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A
acoustic oscillations 275–6
action at a distance 259
Agassiz, Louis 108–10
air pressure 30–2, 34, 48–50, 76–7
alcohol production 148–9
Alhazen 20–1
alpha helix 217–19
alpha particles 157, 165, 166–7, 168
artificial radioactivity 197, 200
from nuclear fission 192
aluminium 200
amino acids 195, 218, 228–9
ammonia maser experiment 231
Ampère, André-Marie 95–7
anaesthetics 115–17, 122
anatomy 22–4, 29–30, 104
animal electricity 61–2, 63
animal heat 58–9
animals
experiments on 159–62
plant interdependence 51, 55
antibiotics 188–90, 239–40
Arago, Dominique-François 123
Archimedes 16–17
Archimedes’ Principle 17
argon 145, 147, 238
aromatics 132–4
art in scientific works 23–4, 113–14
Hooke’s Micrographia 35, 36, 37
arteries 29–30, 104
artificial radioactivity 197–201
ascorbic acid 193–5
Aspect, Alain 258
Aspect experiment 255–9
Astbury, William 217–18
asteroid belt, discovery of 73–6
astronomy 55–7, 73–6, 112–15
atmosphere
balloon observations 76–8
early Earth 227, 228
gases 82–3, 145, 241–3
infrared absorption 110–12
weighing the 30–2, 34
atmospheric carbon dioxide 112, 241–3
atmospheric engine 48–50
atomic mass unit 89
atomic theory 82–5
atomic weight 89
atoms 67, 88–90
arrangement in a solid 178–9
carbon 132, 133–4, 193
discovering 82–5
proving existence of 92–4
splitting 190–2, 204–6
structure 147, 165–8, 190
Avery, Oswald 213–15
Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment 213–15
B
bacteria 187, 220–1, 222
killing 126–8
transformation 184–5, 213–14
bacteriophage 220–1, 222
balloons 76–8, 83–5
barium 205
barometers 30–2, 34
baryonic matter 276
Basov, Nikolai 230, 231, 232
Batelaan, Herman 260
batteries 62–3
experiments with 85–7, 94–5, 99
Beagle, voyage of 102–4
Becquerel, Henri 154–5, 156, 157
BEH mechanism 270
Bell, John 257, 258–9
Bell’s Inequality 259
benzene ring 132–4
benzene synthesis 99
Bernal, J. D. 195, 196–7, 196
Berthelot, Marcellin 98–9
beryllium 183, 192, 197
Berzelius, Jöns Jacob 88–90
Big Bang, echo of 244–6
binary code 268
binary pulsar 248–52
Biot, Jean Baptiste 77–8
black holes 63–4, 279
Black, Joseph 46–8, 50
Bletchley Park 209–13
blood 104–5
circulation of 28–30
blueshift 107
Boerhaave, Herman 65
bone 139, 151
Born, Max 182
boron 200
bosons 270–1, 273
Boulton, Matthew 50
Boyle, Robert 32, 33, 34
Boyle’s Law 34
Bragg, Lawrence 177–9
Bragg, William 177–9
Bragg’s Law 178
breathing Earth 241–3
breathing plants 51–5
Brout, Robert 270, 274
Brown, Robert 93–4
Brownian motion 93–4
Buchner, Eduard 147–9
Buckland, William 110
Bunsen, Robert 117–20
buoyancy 17
Buys Ballot, Christoph 106–7
C
caloric theory 65–6
calorific rays see infrared radiation
camera obscura 20–1
cannon boring heat experiment 66–7
carbohydrates 172, 193
carbon atoms 132, 133–4, 193
carbon dioxide 55, 58–9, 111
atmospheric 112, 241–3
fermentation 148, 149
Carnot cycle 90–1
Carnot, Sadi 90–2
Cassini, Giovanni 40–1
cat in the box experiment 202–4
catastrophist view 102–3
cathode rays 150–1, 157–8
deflection of 152–3
discovery 137–8
see also electrons
Cavendish experiment 63–5
Cavendish, Henry 64–5, 145
Cepheids 168–70
Ceres 74, 75–6
Chadwick, James 197–200
chain reaction 207–8
Charles, Jacques 76–7, 77, 85
Charles’s law 77
Charlière balloons 76–8
Chase, Martha 220–1, 221
chemical reactions 46–7, 59–60
Dalton’s atomic theory 85
electrolysis 86–7
chemical symbols 59, 85, 88, 89
Chicago Pile 1 (CP1) 207–8
chlorine 238
chloroform 122
cholera 120–2
chromosomes 173, 176, 267
maize plants 215–17
circumference of Earth 18–19
Cleland, Andrew 269
clocks on a plane experiment 246–7
Cockcroft, John 192
code-breakers 209
coevolution 130–1
coherent radiation 231
Collinson, Peter 44
Colossus computers 209–13
combustion 58–9
comets 57, 229
compounds 85, 88–90
aromatic 132–4
synthesis 97–9
computers 209–13, 241
quantum computing 268–9
conditioned response 162
conservation laws 60, 66, 104, 105–6
controlled experiments 43, 71, 115–16
Cook, James 43
Copenhagen Interpretation 202–3
core of the Earth 25, 163–5
Corey, Robert 218
cosmic distance scale 169–70
cosmic microwave background radiation 244–6, 274–6
cosmological constant 264
Couper, Archibald Scott 132–3
Cowan, Clyde 236–8
cowpox 69–70
Crab Nebula 114
Creighton, Harriet 215
Crick, Francis 225–6
Croll, James 253
Crookes tube experiment 137–8, 150–1
Crookes, William 137
crystals 193, 195
diffraction of electrons 182, 183
diffraction of X-rays 177–8
DNA 224, 225
phosphorescence 154–5
piezoelectric effect 138–40
structure 37, 178–9
see also X-ray crystallography
Curie, Jacques 139
Curie, Marie 156–7
Curie, Pierre 139, 156–7
cytoplasm 170, 171
D
d’Alibard, Thomas-François 44, 45
Dalton, John 82–5
Dalton’s atomic theory 82–5
Dalton’s law 83
dark energy 264, 276–7
dark matter 276
Darwin, Charles 102–4
natural selection 13–14, 103, 129–31
Davis, Raymond 236, 238
Davisson, Clinton 182
Davy, Humphry 51, 85–7
de Broglie, Louis 181, 182–3
De Magnete 10, 24–6
De Motu 28–30
deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA
Descartes, René 30, 31, 32
Diesel, Rudolf 92
diffraction 82
electrons 182, 183
X-rays 177–8
see also double-slit experiment; X-ray crystallography
digestion 159, 162
Dirac, Paul 14–15
displacement of a fluid 16–17
dissection 21–4, 61, 130
DNA 172, 222
discovery 170–2
role of 213–15, 219–21
sequencing 265–7
structure 224–6
dogs, Pavlov’s 159–62
Doppler, Christian 106
Doppler effect 106–7
double helix, discovery of 224–6
double-slit experiment 79–82
individual electrons 259–61
dust motes 92
E
Earth
age of 102
axial tilt 19, 253
breathing 241–3
core 25, 163–5
density 65, 163, 165
early 227–8, 229
geological observations 102–4
inner structure 25, 103–4, 163–5
magnetic field 24–6, 78, 165, 232–3
measuring size of 18–19
orbital geometry 253–4, 255
plate tectonics 232–3
temperature 112
weighing the 63–5
earthquakes 102, 103, 163–5
eclipses 40–1, 179–81
Eddington, Arthur 180–1
efficiency 49–50, 90–2
Einstein, Albert 207, 230, 259
on Brownian motion 94
EPR Paradox 258
equation 206, 279
photoelectric effect 158–9
see also general theory of relativity; special theory of relativity
electric arc lamp 86, 87
electric motor 97, 99
electricity 44–6, 94–7
in animals 61–2, 63
and chemistry 85–7
generation 63, 99–101, 208
in a vacuum 136–8
electrodynamics 94–7
electrolysis experiments 85–7
electromagnetic radiation 143–4
electromagnetism 99–101, 143
discovery of 94–7
Maxwell’s equations 123, 126, 140
electrons 167–8, 230, 268
discovery 152–4
double-slit experiment 259–61
photoelectric effect 154, 157–9
wave-particle duality 181–3, 259–61
see also cathode rays
elements 59, 85, 120
chemical symbols 59, 85, 88, 89
discovering 86–7, 89
energy, conservation of 66, 104, 105–6
Englert, François 270, 274
ENIAC 213
entanglement 259
enzymes 149, 267
Epitome 24
EPR Paradox 258
Eratosthenes of Cyrene 18–19
erratics 108
ether, the 140–3
ether (anaesthetic) 115–17, 122
‘Eureka!’ 17
evolution 173–6
natural selection 13–14, 103, 129–31
experiments, importance of 10–15
eye, as a camera 20–1
F
Fabrica 21–2, 23, 24
factorisation 268–9
Faraday, Michael 99–101
fermentation 126–7, 147–9
Fermi, Enrico 204, 207–8
Fertilisation of Orchids 129–31
Feynman, Richard 10, 11, 261
fire 119
fission 191, 204–6
FitzRoy, Robert 102
fixed air 58–9
Fizeau, Hippolyte 107, 122–3
flame test 118
Fleming, Alexander 188–90
Flemming, Walther 173
Flowers, Thomas 209, 212
folk wisdom 68, 69–70
Ford, Brian J. 94
fossil magnetism 232–3, 255
fossils 37, 103
Foucault, Léon 122–3
Franklin, Benjamin 44–6, 63, 76
Franklin, Rosalind 224–5, 226
Fraunhofer, Joseph von 107, 117
Fraunhofer lines 107, 117, 118, 120
Fresnel, Augustin 82
Frisch, Otto 206
frogs’ legs experiment 61–2
fruit fly experiment 173–6
G
galaxies 112–15, 263, 264
measuring 169–70, 261
Galen 22, 24
Galileo, 26–8
Galvani, Luigi 61, 63
galvanometers 96
gamma rays 165, 201
Gamow, George 192
gas laws 34, 77, 83–5
gases 46, 51–5, 82–5
atmospheric 82–3, 145, 241–3
inert 145–7
infrared absorption 110–12
Gauss, Carl Friedrich 74
Gay-Lussac, Joseph 77–8, 85
Geiger, Hans 166–7
Geissler Heinrich 136
Geissler tube 136–7
gel electrophoresis 266, 267
general theory of relativity 14
cosmological constant 264
gravitational waves 252, 279
testing 179–81, 246–8, 252
genetics 134–6, 173–6, 184–5
human genome 265–7
jumping genes 215–17
role of DNA 213–15, 219–21
Geographika 18–19
germ theory 126–8
Germer, Lester 182
ghost particle detection 236–8
Gilbert, William 10, 24–6
glaciers 108–9
global warming 242–3
gold, purity of 16–17
gold foil experiment 165–8
Gordon, James 231
Gosling, Raymond 224, 225
Gouy, Louis-Georges 94
gravitational constant 65
gravitational redshift 246–8
gravitational waves 248, 250, 252
LIGO experiment 9, 279
gravity 14, 63–5
Gravity Probe A 248
greenhouse effect 112, 242–3
Griffith, Frederick 184–5
Griffith’s experiment 184–5
guinea pig experiment 58–9, 60
Guralnik, Gerald 270
H
Hafele, Joseph 246–7
Hagen, Carl 270
Hahn, Otto 204–5, 206
Haldane, J. B. S. 227
half life 200
Harvey, William 28–30
Haworth, Norman 193, 194, 195
Hays, Jim 255
heat 46–8, 65–7
animal 58–9
radiant 71–3, 110–12
and steam engines 48–50
Heisenberg, Werner 183
helium 157, 168, 192
Helmholtz, Hermann von 105
Helmuth, Laura 267
heredity 173–6
Herschel, John 114
Herschel, William 56–7, 71–3, 74–5
Hershey, Alfred 220–1
Hertz, Heinrich 143–4, 157
hexuronic acid 194
Hieron II of Syracuse 16
Higgins, William 107
Higgs boson, detecting 270–4
Higgs field 270
Higgs, Peter 270–1, 274
Hipparcos satellite 170
Hirst, Edmund 195
Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot 196–7, 238–41
Holmdel horn antenna 244, 245
Homestake mine experiment 236, 238
Hooke, Robert 32–4, 38
microscopy 35, 36–7
Hubble constant 277
Hubble, Edwin 170
Hulse, Russell 248–9, 252
human dissection 21–4
human genome 265–7
Hutton, James 102
hydrogen 88–99, 133
hydrogen balloons 76–8
hydrostatic balance 17
hypothesis 12, 13
I
Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali al-Hassan 20–1
ice, latent heat of 46–8
Ice Age theory 108–10, 112
and Milankovitch cycles 252–5
ice calorimeter 60
ice core data 243, 254, 255
Imbrie, John 255
inclined plane 26–7
induction experiments 99–101, 143
inert gases 145–7
inertia, measuring 26–8
influenza 184
infrared radiation 71–3, 110–12
Ingenhousz, Jan 54–5, 93
inheritance 134–6, 173–6
inorganic compounds 90, 98
insects 130–1
insulin 241
interference patterns 78–82, 141–2, 177, 260
interglacials 254–5
isotopes 190–1, 200
as climate indicators 255
radioactive 220–1
J
Jenner, Edward 68, 70
Joliot-Curie, Frédéric 197, 198, 200, 201
Joliot-Curie, Irène 197, 198, 200
Joule, James 105
jumping genes 215–17
Jupiter’s moons 40–1
K
Kaufmann, Walter 152–3
Keating, Richard 246–7
Keeling, Charles David 241–2, 243
Keeling curve 242–3
Kekulé, August 132, 133–4
keratin 218–19
Kibble, Tom 270
Kirchoff, Gustav 117–20
Kolbe, Adolph 98
L
Langevin, Paul 139–40
Laplace, Pierre 58, 60
Large Hadron Collider 12, 271–4
lasers 230, 232
LIGO experiment 9, 279
latent heat 46–8, 50
Laue, Max von 176–7
Lavoisier, Antoine 58–60
Leavitt, Henrietta Swan 168–9
Lehmann, Inge 165
Lemaître, Georges 170
Lenard, Philipp 150, 157
lenses 12, 21, 35–6
Levene, Phoebus 170, 172
Leviathan of Parsonstown 112–15
Lexell, Anders Johan 57
life, origins of 227–9
light 20–1, 38–9
Doppler effect 106, 107
gravitational deflection 179–81
invisible 71–3
photoelectric effect 154, 157–9
spectroscopy 117–20
wave theory of 78–82
see also speed of light
lightning 44–6
LIGO experiment 9, 279
Lind, James 42–3
Linnaeus, Carl 138
Lippmann, Gabriel 139
Liston, Robert 117
Long, Crawford 115–17
Loschmidt, Joseph 132, 133
Lucretius 92–3
Lyell, Charles 102–3, 110
M
McCarty, Maclyn 213–15
McClintock, Barbara 215–17
MacLeod, Colin 213–15
magnetic field
cathode rays in 152, 153
Earth 24–6, 78, 165, 232–3, 234
of a wire 94–7, 99
magnetic stripes 232–3, 234
maize genetic studies 215–17
Manhattan Project 207
Many Worlds Interpretation 203–4
maps 18–19, 120, 122
Marsden, Ernest 166–7
masers 230–2
Maskelyne, Nevil 57
mass, origin of 270–4
Maxwell, James Clerk 97, 123, 126, 143
Maxwell’s equations 123, 126
Mayer, Julius Robert von 104–6
medical trials 42
Meitner, Lise 204–5, 206
Mendel, Gregor 134–6
Merli, Pier Giorgio 260
metals, discovery of 86–7
metre, defining 124, 126
Michell, John 63–4
Michelson, Albert 141–3
Michelson-Morley experiment 141–3
Micrographia 35, 36, 37
microscopes and microscopy 35–7
microwaves 230–2
background radiation 244–6, 274–6
Miescher, Friedrich 170–1
Migdal, Sacha 270
Milankovitch cycles 252–5
Milankovitch, Milutin 253–4
Milky Way 169–70
Miller, Stanley 228, 229
Miller-Urey experiment 227–9
Millikan, Robert 158–9
Missiroli, GianFranco 260
molecular structure 132–4
carbohydrates 193
DNA 224–6
nucleic acids 172
penicillin 239–40
proteins 195–7, 217–19
sugars 172, 193
vitamin B12 240–1
molecules 67, 88–90, 231
molecules of life 170–2, 227–9
see also DNA
Moon 112
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 173–6
Morley, Edward 141
Morton, William 115, 116–17
muscle energy 105
N
natural selection 13–14, 103, 129–31
nebulae 113–15
neutrinos 236–8
neutron stars 248–52
neutrons 190–1, 200, 207–8
Newcomen engine 48–9
Newton, Isaac 14, 27, 42, 78, 79, 179
prism experiment 37–9
nitrogen 111, 145, 157
noble gases 145–7
Noddack, Ida 204
non-locality 255–9
nuclear fission 192, 204–6
nuclear reactor 207–8
nucleic acids 170–2
see also DNA
nucleus of an atom 167–8
splitting 190–2, 204–6
nucleus of a cell 170–1
O
Ockham’s Razor 73
Olbers, Heinrich 74
Oldham, Richard 164–5
Oparin, Alexander 227
optics 20–1, 38–9
orchids 13, 129–31
organic compounds 90
synthesis 97–9
Ørsted, Hans Christian 94–5, 96
oxygen 59, 104–5, 111, 145
discovery of 51–5
isotopes 254, 255
P
Paine, Cecil George 188–9
paper model 218–19
Parsonstown, Leviathan of 112–15
Pascal, Blaise 31, 32
Pasteur, Louis 126–8, 147
Pasteurisation 127
Pauli, Wolfgang 236
Pauling, Linus 217, 218–19
Pavlov, Ivan 159–62
peas, Mendel’s experiment 134–6
penicillin 188–90, 239–40
Penzias, Arno 244–6
pepsin 195–7
Périer, Florin 31–2
Perlmutter, Saul 264
Perrin, Jean Baptiste 94, 152
Petri dishes 188
phage 220–1, 222
philosophy 10
Philpott, John 195–6
phosphorescence 154–5
photoelectric effect 154, 157–9
photons 181, 230–1, 270
discovery 157–9
polarization 258–9
photosynthesis 51, 54–5
Piazzi, Giuseppe 73, 74, 75
Picard, Jean 40
piezoelectricity 138–40
pitchblende 156
Planck satellite observations 274–7
planets 55–7
‘missing’ 73–4
plants 51–5, 129–31
plate tectonics 232–3
Plücker, Julius 136, 137
plum pudding model 166
pneumococci 184–5, 213
pneumonia 184–5
Podolsky, Boris 258
Poisson’s spot 82
polarization of photons 258–9
polonium 156, 197
Polyakov, Sacha 270
polypeptide chains 217–18
pondweed experiment 54–5
population inversion 231
positrons 200, 236
potassium 86–7
power spectrum analysis 276
Pozzi, Giulio 260
pressure 77, 83–5
atmospheric 30–2, 34, 48–50, 76–7
in steam engines 48–50
Priestley, Joseph 51–4
prime numbers 19, 268–9
primordial soup 227
prism experiment 38–9
Prokhorov, Alexander 230, 231, 232
proteins 170–1, 195–7, 217–19
proton accelerator 192
protons 168, 190–1, 236
pulsars 248–52
pure air 51, 54
Puy-de-Dôme 31–2
pyroelectric effect 138
Q
quantum bit 268, 269
quantum computing 268–9
quantum mechanics 183, 259–61
defying common sense 258–9
interpretations 202–4
wave-particle duality 158–9, 181–3
qubit 268, 269
R
rabies 128
radiant heat 71–3, 110–12
radio waves 143–4
radioactive decay 200
radioactive tracers 220–1
radioactivity 197–201
discovery 154–7
radium 156
rainbow, colours of 37–9
raised beaches 102, 103
Ramsay, William 94, 145–7
Randall, John 224
random walk 94
Rayleigh, Lord 145–7
redshift 107, 170, 246–8
refraction 38–9
Reichstein, Tadeus 194, 195
Reines, Frederick 236–8
Reiss spirals 143
relativity see general theory of relativity; special theory of relativity
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 172
Riess, Adam 264
ripple tank experiment 79
ripples in space 248–52, 279
Robert, Nicolas-Louis 76
Rømer, Ole 40–2
Röntgen, Wilhelm 150–2
Rosen, Nathan 258
Rosse, William Parsons, Earl of 112–15
Rouelle, Hilaire 97
Royal Society 38
Rumford, Count 66–7
Rutherford, Ernest 140, 165–8, 192
S
sailors 42, 43, 104
Scheele, Carl 54
Schmidt, Brian 264
Schrödinger, Erwin 183, 202–3
Schrödinger’s cat 202–4
science, development of 10–15
scientific method 10, 26, 39, 68, 179, 279
scurvy 42–3, 194
sea floor spreading 232–3, 234
Second World War 140, 189, 207, 209, 230
seismic waves 163–5
Shackleton, Nick 255
Shapter, Thomas 122
Shor, Peter 269
Shor’s algorithm 269
sieve of Eratosthenes 19
Sinsheimer, Robert 267
Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) 168–9
smallpox 68–70
Snow, John 120–2
sodium 86–7, 118
solar eclipse 179–81
solar system 55–7, 73–6, 115
solenoid 97, 101
sound waves 78, 106–7
sparks 44, 143–4, 157
special theory of relativity 126, 142
testing 246–7, 252
specific heat 47
spectroscopy 117–20, 141
speed of light 40–2, 140–3
measuring 122–6
splitting the atom 190–2, 204–6
stars 106, 107, 114, 120
binary pulsar 248–52
distance measurement 168–70
light deflection 179–81
misidentified 55–7
supernovae 261–4
static electricity 44
steam engines 12, 48–50, 90–2
stimulated emission of radiation 230
Strassman, Fritz 204
strong nuclear force 191
subatomic particles and mass 270–4
submarine detectors 140
sugars 172, 193
Sun 120, 179–81, 258
sunlight 20, 39, 54–5, 71–3
solar spectrum 117–20
supernovae 261–4
superposition 202, 268
surgery 115–17, 122, 127–8
Szent-Györgyi, Albert 194, 195
Szilárd, Leó 207–8
T
Taylor, Joseph 249, 252
technology, and science 12
telescopes 38, 39, 56, 112–15, 244
tetranucleotide hypothesis 172
theory 12, 13
thermodynamic laws 92, 105
Thomson, George 182
Thomson, J. J. 152, 153–4, 166
thought experiments 90–2, 202–4, 258–9
time dilation 246–7
Tolochinov, Ivan 159, 162
Tonomura, Akira 259
Torricelli, Evangelista 30–2
total synthesis 98–9
Towneley, Richard 34
Townes, Charles 230–1, 232
train, trumpeters on 106–7
transformation (genetics) 184–5, 213–14
transposition 217
triplets 265–6
Trueblood, Kenneth 241
Turing machine 212
two holes, the experiment with 79–82
Two New Sciences 28
Tyndall, John 110–12
U
ultrasound 140
ultraviolet radiation 73, 157
uniformitarianism 102–3
universe 179–81, 270, 277
accelerating expansion 261–4
composition of 244–6, 274–7
gravitational waves in 252, 279
measuring distances 168–70, 261
uranium 155–7
fission 204–6, 207–8
Uranus, discovery of 55–7
urea 97–8
Urey, Harold 228, 229
V
vaccination 68–70, 128
vacuum pump 12, 32–4
vacuum tubes 136–8, 150–1, 152–3
valence 133
van Leeuwenhoek, Antoni 35–6
veins 29–30, 104
Venter, Craig 267
Vesalius, Andreas 21–4
Victoria, Queen 122
viruses 219–21, 222
vitalism 97–9, 147–9
vitamin B12 240–1
vitamin C 42–3, 193–5
Volta, Alessandro 61–3
voltaic pile 62, 63, 86
volume 17, 34, 77, 83–5
W
Walton, Ernest 191, 192
Waring Blender experiment 219–21
water 79, 86, 88, 120–2
heating 46–8, 50, 66, 105
pumping 30, 33, 48
upward thrust of 16–17
water vapour 82–3, 111, 112
Watson, James 224, 225–6
Watt, James 48–51
wave interference 78–82
wave-particle duality 159, 181–3, 259–61
weak force 270
weighing the atmosphere 30–2, 34
weighing the Earth 63–5
Weismann, August 173
Whirlpool Nebula (M51) 113, 114–15
white blood cells 170–1
Wiechert, Emil 163–4, 165
Wilkins, Maurice 224, 226
Wilson, Robert 244–6
Wöhler, Friedrich 97–8, 99, 148
Wollaston, William Hyde 117
Wurtz, Charles Adolphe 133
X
X-ray crystallography 176–9, 238–41
crystal preparation 195–7, 239
proteins 195–7, 217–18
see also crystals
X-rays 150–2, 154–5, 177–8
Y
yeast 126–7, 148–9
Young, Thomas 78–9
Z
Zach, Franz Xaver von 73
Zeiger, H. J. 231