Ⅱ

From Chang'an to Da Yuezhi

Zhang Qian's Great Exploration

As part of a military's strategy of planning far in advance, Emperor Wu of Han decided to publicly recruit a special envoy for a diplomatic mission to Da Yuezhi. The announcement stated: In order to make contact with Yuezhi and attack the Xiongnu from both sides, warriors are now sought to go west to Yuezhi. Every able-bodied official, soldier, civilian, worker, and merchant with fighting skills can enlist. Those who return home having completed the mission will surely be handsomely rewarded.

The news spread like wildfire, as one person told ten more, and those ten told one hundred, until all of Chang'an had heard. The news stirred something inside of one hero, a brave and wise man with integrity named Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian was from Chenggu County in Shaanxi. At that time, he was working in the imperial palace as a retainer to the emperor. He had always felt strongly about the Xiongnu issue, maintaining that they ought to use force to fight back against the Xiongnu's harassment and invasions. When he saw the announcement, he believed that if they could join forces with the Yuezhi then it surely would help them fight against the Xiongnu. He immediately enlisted himself.

Emperor Wu of Han put everyone through a rigorous screening process before selecting one hundred men. Zhang Qian was designated the official diplomatic envoy to the Yuezhi state, with all the others serving as his entourage. The majority of his entourage was made up of lower-level officials, rank-and-file soldiers, and underprivileged civilians. Among them was a Xiongnu person that had been taken captive by the Han during battle who volunteered to be the guide. His name was Gan Fu. He was an excellent archer, and he went on to become Zhang Qian's faithful aide. Once everything had been prepared, in the year 139 BC, Zhang Qian and his entourage set off on horse, while camels carried their gifts and gear. With the sound of the people of Chang'an wishing them well in the background, they began their arduous and great journey west. Those resolute volunteers gave up the comforts of their lives at home, departing from Chang'an to brave great dangers on their expedition. Zhang Qian, holding a jie (a two-meter long bamboo pole with three bundles of yak hair hanging from it to signify that theirs was an imperial mission), walked ahead of the group.

After Zhang Qian and his group of one hundred had left the capital Chang'an on their journey west, their first goal was to reach Lintao City, the site of the local government of Longxi Prefecture (current day southern Gansu). Arriving at Lintao City, Zhang Qian and his group received a warm welcome from the Longxi magistrate, who gave Zhang Qian a briefing on the situation in the west: In 175 BC, after the Yuezhi people's leader was killed by Xiongnu Laoshang Chanyu, they ran from Dunhuang and Qilian to the Yili River Valley. In 161 BC, they were defeated another time by the Wusun, who were under the control of the Xiongnu, and then fled to the Amu Darya River Valley. The journey there from Lintao was one of almost ten thousand li over endless deserts and freezing mountains. Not only was it dangerous, but it was also considered as a journey of doom, as the majority of people who attempted it never returned.

After listening to the magistrate, not only was Zhang Qian not the least bit afraid, but he was even more excited to begin. Now he finally knew the exact whereabouts of the Yuezhi, and would not have to roam around aimlessly searching for them. Zhang Qian decided to continue the journey by heading northwest from Lintao. First they would arrive at the eastern side of Qilian Mountains, doing all they could to avoid the desert. They would then cross through the Xiongnu-Wusun border, and run toward the Amu Darya River. After crossing the Yellow River, they would covertly enter Hexi. According to Emperor Wu's plan, passing through the Xiongnu region in Hexi would lead them to the Western Region, where they could find the Yuezhi state. The area outside the Great Wall was controlled by the Xiongnu, so the further they reached, and the further away from the Han Empire they went, the more dangerous it became. At times, they would encounter Xiongnu herdsmen, who would stare at the Han envoy with surprise and suspicion. Zhang Qian had his group hide by day and travel by night, so as to avoid trouble and danger. They avoided the tents and flocks of sheep as much as possible, and tried to stay on the smaller paths, avoiding the main paths. It was almost impossible, however, for a group of that size to travel over such a vast area without being seen or heard.

There was no compass yet in those days, so while crossing the desert, they relied upon the sun to provide a sense of direction during the day, and the stars (primarily the Big Dipper and the North Star) at night. One day, while they were in the desert in western Hexi, dark clouds and a grey fog covered the sky, so they could not see any stars. Zhang Qian lifted his head to search for them many times until he finally saw two stars behind a hole in a cloud. They were two of the stars in the Big Dipper. He was able to judge their direction immediately based on those two stars, and discovered that they had gone the wrong way. They were heading northeast. Zhang Qian had everyone quickly turn around and head the other way.

The group made a steep turn to the left and headed toward the northwest. A star was rising on the horizon. After looking at it for a while, Zhang Qian realized that it wasn't a star at all. It was a light. He quickly passed on an order to have everyone quietly pass around the light ahead, lest they be discovered by the Xiongnu. The team continued steadily turning right, not wanting to move too quickly or too slowly. As they moved silently, everyone's heart pounded with apprehension.

Suddenly, two dark shadows of figures on horseback ran toward them. They shouted at them to stop for inspection. Zhang Qian whipped his horse, and the entire team rapidly ran away. The two Xiongnu chased them from behind, wanting to figure out exactly who these people were up, having disobeyed orders. As they neared the tail end of the team, a member of the entourage lifted his bow and shot an arrow at them. The arrow whizzed in the air, and one of the Xiongnu rolled off his horse. The other quickly fled.

The group passed around the light, and continued risking their lives by speeding toward the northwest. How Zhang Qian wished there were a straight line leading to Yuezhi!

As day broke, the sun shone upon their backs, and their undergarments were soaked with sweat. They removed their outer clothing, and exposed their bodies to the hot air. The sun burned brighter and hotter, the temperature rose rapidly, and they were quickly going to deplete their water supply. Forcing themselves to carry on until noon, Zhang Qian and his men suffered from heads aching, eyes blurred, and mouths parched from the sun, in addition to extreme fatigue. The horses were walking more and more slowly, and their food supply was growing thin. They simply could not move another step.

Suddenly, one of the men said, "there's grass ahead." Everyone looked up, and saw a patch of green grass appearing upon the horizon. There was also a pond, and it looked as if sheep and cattle were roaming about. Zhang Qian thought that there were bound to be Xiongnu on that patch of grassy land, so they ought to avoid it. But they simply could not carry on any longer. Zhang Qian sent out the order that everyone should quietly proceed to the grassland to get drinking water and food and avoid being discovered by the Xiongnu soldiers.

Zhang Qian and his men gathered up their courage and spirits to continue ahead, hoping to find the grassland so they could rest. But when they traveled a little further ahead, the grassland suddenly disappeared. It was only a mirage after all.

Then, a burst of grey clouds appeared from the horizon behind them. A team of Xiongnu on horseback were charging toward them. They were real people, not just another illusion. As he looked back, Zhang Qian felt that the situation was extremely dangerous. Holding the reins with his left hand and a sword in his right hand, he commanded everyone to prepare to attack the men approaching from behind.

The men turned around their horses and bent over the horse's backs, not moving. The Xiongnu were quickly approaching, and yelled out to them in their own language, "Han soldiers! Surrender!" When they were separated by only a hundred steps or so, Zhang Qian gave the order to release the arrows. Over a hundred arrows shot like raindrops toward the Xiongnu horsemen. Many of them fell off their horses. Under his leadership, the men mustered up their courage and charged forward with knives, swords, and other weapons. They made the Xiongnu scatter in all directions. But Zhang Qian did not dare to pursue war, and did not have his men chase after them for the kill. Instead, they turned their horses around once more, and headed northwest.

Now, Xiongnu horsemen were coming at them from all directions. Countless arrows were shot off chaotically, and many men were struck dead, falling from their horses. The ring of Xiongnu encircling them grew closer and closer. Zhang Qian's horse was exhausted, and its front legs suddenly buckled under, causing Zhang Qian to tumble to the ground. A Xiongnu sped over, jumped off his horse, and with one foot on Zhang Qian's back, pulled out a rope and proceeded to bind him tightly.

Breaking through the Xiongnu Barrier

Zhang Qian and his men were escorted by the Xiongnu on horseback toward the northeast. Several days later, they arrived at the Xiongnu imperial court, where the Chanyu lived. The imperial court in that day was located in the area where Hohhot in Inner Mongolia lies today.

The Xiongnu soldiers first instructed Zhang Qian to enter the large Chanyu tent, while the others waited outside in a line. Zhang Qian held up the jie, and walked ahead, his feet shackled. The Chanyu at that time was Junchen, Laoshang Chanyu's son. When he heard the report from his troops that they had captured an envoy sent by the Han Empire and his entourage, the Chanyu was very pleased, and decided to interrogate the prisoner himself. He ordered his guard to bring the prisoner to him in his tent.

Zhang Qian walked forward, raised his jie, and told Junchen Chanyu: "I am a messenger from the Han Empire, sent by the Han emperor on a diplomatic mission to Yuezhi. As I was passing through your state, I was captured by your cavalry. I request your majesty to give the orders to release me."

Junchen Chanyu looked closely at Zhang Qian for a moment, and said, "Yuezhi is to the northwest of my country. How could the Han Empire send someone across my nation to Yuezhi? If I want to send someone south to Yue, crossing through your land on the way, would you agree to it?"

Zhang Qian was about to explain himself, but Chanyu, not giving him time to speak, pointed at Zhang Qian and his men lined up behind him and cursed them: "You entered and trampled upon our territory without authorization, and killed many of my soldiers. What punishment do you think you deserve for this?"

No one answered, and Chanyu pointed at Zhang Qian fiercely, saying, "First grab this one and take him out for target practice. Shoot some holes in him!" Several guards immediately seized Zhang Qian and prepared to take him away, but Zhang Qian stood firm.

Chanyu saw that his threats were useless, and walked a step closer toward Zhang Qian. In a soft tone of voice, he said, "I don't have to kill you. And if you assist me with a few matters, I can even make you an official. It won't be any lower a position than what you had with the Han."

Zhang Qian held his head up and looked at the tent ceiling. He proudly replied, "I am a messenger from the Han Empire. I will not work for the Xiongnu."

After further interrogations and beatings, the Xiongnu locked up Zhang Qian. Later, they gave him to a nobleman to be his slave, tending to hundreds of sheep and cattle. Several years later, to try to soften up Zhang Qian, Junchen Chanyu gave him a Xiongnu girl to be his wife, and then took them along with Gan Fu and other men to the western part of the Western Region, where they tended sheep for the Wise King of the Right..

The distance to the Western Region was suddenly much reduced. Once again, he felt that there was still a chance that he could escape. Before, he had thought about running away, but no matter whether he ran south or west, he would have to cross over two thousand li (one li is equal to 500 meters) of Xiongnu territory. Even if he could avoid being caught, he would certainly starve along the way. But now, things were different.

Time passed quickly and it was already the eleventh spring since Zhang Qian had been captured. Time passed by, day by day, but Zhang Qian's duty was never completed. What should he do? He gazed at the jie in his hand, which he always carried with him for eleven years. He used it as a whip when tending sheep, and most of the yak's hair had already fallen off. The jie had always served as a reminder to Zhang Qian to never forget his mission to Yuezhi.

Zhang Qian's Xiongnu wife gave birth to a son and a daughter. The Xiongnu did not think that he would try to escape anymore, and did not watch him as closely as before. There were times when he would be gone for several days while herding sheep, and no one would ask where he was. Zhang Qian decided to take advantage of the situation, and rallied Gan Fu and the others together. They gathered some food, and pretending they were going out to tend to the flock, stole a few of camels and horses of the Wise King of the Right, and fled toward the west.

The group was not nearly so powerful or orderly as they had been eleven years before, and had none of the gifts or weapons that they had before. They had lost nearly half of their men in the previous battle in the desert, and the clothing and bodies of those that remained were weary, and worn. Yet it was, however, with a fully confident manner that they set out to find the Yuezhi State.

Beneath the moonlight, Zhang Qian turned back in search of a light, thinking that it could be coming from his own tent. His wife had probably already milked the goats, and was waiting for him to come home for dinner. His children were probably riding a horse, looking for their dad in the grasslands. To keep his escaping a secret, he didn't tell his wife or children anything when he left. He just silently said a prayer for them, and then he was on his way.

They sustained themselves on food and water rations, and continued west without stopping. The journey was not easy. If they lost their way, Zhang Qian would figure out their direction based on the stars. Having lived with the Xiongnu for eleven years, they were accustomed to the Xiongnu way of life, and could speak their language too. Those who weren't paying close attention would not be able to tell that they were in fact Han people, so the group did not run into much trouble or danger during their long trek across the grasslands and desert. The Xiongnu that they saw along the way simply assumed that they were some of their own.

They didn't have much food, so to help it last a little longer, everyone ate as little as possible. Luckily, Gan Fu was a good shot. Thanks to his archery skills, the group was often able to feast on fowl, gazelle, or rabbit meat. They also ate their fill whenever they came across any edible plants growing in the wild. In this way, they crossed over a thousand li on the northern Sai grasslands, and entered the Western Region.

Expedition Deep into Central Asia

After a long and arduous trek, they finally came upon a gigantic lake-the Salt Marsh in Xinjiang called Lop Nur (Lake Luobupo). Zhang Qian gave the orders that they would stay there for the night. By the light of the setting sun, he began assigning tasks to the men. Some were to set up the tents or tend to the horses while others were to go hunting, fetch water, or make a fire.

The ground near the marsh was covered in a white powder. It wasn't until examining it closely and tasting it that people realized it was salt. The lakesides were full of reeds. The men fetching water passed by the reeds, squatted next to the lake, and drank the water from their hands. It was salty and bitter. Luckily, someone dug a hole in a dried-up stream bed and found some water. He ladled it out for all to drink, and everyone realized how thirsty they had been. One man collected dry grass and leaves along with dry animal manure while another struck the flint to start a fire. They hung a pot and began to boil water. Someone else found a pile of wild duck eggs among the reeds, and boiled them for everyone to eat. Another man struck down a fat wild sheep in the thick grass, but it was too large to fit in the pot, so they could not boil the meat. Instead, they cut it into small pieces and roasted it over the fire. It was the finest dinner they had eaten in years. Zhang Qian and his men slept soundly beside the lake. The next day, they went hunting again, as they had to get enough food for future provisions as well as satisfying their present hunger. Then they moved on, passing around the northern side of the lake and heading westward once again. They found themselves in the desert once more. Not long after reaching the desert, they suddenly saw a gate tower on the horizon.

Zhang Qian asked the herdsmen on the road, and found out that they had reached the state of Loulan. With a population of over 14,000, it was one of the largest of the states in the Western Region. Forty years prior, the Xiongnu had seized land all the way here, capturing Loulan along with over twenty other Western Region states. The Chanyu had even sent an official to be stationed in the new territory to oversee the collection of taxes. There were Xiongnu troops at Loulan, so the group could not enter the gates. They stopped beside a lake, and after asking for directions to Yuezhi, they continued moving forward, following along the northern side of the Tarim (Talimu) Basin.

Six hundred li west of Loulan, they reached the State of Weili (current day Weili County, Xinjiang). It was a smaller state, with only some 9,000 people. In addition to raising cattle and sheep, the Weili people grew crops. Zhang Qian and his men were able to replenish their food and water supplies there before moving forward. A little over five hundred li west of Weili was the great state of Qiuci (or Kucha, located in current day Kuqa County). Not only was Qiuci a state with a population of over 80,000 that harvested its own grains, but they were also able to mine copper and produce ironware, showing what a high level of civilization and productivity the Western Region had attained. Some four hundred li west of Qiuci lay the state of Gumo (in today's Aksu region of Xinjiang), Gumo ranks as one of the larger states of the Western Region with a population of over 20,000 people, who lived a life of tending livestock and crops.

The small state of Wensu (near modern day Wushen, Xinjiang) was another hundred li west of there. Zhang Qian and his men stopped there to stock up on food and water. Another six hundred li west of Wensu, they came upon the state of Shule (near modern day Kashgar, Xinjiang), which had a population of nearly 20,000. Shule was surrounded on three sides—west, north, and south—by tall mountains. Water flowing down from the mountains formed a stream there that irrigated many fields, making the Shule State agriculturally quite advanced. It was also a commercial center. Merchants from the northern and southern parts of the Western Region, as well as those from several states west of the Congling Mountains (today's Pamirs highlands), converged in Shule to trade. The street market there flourished. Upon arrival there, Zhang Qian and his men saw some foreign merchants. Through an interpreter, they asked them how to get to Yuezhi. They answered that Yuezhi was just west of there, on the other side of the Congling Mountains. Upon hearing this, the men jumped for joy. After all that they had been through, they were finally going to reach their destination.

Not long after they had left Shule, the group started to ascend the mountain. It was the world-famous Congling (literally meaning "Onion Range"), and was so called because of the wild onions that grew in abundance there. There were three passes in the mountain range, which connected the different countries on either side. The northern pass led to Dayuan, the western pass led to Yuezhi, and the southern pass led to Shendu (modern day India). Zhang Qian and the group only had to travel westward from the western pass for some two thousand li to reach the capital of Yuezhi, but they took the wrong route, and traveled west from the northern pass. Suddenly they found themselves in Dayuan (modern day Fergana, Uzbekistan), a state with 200,000 people.

To their surprise, Zhang Qian and his men discovered that not only was the scenery in Dayuan completely different from that of the Han Empire, but also different from the other states in the Western Region. The landscape there was covered in huge alfalfa fields, and grape vines crawled upon wooden frames built in valleys, alongside roads, and in people's yards. It was like nothing Zhang Qian and the others had ever seen before. The homes of the Dayuan people were also different from those in China. They were made brick and wood, and had no eaves, but always had slanted roofs. Dayuan people also looked different, with noses that stood tall, deep-set eyes, and long, neat beards.

The Dayuan felt a similar sense of peculiarity upon seeing these thin men with ragged clothes, disheveled hair, and skin darkened by the sun. Zhang Qian greeted them in Chinese, but they could not understand anything he said. He switched to speaking the language of Xiongnu, and some of them understood at once, and began speaking with him. After they learned that Zhang Qian was sent by the Han Dynasty, expressions of admiration came over their faces. They first praised the Han for being a rich and beautiful nation, not only strong in population, but also abundant in production. They then said that there was a magical worm there that spit out a kind of thread that could be woven into brocade to make into clothing that was soft and warm, light and smooth. The silk could also be embroidered into all kinds of beautiful patterns. That, they said, was truly a treasure.

Upon hearing this, Zhang Qian explained to them, "This kind of worm is called a silkworm. We have been raising them for many years. We feed them a kind of leaves, and they release a kind of silk. We reel the silk, weave it into silk material, and make clothing and bedding out of it."

At nightfall, Zhang Qian and his men had reached a small city of just over 1,000 people. It was where the merchants from in and around the Congling met to trade, so the market there was lively, and commerce was developed. Local officials who had already got word of a Han envoy's arrival took their interpreters and went to see Zhang Qian. They conversed with each other enthusiastically, and promised to tell the Dayuan king of their mission. Then they took the men to get their hair cut, have a shower and a change of clothes, and then hosted them for a meal. The men slept in that small city that night, and having caught up on their rest, they all appeared much younger. The next day, they departed for the Dayuan capital in high spirits.

The Dayuan king had always admired the Han for its richly endowed civilization, and warmly welcomed Zhang Qian and his entourage. There, they sampled carrots, garlic, and sesame, none of which Han had at the time, and saw the famous Dayuan Ferghana horses, alfalfa, and grapes. As they were departing, the Dayuan king sent someone to lead them to the State of Kangju (in the current day area north of the Amu River, between the Aral Sea and Balkhash Lake).

The State of Dayuan was surrounded by the Congling Mountains to the east, south, and north. To the west were grasslands and deserts. The streams that originated in the Congling Mountains converged to create a large river (today called the Syr Darya River), which passed through Dayuan, and emptied into the Aral Sea. Zhang Qian and his men crossed over the river and passed through the deserts and grasslands as they headed southwest. After many days of tiring travels, they arrived at the Kangju capital, Beitian. Like the Xiongnu, the Kangju were a nomadic people who lived in tents. Inside a very large tent, Zhang Qian paid his respects to the Kangju king, who found Zhang Qian's expedition to be very admirable, and welcomed him enthusiastically. The Kangju State was presently being threatened by the Xiongnu, whose envoys often took up residence there. Due to the difficulties that this created for Zhang Qian, as well as his own anxiousness to get to Yuezhi, the group did not wish to stay in Kangju for long. And so, after three days, they left Kangju with a guide sent by the king to accompany them. The friendly Kangju man accompanied them all the way to Yuezhi. Now, Zhang Qian finally had the chance to complete his mission.

Dayuan

Dayuan was the name of an ancient Central Asian state located at the western foot of the Pamirs Highland, by the middle and upper reaches of the Syr Darya River, where Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan lies today. The original inhabitants seem to have been primarily Saka (Sai) people. During the Hellenistic era, Alexander the Great conquered eastward, and established the city of "Alexandria Eschate" (or "Alexandria the Furthest") on the banks of the Syr Darya River. Under the Seleucids, it was rebuilt as Antiocheia. Seemingly neither city penetrated eastwards into Dayuan. During the height of the Bactrian kingdom, however, especially during the northern campaign of Euthydemus, the Bactrians occupied the area, and constructed walls around each village according to the Greek custom.

During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, Zhang Qian went to the Western Region. Between 129 BC and 128 BC, he arrived at the western side of the Pamirs, reaching Dayuan first. According to this accounts after retuning home, Dayuan was made up of over seventy towns, with a population of tens of thousands. It was rich in agriculture and produced rice, wheat, grapes, alfalfa, and was known for its Ferghana breed of horses. Dayuan was bordered to the northwest by Kangju, by Da Yuezhi and Bactria to the southwest, and Wusun to the northeast. Passing through to the Pamirs to the east via the Teluoke mountain pass led to Shule. It was an important east-west transportation hub at the time.

Emperor Wu of Han had heard that Dayuan bred good horses, so in the year 104 BC, he sent a special envoy with golden silk to exchange for some. The Dayuan did not believe it to be a fair exchange, and killed the envoy. The emperor was furious, and sent his general Li Guangli along with some troops to Dayuan. The first expedition to Dayuan was unsuccessful, immediately after they arrived at the small state of Yucheng at the eastern border of Dayuan, they were defeated. The emperor sent troops westward again, this time transporting food. They took over the capital during the fourth year of the Tai Chu reign period (101 BC), killing the Dayuan king Wu Gua. They installed a new king, and from that point forward, Dayuan submitted to the authority of the Han Empire.

Discoveries from Da Yuezhi

After walking for several days, they arrived at a state advanced in agriculture and livestock husbandry situated in a mountainous area. This was Yuezhi, the pursuit of which took them eleven years, and took so many of their companions' lives. Zhang Qian shed tears of exhilaration. The climate at Yuezhi was more mild and humid than that of Xiongnu. Green trees covered the mountains, and herds of cattle and sheep grazed in the hills. Fertile farmland connected on the level ground, wheat blew in the breeze, and the people were at hard at work in the fields.

The king was over fifty years old. He was the son of previous king of Yuezhi, who was killed by Xiongnu Modun Chanyu. Zhang Qian took hold of his jie and presented himself respectfully to the Yuezhi king, saying, "Your majesty, I was sent on a diplomatic embassy by the Han Empire. It is the emperor's desire that I show respect to you. The Han are currently preparing to attack the Xiongnu. The emperor sent me to your country in the hopes of building a Yuezhi-Han alliance to counter our common enemy, the Xiongnu." Upon hearing this, the king was very pleased. He felt that Zhang Qian and his men had undergone much difficulty in traveling the more than 10,000 li from the Han Empire to Da Yuezhi. He had admired the strength and prosperity of the Han Dynasty since his days at the Qilian Mountains. Although he had previously associated with Han people, the two countries' royal courts had never been in official contact. Now that they had moved to the faraway west, he found it hard to believe that he was looking at a Han ambassador there before him, and quickly began asking at the situation in the Han Empire.

Zhang Qian answered him, "Our Han Empire is stronger than ever before. Our reigning emperor is a talented, bold, and visionary leader. He is determined to centralize the manpower and resources of the entire nation, and call up tens of thousands of troops to launch a counterattack against the Xiongnu. He has sent me here in the hopes of forming an alliance with your country. Your country would begin attacking the Xiongnu from the west, causing them to be attacked from both sides. After the Xiongnu have been defeated, you would be free to return to your homeland in the Qilian Mountains, at peace with the Han for generations to come."

The Yuezhi king paused for a moment, and said that the Xiongnu had killed his parents, forced them to leave their homeland and to move to a faraway place. It was extremely difficult for them to move to Tianshan Mountains, and when they had only been there for not more than ten years, the Xiongnu supported the Wusun to attack them again. They were forced to move yet again. That the Han wanted to attack the Xiongnu in full-force was a great thing, as it would vent the Yuezhi's anger for them and avenge their humiliation. However, it would be too difficult for them to cooperate by sending their own troops, as the distance to Xiongnu was too far, and they must pass through several countries in between. It would also not be easy for them to return to the Qilian Mountains. The Yuezhi king expressed his goodwill toward the Han emperor, but spoke of the difficulties that they faced, and hoped that the Han would understand their situation.

Zhang Qian pondered this for a moment, and then said, "The Xiongnu are the long-time enemies of both of our countries. They brought great calamity upon both of our countries, and defeating them is in the best interest of both of our countries as well. Sending troops out to attack them, due to the long journey that would require, would naturally be difficult. But those difficulties are certainly surmountable. When we were sent on this mission to your country, we were detained by the Xiongnu for over ten years, but in the end, we escaped."

The king of Yuezhi listened to this, and was moved by what he heard. "The unspeakable hardships that you have endured further demonstrate the extent of the Han's goodwill toward my country. However, sending out troops and moving to a new home are enormous undertakings, and I must discuss them with my advisors. You've just arrived. Why don't you rest up and then have a look around my country?"

At that, the Yuezhi king ordered his officials to prepare a welcome banquet for the Han guests. The banquet was held on a carpet spread out on the ground inside a large tent. It was a sumptuous feast, with beef and mutton platters, bowls filled with wine, and large servings of wheat-based foods. Everything was seasoned with onion and garlic. There were even some unfamiliar vegetables served. The little, round ones were garden peas, the slightly thin and flat ones were lima beans, and the tasty, crispy ones cut into slices were cucumbers. They were all produces grown especially by the Yuezhi. Zhang Qian and his men stayed in Yuezhi for a year, during which time they learned many new things.

A long time prior to that time, there was once a country that stood in that place called Bactria (Daxia). Two hundred years earlier (in the year 323 BC), the Greek Macedonian king Alexander the Great led a campaign to the east, first destroying the Persian Empire, which was several times larger than Greek territory at the time, and then capturing Bactria. There, he established a Greek kingdom, and a currency with the king's face depicted on silver coins. Alexander the Great then continued further south and east until he arrived at the Indus River in the western part of India (current day Pakistan), where he established a Greek state. Later, when the Yuezhi people moved west from the Qilian Mountains to the Amu Darya River, they drove away the Saka (Sai) people living there, instigating the first large-scale migration of an entire tribe in the history of the world. After being attacked by the Yuezhi, the Saka were divided into three different tribes. The first tribe moved to the northeastern part of Parthia (Anxi), where they murdered the Parthian king who was coming to suppress them and settled on a plateau in eastern Iran. A second tribe went south to Bactria, where they forced the Greek rulers there to go to Punjab, India. A third group went west to the European flatlands. The Yuezhi continued southward, entering Bactria and forcing the Saka people to the Kabul River Valley south of the Hindu Kush Mountains. The Saka people then established the Kapisa Kingdom, which was bordered by Parthia to the west, the Greek kingdom of Punjab to the east, and the Hindu Kush Mountains to the north, so they could confront the Yuezhi. The Da Yuezhi established their state north of the Hindu Kush Mountains, separated from the small group of Yuezhi people who remained at the Qilian Mountains. Although the state of Bactria had been destroyed, over one million Bactrian people remained, outnumbering the Yuezhi people.

After the Da Yuezhi state was founded, it was divided into five sections, establishing five Yabghus and Marquises to rule separately. They adopted some Greek customs, and put their king's face on their silver coins. The Yuezhi grew crops, but had no ironware yet, so their farming techniques were crude and the crop yield low. Fruits such as peaches and plums, which were introduced to them from the Han, quickly spread throughout Iran and India. The Yuezhi even constructed cities, building a capital city south of the Amu Darya River called Bactra (Lanshi). Their houses were not constructed in the Parthian style with flat roofs, but in the style of Dayuan, with slanted roofs, which were built by stolen Greek slaves.

The Yuezhi were skilled merchants, and often traveled to faraway countries to peddle their goods. Commerce was developed within Yuezhi as well, drawing tradesmen from many countries, and making Yuezhi a station for trade between the East and West at that time. Zhang Qian met merchants from many different countries in Yuezhi, and had pleasant interactions with them, so that they could get to know each other and establish a friendship. From his talks with the Parthian merchants, Zhang Qian learned that they also came from a very large country, and that their script was written horizontally on sheepskin from left to right, unlike the Han script, which was written vertically on bamboo from top to bottom. He also came into contact with people from Yancai (today's Black Sea region), a place that had many furs, as he learned. The people that he ran into from Mesopotamia (modern day northern Persian Gulf, in the Syrian region) said that in their country they raised a type of bird big enough to be ridden like a horse that laid eggs as big as water jugs. He even saw a Mesopotamian magician that performed tricks such as spitting fire and swallowing knives. The merchants from Sindh (Shendu) told him that they raised peacocks and elephants, and that when they were in a war, their soldiers rode to battle on elephants. The Sindhs and the Han had established trade relations early on. The Sindhs would sell Shu clothing and Qiong bamboo from the Han to countries like Yuezhi. Zhang Qian even heard that in the western part of Mesopotamia there was an advanced civilization called the Maojian (also called Daqin, the ancient Roman Empire), and that there were many, many more countries west of there.

Bactria (Daxia)

Bactria primarily refers to an Amu Darya River civilization that took over from one named Namazga. It was located in a region south of the Amu Darya River (ancient Greek name was Oxus) and north of the Hindu Kush Mountains (ancient Greek name was Paropamisus). Among their ancient relics that survive today are small female statues with large bodies and small heads measuring less than fifteen centimeters tall that are over 4,000 years old. After the Bactria region was conquered by the Greeks, it became an ancient Central Asian state. The Chinese name for Bactria is Daxia, and is the birthplace of the Aryan people. Zoroastrianism, which originated in Iran, was once prevalent there.

It seemed as though there was no end to the world. It was far from being as the Han people had imagined—the Han Empire at the center of the world, with the sea to the southeast, the desert to the north, mountains to the west, and a few underdeveloped minority peoples living on all sides. On the contrary, the world was much larger than the Han people anticipated it to be. During his mission abroad, Zhang Qian came to realize the extent of all that there was to learn, and that many countries existed outside of the Han Empire.

In awe and anticipation, Zhang Qian and his men felt that they had gained much by their mission, which had opened their eyes to many things. To their misfortune, however, they discovered that the Yuezhi were already living and working peacefully, and thinking nothing of taking revenge on the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian was unable to fulfill his task of joining the Han and Yuezhi in an alliance, and all he could do was lead his men home. The Yuezhi king did not try to persuade them to stay. He gave them some local products and currency, and sent them on their way home.

Opening a Window into Foreign Lands

The Yuezhi told Zhang Qian a new route home: from Shule, go east following the northern side of the Kunlun Mountains, which connects with the Northern Route near the Salt Marsh (Lop Nur). This was called the Southern Route. The Northern and Southern Routes were separated by a large desert (the Taklimakan Desert), so very few Xiongnu soldiers went to the Southern Route, making it a much safer route than the Northern Route for Zhang Qian and his men. They crossed over the snow and ice-covered Congling Mountains heading east, passed through Shule with all of its flourishing markets, and then moved southeast. When they reached the northern foot of the Kunlun Mountains, they headed east on the Southern Route.

The Southern Route was also a very important East-West trade route. Prior to the Xiongnu influence spreading to the Northern Route, the Southern Route was not as lively as the Northern Route. However, as soon as the Xiongnu began controlling the Northern Route, the Southern Route started bustling with trade. Many merchants from countries west of the Congling Mountains began traveling along the Southern Route to avoid having the Xiongnu levy taxes on or even confiscate their goods.

On the way home, Zhang Qian first arrived at the Southern Asian state of Bactria. He stayed there for a year, during which he carefully inspected the country. He even sent representatives as far as Sogdiana (approximately located in the Zeravshan River Basin between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers, in the present day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan area) and Parthia (247 BC-226 AD, a Greek-speaking empire established by Parthian people, located on the Iranian plateau). From there, they returned following the southern rim of the Tarim River Basin, a different route from the one they originally set out upon.

Five hundred li to the southeast of Shule lay the state of Yarkand (or Shache, near current-day Yarkand County in Xinjiang). With a population of over 16,000, it was one of the largest Western Region states. The Yarkand people were involved in both animal husbandry and crop farming. They also produced a type sapphire that was known far and wide.

Some three hundred li east of Yarkand they came across the great Western Region state of Khotan (Yutian, in current-day Yutian County, Xinjiang). It had a population of 20,000, and people there raised livestock and grew crops. The famous Khotan jade came from the nearby mountains, which the craftsmen shaped into all kinds of exquisite household utensils and elegant display pieces and sold to faraway places.

Continuing another four hundred li east led to another great state called Yumi (in current-day Yutian County, Xinjiang). It had a population of over 20,000, and they had already acquired the skill of iron smelting. Zhang Qian watched with his own eyes as the blacksmiths used a steel-making furnace three chi (equal to one meter) in diameter to forge iron tools such as sickles and axes.

The people there looked quite different from the Han people, with prominent noses, deep-set eyes, and black hair. The women combed their hair into a ponytail and then twisted it on top of their heads. They wore copper rings on their fingers and copper necklaces around their necks. Zhang Qian was astonished to find a blue printed cotton material there, with designs such as dragons, lions, or people printed on it.

Over a thousand li east from Yumi laid a small state called Qiemo (modern-day Qiemo County, Xinjiang), which had only a thousand people. Seven hundred li east of Qiemo was the state that Zhang Qian and his men had passed through before, Loulan. They rested for several days in the capital city of Yuni so that they could replenish their food and water supplies as well as to look into the situation between their homeland and the Xiongnu. An innkeeper told them that the Han and the Xiongnu had been at war for three or four years. In the beginning, the Han seemed to have the upper hand, and had taken back the Hetao area that the Xiongnu had controlled for many years.

Zhang Qian was so pleased to hear this, and felt that they ought to return as quickly as possible, as Emperor Wu was certainly longing for news from them. However, since they were traveling east and nearing Xiongnu, in order to not to be captured, Zhang Qian decided they ought to go to the place where the Qiang people lived, south of the Qilian Mountains.

They left Loulan and headed southeast, preparing to cross over the Qilian Mountains and return home from the southern foothills. But just as they were in the middle of the mountains, they once again came across Xiongnu horsemen, who captured them once more and took them as prisoners. They were escorted to the Chanyu Court several thousand li north. Zhang Qian was extremely upset by this, not because he was afraid he would be killed, but because he thought that he would have no chance to report all of the new discoveries from the west to the emperor.

The news of Zhang Qian's second capture spread quickly. His Xiongnu wife, feeling bittersweet, took their children with her to find him. The family then depended on each other for survival as they barely had enough food to survive, living as slaves. A long time later, Zhang Qian heard that Gan Fu was tending sheep somewhere in the area, but he didn't know where his companion had wandered. Zhang Qian waited for him persistently, day after day, always searching for an opportunity to go home.

Over a year later, Junchen Chanyu died of an illness. Just as his son, Prince Yu Dan, was about to succeed to the throne, his younger brother Yi Zhixie suddenly led an army to kill his brother, and to steal the throne away. Prince Yu Dan was not going to give up without a fight, and the two fought each other in a fierce battle near Yudan's Court. All the Xiongnu people entered the fight, and bodies and blood covered the ground.

The Xiongnu who were guarding Zhang Qian and Gan Fu also went to give themselves to the fight. Zhang Qian, who was tending sheep at the time, took advantage of the chaos and escaped with Gan Fu and his wife. The three of them made a mad dash southward, avoiding areas with many tents, dodging frenzied Xiongnu, and gradually putting distance between them and the fighting. It was the middle of winter, and the falling snow quickly covered up any tracks that could give the Xiongnu a chance to follow them.

In 126 BC, Zhang Qian and his partner Gan Fu finally made it back to Chang'an. Their mission lasted thirteen years, and only two men from the original group returned. What they went through during their risky mission shocked Chang'an. During all of those years, despite all of the difficulties and obstacles that they encountered, that jie, signifying their sacred Han Dynasty mission, was not lost. When Zhang Qian took the jie, which by now had lost all of its yak hair, and presented it to Emperor Wu of Han in both hands, the Emperor was very moved. Zhang Qian explained the reason why the Da Yuezhi were not willing to dispatch troops to attack the Xiongnu and reported on how the group had been taken prisoner twice, with many members dying and disappearing. He even described in detail every western state that he had visited in the previous thirteen years. The eyes of Emperor Wu and the Han Dynasty were opened, discovering that the world was, in fact, much larger than they had realized. To reward them for their extraordinary difficulties on their exploration to the west, Emperor Wu conferred upon Zhang Qian the title Palace Counsellor, and gave Gan Fu the title Fengming Jun.

Although Zhang Qian did not successfully complete his mission, he did learn that, apart from Yuezhi, Central Asia also included Dayuan, Bactria, Kangju, and five or six other important countries such as Parthia and Mesopotamia, thousands of li west of Parthia. He observed the way of life in northern India, and took notice of the Chinese goods in Parthia. He reported to Emperor Wu of Han on the possibility of making contact with all of the western states, pointing out the potential value in developing trade relations with these areas and the advantage of forming alliances with other nations. The Han Dynasty placed high value on all of the information that he gathered. He had information on the countries that he went through as well as on many areas that he heard about along the way, including some that were still completely unknown to the Han until that point.