CONFRONTS NATURE, REDUX: TRIUMPHS AND ANXIETIES OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE (1940S–2000S)
1. Jane Amidon and Dan Kiley, Dan Kiley: The Complete Works of America’s Master Landscape Architect (New York: Bulfinch, 1999), 10.
2. Treib and Imbert. Garrett Eckbo, 25.
3. Gregg Bleam, “Modern and Classical Themes in the Work of Dan Kiley,” in Treib, ed., Modern Landscape Architecture, 223.
4. Bleam, “Modern and Classical Themes in the Work of Dan Kiley,” 223.
5. Amidon and Kiley, Dan Kiley, 20.
6. Bleam, “Modern and Classical Themes in the Work of Dan Kiley,” 221, 231, 235.
7. Bleam, “Modern and Classical Themes in the Work of Dan Kiley,” 227–30.
8. Calvin Tomkins, “The Garden Artist,” The New Yorker, October 16, 1995, 136.
9. Tomkins, “The Garden Artist,” 143.
10. Tomkins, “The Garden Artist,” 136, 144.
11. Amidon and Kiley, Dan Kiley, 8.
12. Melanie Simo and Peter Walker, Invisible Gardens: The Search for Modernism in the American Landscape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 148.
13. Richard Sexton, Parallel Utopias: Sea Ranch and Seaside: The Quest for Community (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1995), 32.
14. Lawrence Halprin, Changing Places: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 3 July–24 August 1986 (San Francisco: The Museum, 1986), 125.
15. Lawrence Halprin, The Sea Ranch: Diary of an Idea (Berkeley: Spacemaker, 2002), 3.
16. Halprin, The Sea Ranch, 1.
17. Halprin, The Sea Ranch, 11.
18. Simo and Walker, Invisible Gardens, 154–55.
19. Sexton, Parellel Utopias, 33.
20. Halprin, The Sea Ranch, 29.
21. Halprin, The Sea Ranch, 33.
22. Simo and Walker, Invisible Gardens, 167.
23. Ana Maria Torres, Isamu Noguchi: A Study in Space (New York: Monacelli, 2000), 14.
24. Isamu Noguchi, Isamu Noguchi: Space of Akari and Stone (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1986), 9.
25. Bruce Altshuler, Isamu Noguchi (New York: Abbeville, 1994), 26.
26. Torres, Isamu Noguchi, 53.
27. Torres, Isamu Noguchi, 30.
28. Altshuler, Isamu Noguchi, 62.
29. Marc Treib, Noguchi in Paris: The UNESCO Garden (San Francisco: William Stout, 2003), 107, 128.
30. Torres, Isamu Noguchi, 10.
31. Treib, Noguchi in Paris, 116.
32. Treib, Noguchi in Paris, 117.
33. Altshuler, Isamu Noguchi, 14.
34. Noguchi, Isamu Noguchi, 9.
35. Treib, Noguchi in Paris, 128, from Isamu Noguchi, “New Stone Gardens,” Art in America, June 1964, 89.
36. Jack Flam, ed., Robert Smithson: The Collected Writings (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 68–69.
37. Eugenie Tsai, ed., Robert Smithson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 20.
38. John Beardsley, “Earthworks: The Landscape after Modernism,” 111, in Stuart Wrede, Denatured Visions: Landscape and Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1991).
39. “Note 1. The sinister in a primitive sense seems to have its origin in what could be called ‘quality gardens’ (Paradise). Dreadful things seem to have happened in these half-forgotten Edens. Why does the Garden of Delights suggest something perverse? Torture gardens. Deer Park. The Grottoes of Tiberius. Gardens of Virtue are somehow always ‘lost.’ A degraded paradise is perhaps worse than a degraded hell. America abounds in banal heavens, in vapid ‘happy-hunting grounds,’ and in ‘natural’ hells like Death Valley National Monument or The Devil’s Playground. The public ‘sculpture garden’ for the most part is an outdoor ‘room,’ that in time becomes a limbo of modern isms. Too much thinking about ‘gardens’ leads to perplexity and agitation. Gardens like the levels of criticism bring one to the brink of chaos. This footnote is turning into a dizzying maze, full of tenuous paths and innumerable riddles. The abysmal problem of gardens somehow involves a fall from somewhere or something. The certainty of the absolute garden will never be regained.” Robert Smithson, “A Sedimentation of the Mind: Earth Projects” (1968).
40. Lewis L. Gould, Lady Bird Johnson: Our Environmental First Lady (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1999), 51–52.
41. Beardsley, “Earthworks,” 111.
42. Beardsley, “Earthworks,” 111.
43. Hal Foster and Gordon Hughes, eds., Richard Serra (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 60.
44. Foster and Hughes, Richard Serra, 64.
45. Foster and Hughes, Richard Serra, 60.
46. Foster and Hughes, Richard Serra, 179.
47. Peter Walker, “The Practice of Landscape Architecture in the Postwar United States,” in Treib, ed., Modern Landscape Architecture, 251.
48. Walker, “The Practice of Landscape Architecture in the Postwar United States,” 255.
49. Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 395, 397, 401.
50. Harriet F. Senie, Contemporary Public Sculpture: Tradition, Transformation, and Controversy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 95.
51. Simo and Walker, Invisible Gardens, 255.
52. Walker, “The Practice of Landscape Architecture in the Postwar United States,” 256.
53. Martha Schwartz, “Landscape and Common Culture Since Modernism,” in Treib, ed., Modern Landscape Architecture, 263.
54. Schwartz, “Landscape and Common Culture Since Modernism,” 264.
55. Lawrence Wechsler, Robert Irwin Getty Garden (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2002), 3.
CHAPTER 7: ALL OUR MISSING PARTS: MONEY AND VIRTUE IN THE GO-GO YEARS
1. Christopher Byron, Martha Inc.: The Incredible Story of Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia (New York: Wiley, 2002), 269.
2. Martha Stewart Living, April/March 1992.
3. Byron, Martha Inc., 212.
4. Associated Press, August 1, 1998, quoted in Bill Adler, ed., The World According to Martha (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 15.
5. Adler, ed., The World According to Martha, 4.
6. Martha’s Spring Gardening (Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2006).
7. Canberra Times, December 4, 1999, quoted in Adler, ed. The World According to Martha, 23.
8. Albany Times Union, September 24, 1995, quoted in Adler, ed., The World According to Martha, 65.
9. Byron, Martha Inc., 329.
10. Byron, Martha Inc., 269.
11. New York Daily News, April 19, 2000, quoted in Adler, ed., The World According to Martha, 173.
12. Ottawa Citizen, October 24, 1996, quoted in Adler, ed., The World According to Martha, 114.
13. Francis H. Cabot, The Greater Perfection: The Story of the Gardens at Les Quatre Vents (New York: Norton, 2001), 167. Inspired by a 1983 trip to Wakehurst Place, Sussex extension of Kew.
14. Cabot, The Greater Perfection, 311.
15. Robert Smithson, “Cultural Confinement,” Artforum, October 1972, reprinted in Nancy Holt, ed., The Writings of Robert Smithson: Essays with Illustrations (New York: New York University Press, 1979).
16. Jack Nicklaus, Nicklaus by Design: Golf Course Strategy and Architecture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002), 8.
17. Nicklaus, Nicklaus by Design, 76.
18. Nicklaus, Nicklaus by Design, 83.
19. Smithson, 71, Down the Garden Path.
20. Paul Goldberger with host Kurt Anderson, Studio 360, WNYC, broadcast March 10, 2010.