Howard Garner

Profile

Howard Gardner is Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard University. His theory of multiple intelligences has challenged long-held assumptions about intelligence and helped practitioners widen their understanding of how children learn. His more recent work has focused on what he believes to be the crucial aspects of the education process.

Key dates

1943 – Born in Scranton, Pennsylvania

1981 – Awarded a Macarthur Prize Fellowship for showing exceptional merit and promise as a researcher

1983 – Published his book ‘Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences’ which initially received a mixed reception from academics and practitioners

2007 – published ‘Five Minds for the Future’ in which he outlines the key cognitive abilities he believes to be essential for the contemporary world

Links

• How Children Learn 4

Bruner

Dewey

Malaguzzi

Piaget

His life

Howard Gardner’s parents were Jewish refugees to the United States from Nazi Germany. As a child, he was an avid reader and showed exceptional promise as a musician. Gardner admits that he has been influenced by the tragic death of his brother in a sleighing accident, shortly before his birth. He believes that his own motivation for hard work and success came from learning of the death of his brother in a newspaper report. (1)

Initially, Gardner studied history at Harvard University but changed this course to study ‘Social Relations’, which included psychology, sociology and anthropology. His thinking was influenced by Erik Erikson, who was one of his tutors at Harvard. Gardner learned the importance of careful observation and understanding of human personality from Erikson. He also worked with Jerome Bruner in his early career and acknowledged Bruner’s influence on his own work.

Gardner has published over 25 books, the most influential being Frames of Mind in 1983, in which he set out his theory of multiple intelligences. He always intended that this would influence educational practice and has been involved in school reform since he published his theory.

His writing

Whilst the most influential text of Gardner’s work has undoubtedly been Frames of Mind, published in 1983, Gardner has been writing since the early 1970s to the present time. Other titles of particular interest to those involved in practice with children with special educational needs include:

• The Unschooled Mind: how children think and schools should teach (1991).
• The Development and Education of Mind (2006).
• Five Minds for the Future (2007).

His theories

Following his work with Jerome Bruner on the ‘Man: A Course of Study Project (MACOS)’, Gardner’s interests in cognitive development and the processes of education were sharpened. In 1966, he joined the Project Zero research team on arts education and had an opportunity for in-depth exploration of human cognition. Although he described Piaget as the ‘single dominant thinker’ in the area of children’s development (2), Gardner found himself questioning the leading thinking of the day, which was based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and the emphasis on psychometric testing of intelligence.

By the late 1970s, Gardner was involved with the Project on Human Potential ‘to assess the state of scientific knowledge concerning human potential and its realisation’ (3) and, following this, he developed his major theory of multiple intelligences. For Gardner, intelligence is ‘the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting’ (4) and he undertook a complete review of the existing literature on indicators of intelligence. He became increasingly dissatisfied with the idea that intelligence can be measured as an IQ score and instead developed the idea that intelligence is dependent on the opportunities offered to children within a particular context or culture.

In developing his theory of multiple intelligences, Gardner used eight criteria or signs of intelligence (5). These included his observations that:

• Damage to specific areas of the brain can cause specific kinds of impairment, such as motor, sensory or linguistic difficulties.
• Some individuals, especially those known as ‘infant savants’ or prodigies, can show specific gifts in certain areas of development, such as art or music.
• Intelligence has an identifiable core operation or set of operations.
• Intelligence has a distinctive developmental history and a definable set of ‘end state’ performances.
• Learning behaviour can be encoded in a symbol system.

For example, both mathematics and language can be written, as well as spoken.

• Intelligence has an evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility.
• Evidence of intelligence can be supported from experimental psychological tasks.
• Evidence of intelligence can be supported from psychometric findings.

Gardner used these criteria to define seven intelligences which he published as the first edition of Frames of Mind in 1983. At that stage, these were:

• Linguistic intelligence.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence.
• Musical intelligence.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
• Spatial intelligence.
• Interpersonal intelligence.
• Intrapersonal intelligence.

Subsequent research and reflection led Gardner to consider the possibility of three further intelligences: a naturalist intelligence; a spiritual intelligence; and an existential intelligence. However, he concluded that only the first of these should be added to the original list of seven. (6)

Gardner believes that all human beings possess all these intelligences to some degree or other, but that no two human beings will have exactly the same profile of intelligences. Although he acknowledges that in Western society, it is the understanding of intelligence as defined in the logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligence, that has been viewed with high importance, Gardner does not set his list of eight intelligences in any hierarchical order. Each simply identifies a different type of intelligence, though Gardner believed that the two personal intelligences should be seen as permeating the others.

In essence, Gardner took a holistic understanding of learning and stated: ‘I want my children to understand the world, but not just because the world is fascinating and the human mind is curious. I want them to understand it so they will be positioned to make it a better place’ (8). His theory of multiple intelligences has helped educators reflect on what learning is and broaden their understanding of human intelligence. Many believe this approach has benefited many children who behave and learn differently.

Summary of Gardner’s ‘intelligences’:

Linguistic Intelligence is shown through the ability to use spoken and written language. It includes the ability to learn languages and the capacity to communicate effectively in a given situation, such as explaining events, convincing others through persuasive arguments or writing poetically.

Logical-mathematical intelligence is demonstrated through the ability to analyse problems logically, carry out mathematical operations with ease and investigate issues scientifically.

Musical Intelligence involves a particular capacity in performing, composition and appreciation of musical patterns. According to Gardner, musical intelligence generally runs parallel to linguistic intelligence.

Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence includes the capacity to use one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems and the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related, such as in dance or sporting activities.

Spatial intelligence is concerned with the recognition and use of both wide space and more confined areas. Architects often demonstrate spatial intelligence and children can demonstrate it in activities such as jigsaws.

Interpersonal intelligence is shown in the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and wishes of other people. Interpersonal intelligence enables people to work effectively with others.

Intrapersonal intelligence is concerned with the ability to understand oneself, one’s feelings and fears. Gardner believed that intrapersonal intelligence allowed us to regulate our own lives effectively.

Naturalist intelligence is shown in the capacity to recognise, categorise and identify specific features and patterns in the environment. Gardner suggests that the ‘popularity of dinosaurs among five-year-olds is no accident’ but rather indicates our evolutionary, naturalist intelligence. (7)

Gardner’s more recent work Five Minds for the Future (9) has arisen out of his analysis of contemporary social, economic, political, ecological and technological realities and the unprecedented speed with which these are changing. In order to prepare and enable children and young people to flourish, Gardner describes the need for an educational dynamic which includes both what children have to give to us and what we have to give to them. In particular, he believes children need the following ‘minds’:

• The disciplined mind – drawing on three understandings of the word ‘discipline’: to work regularly and steadily in order to improve; to master the key ways of thinking – in science, mathematics, history and the arts; and to become ‘expert’ in at least one area.
• The synthesising mind – skills in sifting out important information, deciding what options to make and why, choosing what to ignore and why, recording information appropriately.
• The creative mind – the capacity to come up with new ideas or products that are generally valued eventually (and not too quickly).
• The respectful mind – able to value – and not simply tolerate – others as individuals who look different, think differently, and have different belief systems.
• The ethical mind – understanding the responsibilities of citizenship, employment and community and acting on the basis of such responsibilities.

For Gardner, each of these minds should be nurtured in children across the age span, beginning in the early years. Like Martin Luther King, Gardner believes that the goal of education is ‘intelligence plus character’ (10) which is formed from birth.

Putting the theory into practice

Although Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has not been universally accepted within academic circles, many educators and practitioners working with children have welcomed his work. For those who work with children with special educational needs, the idea that ALL of the intelligences are needed to live life well offers a breadth of understanding to what ‘achievement’ means. Gardner has helped practitioners understand the importance of taking individual differences among children very seriously and to take a deep interest in how children’s minds are different from one another. He believes every child has a mixture of strengths and weaknesses and where some children with special educational needs may not demonstrate high levels of linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence, they may demonstrate exceptional musical or bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence.

An understanding of multiple intelligence theory has impacted on special education in a number of ways. It has challenged a system which had assumed that everyone learns the same things in the same way, with a universal assessment measure to test the learning. Instead, with a greater emphasis on individual strengths, holistic approaches to learning now allow for a range of different kinds of learners in one setting, with the full set of intelligences included in the programme. Through personalised learning initiatives, educators assess, identify and support children’s individual strengths and needs and consider their different learning styles. (11) For many children, this has meant the difference between being in a special school placement and in a mainstream setting. In turn, this has led to enhanced self-esteem in children who can take their place within a broad community of learners.

Gardner’s later work on the ‘five minds’ has yet to be tested but , in creating inclusive settings where each of the intelligences is valued and more personalised provision is the norm, children are learning to value individual differences and appreciate children with special educational needs. The creation of such an ethos is undoubtedly contributing to the nurturing of the ‘respectful mind’, which is core to the contemporary educational process.

Comment

Howard Gardner has his critics; John White (11) questions whether all the intelligences meet Gardner’s own criteria of having a symbol system, such as musical notation for musical intelligence. Gardner himself admits the challenges of assessing the different intelligences and acknowledges that some of the judgments made could be subjective. By describing musical and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligences as intelligences rather than talents, Gardner challenged a conventional view of linguistic and logical intelligence within education by proposing that cognitive strength could be manifested through other domains of learning, which helped to promote the place of the Arts in the curriculum (12). The understanding of ‘selfhood’ in intrapersonal intelligence is likely to be very individualistic, and almost impossible to measure. Yet, for all these concerns, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has had a positive impact on many children by contributing to the move away from a narrow understanding of learning to a much broader view of what is needed for all children to have opportunities to develop their interests and strengths, including those children with specific disabilities, such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). (12)

References:

1. Gardner, H. (1989) To Open Minds. New York: Basic Books Inc.
2. Gardner, H. (1993) Frames of Mind. 2nd ed. London: Fontana. P. 28.
3. Gardner, H. (1985) The Mind’s New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. New York: Basic Books Inc. P.6.
4. Gardner, H., Hatch, T. (1989) Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Educational Researcher. 18 (8) pp. 4–9.
5. Gardner (1993), pp. 62–69.
6. Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence Reframes: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books Inc. P. 52.
7. Gardner (1999), p. 50.
8. Gardner (1999), p. 180.
9. Gardner, H. (2007) Five Minds for the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
10. King, M. L. Jnr. (1947) The Purpose of Education. The Maroon Tiger. Atlanta, GE: Morehouse College Student Paper January-February:10
11. White, J, (1998) Do Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Add Up? London: Institute of Education, University of London.
12. Fawson, S. and Woods, G. (2011) Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Every Child a Learner. In: Waller, T., Whitmarsh, J., Clarke, K. Making Sense of theory and Practice in Early Childhood. Maidenhead: OUP.

Where to find out more

Fleetham, M. (2006) Multiple Intelligence in Practice: Enhancing Self-Esteem and Learning in the Classroom. Stafford: Continuum.

Goodnough, K. (2009) Exploring Multiple Intelligences Theory: Case Studies of Teachers in Action. Saarbrucken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.

http://www.howardgardner.com/