Behaviour

Profile

Children’s behaviour in school or in early years settings has been the focus of much research and even government enquiries in recent years. With a huge emphasis on raising attainment and effective learning it is not surprising that consideration has been given to factors such as behaviour which can support or be a barrier to learning.

Links

• How Children Learn 1

Burrhus Skinner and behaviourism

• How Children Learn 3

Carl Rogers

Moral Development

• How Children Learn 4

Montessori

Piaget

Vygotsky

Maslow

Bandura

Some key thinking and theories about behaviour

There are numerous theories about human behaviour and the factors which determine it. These need to be viewed within a context of how people understand their own behaviour and its consequences. The Munro report which reviewed child protection on behalf of the UK Government puts forward the view that behaviour issues can be caused by attachment difficulties: ‘… secure attachment with those close to them leads to the development of empathy, trust and well-being. In contrast, an impoverished, neglectful or abusive environment often results in a child who doesn’t develop empathy, learn how to regulate their emotions or develop social skills, and this can lead to an increased risk of mental health problems, relationship difficulties, anti-social behaviour and aggression…’ (1) This view resonates closely with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Bandura’s social learning theory.

The following people are a sample of some of the most influential behavioural theorists that have influenced ideas about learning:

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

Skinner built on the work of Pavlov and Watson to develop the theory of operant behaviourism, which postulates that behaviour is shaped by environmental influences. For example, if an unconditioned stimulus like food is introduced, a person will salivate, producing an unconditioned response. If then, every time food is introduced a bell rings (a conditioned stimulus), eventually the person will associate the bell with the food and salivate when they hear the bell, even if no food is present. This type of association has been used effectively by the advertising industry. A product (for example a brand of bread) may be presented in a cosy environment reminiscent of a safe and trouble-free childhood. When a consumer meets the product in a shop, the feeling of safety, security and nostalgia may spur them into buying it, choosing it in preference to another brand.

Skinner showed that behaviour is not just determined by its antecedents such as a stimulus. It is also dependent on its consequences. He called this operant conditioning. Desired behaviour can be encouraged by positive reinforcement (extrinsic motivation), for example, if every time that someone returns a used bottle they receive a financial reward, they are more likely to keep returning bottles. Undesired behaviour can be discouraged by negative reinforcement (sanctions), for example, if every time someone sits in a particular chair they are told off, they are more likely to avoid that chair.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Freud suggested that human behaviour influenced and was a product of how the mind is organised, and that much of this is based on personality which develops from childhood experiences. He observed that the behaviour of many of his patients was caused by experiences and drives that they were not consciously aware they had. Freud concluded that behaviour was significantly determined by the unconscious mind (the id) which is replete with memories from early childhood. He suggested that people set up ‘defence mechanisms’ to cope with painful memories which they kept out of their conscious mind. Neurosis was an illness which prevented people from leading productive lives, and this developed by using up mental energy to construct and maintain defence mechanisms.

Freud believed that a substantial number of childhood memories deal with aspects of sex, arising from sexual functioning which begins at birth and then develops through several psychological stages. His theory of psychosexual development deals with normal development and how, in some people, it is interrupted and they become fixated at earlier, more immature periods.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987)

Rogers was a humanistic psychologist who believed that behaviour is determined by the interaction between a person’s mental disposition and the environment within which they function. He said that people want to behave in ways which are consistent with the way they see themselves (self-image) and the way they would like to be (ideal self). The closer that these are to each other, the greater will be the sense of self-worth and the more congruent a person will be. A state of incongruence exists if parts of the self-image are not acceptable and do not fit within the ideal self.

Rogers’ person-centred ideas, along with those of Maslow, endow individuals with responsibility for their own actions and choices. The role of the learning facilitator or therapist is to help equip the person to reach their own conclusions about what motivates and influences them and thus be responsible for their future courses of action (i.e. their behaviour).

Putting the theories into practice

Schools and early years settings have become more proactive over the years in dealing with behaviour and now see it as an attribute to be managed. Effective management takes account of a wide spectrum of behaviour and is inclusive of children who were once labelled as disruptive but who are now thought of as having social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD).

Children who did not conform to behaviour expectations were chastised or punished. However, current thinking is based around the idea that behaviour is a function of the interaction between children’s innate tendencies and the context within which they operate. It also recognises that learning is the central focus of the institution and that it is not behaviour per se which needs managing, but behaviour for learning. This includes behaviour which is appropriate to promote learning for the individual, the group or class, and the school or setting as a whole. Therefore effective management includes strategies for promoting children’s concept of self and for maximising the learning potential of the social and physical environment.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD) is a condition which is thought to be present in about 3.5% of the school population, the vast majority of whom are boys. Typical symptoms relate to inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. There is some thought that the ADHD/ADD label is actually a common term which encompasses a range of conditions and it can be difficult to diagnose as not all children who present some symptoms have others. It is not always easy to tell whether the symptoms are the result of developmental, environmental, or cognitive factors. There is no single diagnostic tool to identify the disorder. Treatment can involve behaviour therapy and medication. Understandably there is a concern about medicating children, possibly in error. (2)

In 1989 in England, the government-sponsored Elton Report looked into behaviour in schools. (3) The report indicated that different aspects of management within the institution influence students’ behaviour. In early years settings, the overarching management strategies are just as relevant. Alongside these, particular focus is given to developing adult knowledge of what motivates and interests individual children through observations, interactions, home visits and contact with families. The knowledge is used to promote self-concept by praise and demonstrating that artefacts and activities produced by the child are valued through display, engagement and positive reporting to carers and other staff.

The social and emotional aspects of learning are developed by encouraging fair play, turn taking, language development, caring for each other and the environment. Adults model the behaviour that is expected and children are helped to manage their own behaviour through discussion, stories, rewards and sanctions, with the emphasis on positive behaviour management. (4) Children with special needs also benefit from these strategies although, depending on their needs, it may be necessary to enhance aspects of provision.

A lack of ability to communicate effectively can lead to frustration in a child and affect their behaviour. Inappropriate behaviour such as attention seeking can be one of the few strategies that a child has to influence the dynamics of a situation. The self-efficacy of the child can also be affected. A visual approach to communication may be beneficial, for example Makaton (a signing language) or the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS).

Another key aspect is the appropriate scaffolding of activities so that the child can achieve an outcome and feel good about what they have done. Working in close liaison with parents and carers and with other agency staff is also often necessary to provide consistency and an understanding by all concerned of the strategies being employed.

Several schools and settings make use of persona dolls and puppets to deliver stories and model positive behaviour or inclusion. Scenarios can be acted out and discussed in adult-led sessions and then the children have access to the resources to reinforce and share ideas.

Influence

Classification systems for behavioural problems in children have been developed. These tend to be either clinical or empirical. (5) The most widely used of the former is the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM), although this was designed primarily for adults. To compensate for this, the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) developed the Psychopathological Disorders of Childhood system specifically for the classification of child-oriented and theoretically-based behaviour. This recognises the psychosomatic, psychosocial and developmental aspects of problem behaviour.

The empirical systems are based on observations of children’s behaviours by early years practitioners and fall into two categories, conduct problems (the way children interact socially or with their environment) and personality problems (for example neurotic behaviours which indicate internal issues).

Comment

Although there are sound reasons for the early diagnosis of special needs, it is often difficult to know with young children whether behavioural difficulties are indicative of deeper issues or result from changes in circumstances or from slower than expected developmental maturity.

The recent Allen report on early intervention indicates that poor experiences for children up to the age of three can profoundly affect the way their emotions are ‘wired’ and this will affect their future responses to events and children’s abilities to empathise with others. (6)

Practitioners can be alerted to potential issues by concerned parents or carers or by their own experience of the range of behaviour they would normally expect from children of a particular stage of development and the expectations prevalent in an early years setting.

It is worth noting the reservations that have emerged concerning the adoption of a behaviourist approach that focuses on rewards such as stickers and star charts. It appears that setting up such a reward system, while affecting a short-term positive engagement with a set of behavioural expectations, can in the long-term diminish the intrinsic motivation of completing a task, or learning something new. (7)

References

1. Munro, E. (2011) The Munro Review of Child Protection: Final Report, A Child-Centred System. [Internet]. Available from: <https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Munro-Review.pdf>.
2. Fogell, J.,Long, R. (1997) Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties. Tamworth, NASEN.
3. Elton et al (1989) (The Elton Report) Discipline in Schools: Report of the Committee of Enquiry. In: Rogers, B. (2000) Behaviour Management. London, Paul Chapman,
4. Rogers, B., McPherson, E. (2008) Behaviour Management with Young Children. London, Sage.
5. Papatheodorou, T. (2005) Behaviour Problems in the Early Years. Abingdon, Routledge Falmer.
6. Allen, G. (2011) Early Intervention: The Next Steps. [Internet]. Available from: <http://media.education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/g/graham%20allens%20review%20of%20early%20intervention.pdf>.
7. Clarke, S. (2001) Effective Learning through Formative Assessment: Foundation Stage/Year 1 [Internet] Available from: <http://www.shirleyclarke-education.org/learning-team/2009/day-2/fixed-and-growth-mindsets/foundation>

Where to find out more

Drifte, C. (2008) Encouraging Positive Behaviour in the Early Years. 2nd ed. London, Sage.

Bell, S. H. et al (2004) Challenging Behaviours in Early Childhood Settings: Creating a Place for all Children. Baltimore, Paul Brookes.

www.pecs.com

www.makaton.org

www.add.org

www.persona-doll-training.org/ukhome.html