1. For example, in his 1492 edition of Ptolemy’s cosmography, the Cracow scholar Janusz Glogowa (Johannes von Glogau) wrote: “haec tabula habet Sarmatiam asiaticam, nunc dictam Moszkowiam” (this table has Sarmatia Asiatica, now called Moscovia). Ekkehart Klug, “Das ‘asiatische’ Rusland: Über die Entstehung eines euro-päischen Vorurteils,” Historische Zeitschrift 245, no. 2 (1987): 273.
2. S. F. Platonov, Moscow and the West, trans. Joseph L. Wieczynski (Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic International, 1972), 1–3; Marie-Louise Pelus, “Un des aspects d’une conscience européenne: La Russie vue d’Europe occidentale au XVIe siècle,” La conscience européenne au XVe et XVIe siècles (Paris: École Normale Supérieure de Jeunes Filles, 1982), 309; Melvyn C. Wren, The Western Impact upon Tsarist Russia (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 1–10.
3. Richard Hakluyt, an English collector of travelers’ accounts, credited Chancellor with “the strange and wonderful discovery of Russia.” Francesca Wilson, Muscovy: Russia through Foreign Eyes, 1553–1900 (New York: Praeger, 1970), 19. Two surveys of Western views of Russia at the time are Marshall Poe, A People Born to Slavery: Russia in Early Modern European Ethonography, 1476–1748 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000); Stéphane Mund, Orbis Russiarum: Genèse et développement de la representation du monde “russe” en Occident à la Renaissance (Geneva: Librarie Droz, 2003).
4. This point is emphatically made in Klug, “Das ‘asiatische’ Rusland,” 265–289.
5. Pelus, “Un des aspects,” 317.
6. Pelus, “Un des aspects,” 310.
7. In the words of the Elizabethan poet Thomas Lodge. Karl Heinz Ruffmann, Das Russlandbild im England Shakespeares (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1952), 171.
8. Pellus, “Un des aspects,” 119–120.
9. Alstolphe de Custine, Empire of the Tsar: A Journey through Eternal Russia (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 214, 230. On French perceptions of Russia more generally, see Ezequiel Adamovsky, Euro-Orientalism: Liberal Ideology and the Image of Russia in France (ca. 1740–1880), French Studies of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 19 (Bern: Peter Lang, 2006).
10. Custine, Empire of the Tsar, 229.
11. Karl A. Wittfogel, “Russia and the East: A Comparison and Contrast,” Slavic Review 22 (1963): 632.
12. In Tibor Szamuely, The Russian Tradition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 19.
13. Wittfogel, “Russia and the East,” 627–643.
14. David Aikman, “Russia Could Go the Asiatic Way,” Time, June 7, 1992, 80.
15. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 191.
16. Emanuel Sarkisyanz, Russland und der Messianismus des Orients (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1955), 203–204; Sarkisyanz, “Russian Attitudes Toward Asia,” Rus sian Review 13 (1954): 245; Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, “Asia through Russian Eyes,” in Wayne S. Vucinich, ed., Asia and Russia: Essays on the Influence of Russia on the Asian Peoples (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1972), 9–10.
17. George Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953), 333.
18. Aleksandr Blok, “Skify,” Stikhotvoreniia i poemy (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura 1968), 231.
19. David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun: Russian Ideologies of Empire and the Path to War with Japan (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2001), 42–60, 203–204.
20. F. M. Dostoevskii, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 27 (Leningrad: Nauka, 1984), 32–36.
21. See, among others, Alexandre Koyré, La philosophie et le problème national en Russie au début du XIXe siècle (Paris: Honoré Campion, 1929); Alexander von Schelting, Russland und Europa in Russischen Geschichtsdenken (Bern: A. Francke, 1948); V. V. Zen’kovskii, Russkie mysliteli i Evropa (Paris: YMCA Press, 1955); and Iver B. Neumann, Russia and the Idea of Europe (London: Routledge, 1996).
22. Examples include Szamuely, Russian Tradition, and Edgar Knobloch, Russia and Asia: Nomadic and Oriental Traditions in Russian History (Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2007).
23. Mark Bassin, Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Robert P. Geraci, Window on the East: National and Imperial Identities in Late Tsarist Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001). For a Gorbachev-era survey influenced by Halford Mackinder’s geopolitical views, see Milan Hauner, What Is Asia to Us? (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990). There are two recent broader studies in Italian and French, respectively: Aldo Ferrari, La foresta e la steppa: Il mito dell’Eurasia nella cultura russa (Milan: Libri Scheinwiller, 2003); Lorraine de Meaux, L’Orient russe: Représentations de l’Orient et identité russe du début du XIXème siècle à 1917 (Paris: Fayard, 2010).
24. Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 101.
25. Edward A. Said, “Orientalism Reconsidered,” in Francis Barker et al., eds., Literature, Politics and Theory (London: Methuen, 1986), 215.
26. Mikhail Pavlovich, “Zadachi Vserossiiskoi nauchnoi assotsiatsii vostokovedeniia,” Novyi vostok 1 (1922): 5. In an article written some four decades later, the Soviet Japanologist Nikolai Konrad likewise saw orientology as subordinated to colonialist imperatives. N. I. Konrad, Zapad i Vostok: Statii (Moscow: Glavnaia redaktsiia vostochnoi literatury, 1972), 9–10.
27. S. Vel’tman, Vostok v khudozehstvennoi literatura (Moscow-Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatel’stvo, 1928), 42.
28. N. G. Svirin, “Russkaia kolonial’naia literatura,” Literaturnyi kritik no. 9 (1934): 56. Svirin was arrested in 1937 and died in 1941. Stephanie Sandler, Distant Pleasures: Alexander Pushkin and the Writing of Exile (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989), 237n24.
29. Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 2nd ed., s.v. “Vostokovedenie.”
30. Vera Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial: The Formation of Academic Oriental Studies in Later Tsarist and Early Soviet Russia,” in Michael David-Fox et al., eds., Orientalism and Empire in Russia, Kritika Historical Studies 3 (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2006), 132–133.
31. Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 4.
32. Robert D. Kaplan, The Arabists: The Romance of an Elite (New York: Free Press, 1993).
33. Henri Baudet, Het Paradijs op Aarde (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1959). More recent works of this genre include Maxime Rodinson, La fascination de l’Islam (Paris: Librarie François Maspero, 1980); and Peter Rietbergen, Europa’s India: Fascinatie en cultureel imperialisme, circa 1750–circa 2000 (Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Uitgeverij Vantilt, 2007).
34. Raymond Schwab, La renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950). The English-language translation includes a foreword by Edward Said; see Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880, trans. Gene Patterson-Black and Victor Reinking (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). See also J. J. Clarke, The Oriental Enlightenment (London: Routledge, 1997).
35. Susan Layton, Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Harsha Ram, The Imperial Sublime: A Russian Poetics of Empire (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003); Ewa M. Thompson, Imperial Knowledge: Russian Literature and Colonialism (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000). See also Katya Hokanson, “Empire of the Imagination: Orientalism and the Construction of Russian National Identity in Pushkin, Marlinskii, Lermontov, and Tolstoi” (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1994). Natan Eidelman’s 1990 study of the subject was recently republished to capitalize on the postcolonialist turn; see Natan Eidelman, Byt’ mozhet za khrebtom Kavkaza (Moscow: Vagrius, 2006).
36. Kalpana Sahni, Crucifying the Orient: Russian Orientalism and the Colonization of Caucasus and Central Asia (Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1997).
37. Lewis, Islam and the West, 108.
38. Nathaniel Knight, “Grigor’ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?” Slavic Review 59 (2000): 74–100.
39. Adeeb Khalid, “Russian History and the Debate over Orientalism,” Kritika 1 (2000): 691–699.
40. Layton, Russian Literature and Empire, 191.
41. Knight, “Grigor’ev in Orenburg,” 96n80.
42. V. S. Solov’ev, “Ex oriente lux,” Chteniia o Bogochelovechestve: Stat’i, stikhotovreniia i poema. Iz “Trekh razgovorov” (St. Petersburg: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1994), 385.
43. On the links between scholarship and military intelligence in Imperial Russia, see David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, “Reforming Military Intelligence,” in Schimmelpenninck van der Oye and Bruce W. Menning, eds., Reforming the Tsar’s Army (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 133–150.
44. Barbara Heldt, “‘Japanese’ in Russian Literature: Transforming Identities,” in J. Thomas Rimer, ed., A Hidden Fire: Russian and Japanese Cultural Encounters (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 171.
45. Jonathan D. Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent: China in Western Minds (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).
1. Ukraine and Belarus also trace their origins to the East Slavs. Much of the discussion about the Russians before the Mongol invasion of the early thirteenth century applies equally well to the former two nations.
2. P. B. Golden, “The Question of the Rus’ Qagğnate,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevii, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1982), 81; Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard, The Emergence of Rus, 750–1200 (London: Longman, 1996), 31, 38.
3. V. V. Barthold, Sochineniia, vol. 9 (Moscow: Nauka, 1977), 534.
4. Herodotus, vol. 2, trans. A. D. Godley (London: William Heinemann, 1921), 198–345.
5. Simon Franklin, “Kievan Rus’ (1015–1125),” in Maureen Perrie, ed., The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 89–90.
6. P. P. Tolochko, Kochevye narody stepei i Kievskaia Rus’ (St. Petersburg: Aleteiia, 2003), 45–66, 89–129; Richard Voorheis, “The Perception of Asiatic Nomads in Medieval Russia: Folklore, History and Historiography” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 1982), 10–75; T. S. Noonan, “Rus, Pechenegs and Polovtsy,” Russian History/Histoire Russe 19 (1992): 300–326; Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 10–20; Willard Sunderland, The Taming of the Wild Field: Colonization and Empire on the Russian Steppe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 13.
7. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, 18.
8. Andreas Kappeler, “Ethnische Abgrenzung: Bemerkungen zur ostslavischen Terminologie des Mittelalters,” in Uwe Halbach et al., eds., Geschichte Altrusslands in der Begriffswelt ihrer Quellen (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1986), 128.
9. Lavrent’evskaia letopis’, Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 1 (Moscow: Iazyki slavianskoi kul’tury, 2001), 163, 232.
10. Lavrent’evskaia letopis’, 234–236; Leonid S. Chekin, “The Godless Ishmaelites: The Image of the Steppe in Eleventh–Thirteenth Century Rus,” Russian History/Histoire Russe 19 (1992): 12–17.
11. Alain Ducellier, Chrétiens d’Orient et Islam au Moyen Age, VIIe–XVe siècle (Paris: Armand Colin, 1996).
12. Vladimir Nabokov, trans., The Song of Igor’s Campaign (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 29–31. All other quotations are taken from the original in Entsiklopediia “Slova o polku Igoreve,” vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1995), 9–14.
13. Entsiklopediia “Slova o polku Igoreve,” s.v. “Igor’ Sviatoslavich;” Nabokov, Song, 111n296.
14. Ipat’evskaia letopis’, Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 2 (Moscow: Iazyki russkoi kul’tury, 1998), 637–644.
15. In George Vernadsky, Annuaire de l’institut de philologie et d’histoire orientales et slaves 8 (1845–47), 217.
16. Such speculation has appeared most recently in Edward Keenan, “Josef Dobrovsky and the Origins of the Igor Tale,“ Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 54 (2006): 556–571. For a defense of the Igor song’s authenticity, see D. S. Likhachev, “ ‘Slovo o polku Igoreve’ i skeptiki,” Velikoe nasledie (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1975), 348–363.
17. Entsiklopediia “Slova o polku Igoreve,” s.v. “Avtor ‘Slova.’”
18. Novgorodskaia pervaia letopis’ (Moscow: Izdvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1950), 62.
19. Ibid., 63.
20. The following discussion is largely based on Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde; Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and, to a lesser extent, Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia; Bertold Spuler, Die goldene Horde (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz), 1965.
21. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, 114.
22. “Povest’ o razorenii Riazani Batyem,” in V. P. Adrianova-Perets, ed., Voinskie povesti drevnei Rusi (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1949), 9–19.
23. Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols, 109–167.
24. Charles J. Halperin, The Tatar Yoke (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1986), 13.
25. Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia, 165; Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols, 138. For a more detailed account of Sarai’s diplomacy, see Spuler, Goldene Horde.
26. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, 74.
27. Edward Keenan, “Muscovy and Kazan’, 1445–1552: A Study in Steppe Politics” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1965), 25–51; Halperin, Tatar Yoke, 94–136; Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols, 164–167.
28. Christopher Atwood, Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire (New York: Facts on File, 2004), s.v. “Tatar;” Denis Sinor, “Le mongol vue par l’Occident,” Studies in Medieval Inner Asia, vol. 9 (Ashgate, UK: Variorum, 1997), 62.
29. Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols, 167.
30. A classic discussion of the joint Byzantine and Tatar impact on Muscovite thinking about statecraft is Michael Cherniavsky, “Khan or Basileus: An Aspect of Russian Mediaeval Political Theory,” Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 459–476.
31. The color white indicated the West in Mongolian geography, and Sarai’s chief Russian appointee was therefore known as the “White Prince.” When Muscovy’s rulers began to view themselves as the khan’s equal, they restyled themselves as the “White Tsar.” Although Ivan III and his successors simply designated themselves as tsar, the former was still used in dealings with Asian nomads into the nineteenth century. See Keenan, “Muscovy and Kazan’,” 385. On diplomacy, see N. Veselovskii, “Tatarskoe vliia nie na posol’skii tseremonial v moskovskii period russkoi istorii,” Otchet S. peterburgskogo universiteta za 1910 god (St. Petersburg, 1911), 1–19; Leonid Iuzefovich, Put’ posla (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo Ivana Limbakha, 2007).
32. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, 90–91. For discussions about the impact of Mongol rule on other aspects of Muscovy, see Gustave Alef, “The Origin and Early Development of the Muscovite Postal Service,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 15 (1967): 1–15; Chris Bellamy, “Heirs of Genghis Khan: The Influence of the Tatar-Mongols on the Imperial Russian and Soviet Armies,” RUSI 128, no. 1 (March 1983): 52–60.
33. Keenan, “Muscovy and Kazan’,” 400.
34. Paul Bushkovitch, “Princes Cherkasskii or Circassian Murzas: The Kabardians in the Russian Boyar Elite, 1560–1700,” Cahiers du monde russe 45 (2004): 28; Janet Martin, “Multiethnicity in Moscow: A Consideration of Christian and Muslim Tatars in the 1550s–1580s,” Journal of Early Modern History 5 (2001): 1–23; R. G. Landa, Islam v istorii Rossii (Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 1995), 56–58; Craig Kennedy, “The Jurchids of Muscovy: A Study of Personal Ties between Émigré Tatar Dynasts and the Muscovite Grand Princes in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1994), 47–49.
35. Kennedy, “Jurchids of Muscovy,” 20.
36. Martin, “Multiethnicity in Moscow,” 5. See also Janet Martin, “Tatars in the Muscovite Army during the Livonian War,” in Eric Lohr and Marshall Poe, eds., The Military and Society in Russia, 1450–1917 (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 2002), 365–387.
37. Boris Unbegaun, Russian Surnames (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 23–25; N. A. Baskakov, Russkie familii tiurkskogo proiskhozheniia (Moscow: Nauka, 1979).
38. Elaine Feinstein, Anna of All the Russias (London: Weindenfeld and Nicholson, 2005), 10.
39. Daniel Clarke Waugh, The Great Turkes Defiance: On the History of the Apocryphal Correspondence of the Ottoman Sultan in Its Muscovite and Russian Variants (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1978), 188.
40. Russkii khronograf, Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 22 (Moscow: Iazyki slavianskoi kul’tury, 2005); I. Iu. Krachkovskii, Ocherki po istorii russkoi arabistiki (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR), 1950. 20–21; A. A. Zimin, Russkie letopisi i khronografy kontsa XV–XVI vv (Moscow: Moskovskii Gos Istoriko-Arkhivnyi Institut, 1960), 8–9.
41. Valerie Kivelson, Cartographies of Tsardom (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 229n53. Isolde Thyrêt kindly provided a copy of her analysis of the text’s reception in Muscovy. See Isolde Thyrêt, “Kosmas Indikopleustes’ Christian Topography in Sixteenth-Century Russia”(paper presented at the annual conference of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Boca Raton, FL, 1998).
42. B. M. Dantsig, “Iz istorii russkikh puteshestvii i izucheniia Blizhnego Vostoka v dopetrovskoi Rusi,” Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia, vol. 1 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1953), 209–213. A detailed description of these sources in the seventeenth century is in N. M. Rogozhin, Posol’skii prikaz (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2003).
43. E. I. Maleto, Antologiia khozhenii russkikh puteshestvennikov, XII–XV veka (Moscow: Nauka, 2005). See also Klaus-Dieter Seemann, Die altrussische Wallfahrtsliteratur (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1976); Gail Lenhoff Vroon, “The Making of the Medieval Russian Journey” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1978); George P. Majeska, Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984).
44. Igumen Daniil, “Khozhenia Daniila, igumena russkoi zemli,” in Maleto, Antologiia, 163–208.
45. Dantsig, “Iz istorii russkikh,” 194.
46. Maleto, Antologiia, 134–135.
47. N. S. Trubetskoi, “‘Khozhenie za tri moria’ Afonasiia Nikitina kak literaturnyi pamiatnik,” in Trubetskoi, Three Philological Studies (Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Materials, 1963), 37–38; Lenhoff Vroon, “Making of the Medieval Russian Journey,” 206–214.
48. Afanasii Nikitin, Khozhenie za tri moria, ed. V. P. Adrianova-Perets (Moscow-Leningrad: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR), 1958.
49. M. N. Speranskii, “Indiia v staroi russkoi pis’mennosti,” in Sergeiu Fedorovichu Ol’denbergu k piatidesiatiletiiu nauchno-obshchesvennoi deiatel’nosti 1882–1932: Sbornik statei (Leningrad: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1934), 463–466; Jean-Pierre Sabsoub, Die Reise des Kaufmanns Nikitin von der Rus’ nach Indien, 1466–1472: Ein Beitrag zur Begegnung mit den Anderen, Mundus Reihe Ethnologie, vol. 20 (Bonn: Holos, 1988), 20–24; R. H. Stacy, India in Russian Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1985), 20–22. On early west European views, see H. G. Rawlinson, “India in European Thought and Literature,” in G. T. Garratt, ed., The Legacy of India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937), 1–26.
50. “Diuk Stepanovich,” in B. N. Putilova, Byliny (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1957), 354.
51. Nikolai Karamzin (although he did not specify the years) came across a sixteenth-century version of the manuscript in the library of the Holy Trinity Monastery. See N. M. Karamzin, Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskago, book 2 (St. Petersburg: V Tip. Eduarda Pratsa, 1842), 226–227.
52. Nikitin, Khozhenie, 11.
53. Ibid., 13.
54. Ibid., 17.
55. Ibid., 21–22. This passage was expurgated from the lavish quadrilingual (Slavonic, Russian, Hindi, and English) presentation edition produced at the height of Soviet-Indian friendship. See Afanasy Nikitin, Khozhenie za tri moria, ed. S. N. Kumkes (Moscow: Geografgiz, 1960), 116. On Moscow’s efforts to use the tale to promote better ties with New Delhi, see Lowell R. Tillet, “The Soviet Popularization of Afanasii Nikitin’s Trip to India: An Example of Planned Publishing,” in Balkrishna G. Gokhale, ed., Images of India (New York: Humanities Press, 1971), 172–191.
56. Nikitin, Khozhenie, 30.
57. Ibid., 26.
58. Gail Lenhoff, “Beyond Three Seas: Afanasij Nikitin’s Journey from Orthodoxy to Apostasy,” East European Quarterly 13 (1979): 431–445; Mark Batunski, “Muscovy and Islam: In a Further Quest of an Empirical and Conceptual Compromise (‘The Journey beyond Three Seas’ by Afanasy Nikitin),” Saeculum 39 (1988): 289–292; Sabsoub, Reise des Kaufmanns Nikitin, 161–162; Keenan, “Muscovy and Kazan’,” 372–373.
59. Nikitin, Khozhenie, 27.
60. Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ (St. Petersburg: Brokgauz i Efron, 1899), s.v. “Rossiia.”
61. Janet Martin, “Muscovite Travelling Merchants: The Trade with the Muslim East (15th and 16th Centuries),” Central Asian Survey 4, no. 3 (1985): 21–22.
62. Paul Bushkovitch, “Orthodoxy and Islam in Russia, 988–1725,” Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte (forthcoming).
63. Lavrent’evskaia letopis’, 86.
64. Bushkovitch, “Orthodoxy and Islam.”
65. Abdel-Théodore Khoury, Les théologiens byzantins et l’Islam (Leuven, Belgium: Editions Nauwelaerts, 1969), 47–67; John Meyendorff, “Byzantine Views of Islam,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18 (1964): 115–120; Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Oxford: Oneworld, 2000), 13–14.
66. Ducellier, Chrétiens d’Orient, 19.
67. Wil van den Bercken, De mythe van het Oosten: Oost en West in de religieuse ide-ënge schiedenis (Zoetermeer, the Netherlands: Uitgeverij Meinema, 1998), 147. Biographies include Elise Denissoff, Maxime le Grec et l’Occident (Paris: Desclée, de Brouwer, 1943); Jack Haney, From Italy to Muscovy: The Life and Works of Maxim the Greek (Munich: W. Fink, 1973); N. V. Sinitsyna, Maksim Grek v Rossii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1977); A. Langeler, Maksim Grek: Byzantijn en humanist in Rusland (Amsterdam: J. Mets, 1986). For a description of Father Maksim’s corpus, see A. I. Ivanov, Literaturnoe nasledie Maksima Greka (Leningrad: Nauka, 1969).
68. Maksim Grek, Sochineniia prepodobnogo Maksima Greka, vol. 1 (Kazan: Tip. Imp. universiteta, 1894), 77–130, 151–168; Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 22–23; Bushkovitch, “Orthodoxy and Islam.”
69. Buskovitch, “Orthodoxy and Islam.”
70. Daniel, Islam and the West, 76–88; John V. Tolan, Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 251–254. For a recent study of the missionary’s works, see Rita George Tvrtkovic, “The Ambivalence of Interreligious Experience: Riccoldo da Monte Croce’s Theology of Islam” (PhD diss., University of Notre Dame, 2007).
71. Surveys of medieval European attitudes toward Islam include Daniel, Islam and the West; Tolan, Saracens; and Richard Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962).
72. Putilova, Byliny; James Bailey and Tatyana Ivanova, trans., An Anthology of Russian Folk Epics (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1998); Alex E. Alexander, Bylina and Fairy Tale (The Hague: Mouton, 1973); A. N. Afana’sev, ed., Narodnye russkie skazki, 3 vols. (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1953).
73. I am grateful to Natalia Kononeko for this observation. Putilova, Byliny, 104; Tolochko, Kochevye, 118.
74. Roman Jakobson, “On Russian Fairy Tales,” in Russian Fairy Tales, trans. Norbert Gutman (New York: Pantheon, 1973), 649–650.
75. The Tatars, in turn, had adopted it from the Persian noun bagadur, or athlete. Jakobson, “On Russian Fairy Tales,” 646; V. V. Stasov, “Proiskhozhdenie russkikh bylin,” Vestnik Evropy 4 (1868), 309.
76. Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 214–245.
77. In ibid., 228.
78. For a discussion of Muscovy’s relationship with the steppe, see Willard Sunderland, Taming the Wild Field: Colonization and Empire on the Russian Steppe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 15–34. Another recent work stresses the hostility between Russians and their Islamic neighbors. See Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).
79. Landa, Islam v istorii Rossii, 74–85. See also Albert Seaton, The Horsemen of the Steppes (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1985). A more focused study of one Cossack host’s intimacy with adjacent Muslim communities, albeit during the imperial era, is Thomas M. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus Frontier, 1700–1860 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999).
80. V. Dal’, Poslovitsy russkogo naroda (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1957), 348.
1. V. V. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9 (Moscow: Nauka, 1977), 391.
2. O. Franke, “Leibniz und China,” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 82 (1928): 155–178; Olivier Roy, Leibniz et la Chine (Paris: J. Vrin, 1972); Donald E. Lach, “Leibniz and China,” in Julia Ching and Willard G. Oxtoby, eds., Discovering China: European Interpretations in the Enlightenment (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1992), 97–116.
3. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, “Preface to the Novissima Sinica,” in Writings on China, trans. Daniel J. Cook and Henry Rosemont Jr. (Chicago: Open Court, 1994), 45.
4. Ibid., 47.
5. Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent, 83.
6. Upon learning of Peter’s victory over Sweden at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Leibniz had, however, called him “a sort of Turk of the North.” See Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998),
7. Leibniz, “Preface,” 45.
8. Vladimir Ger’e, Otnosheniia Leibnitsa k Rossii i Petru Velikomu (St. Petersburg: Pechatni V. O. Golovinam, 1871), 124.
9. Ibid., 2.
10. Franke, “Leibniz und China,” 160.
11. Ger’e, Otnosheniia, 11–18.
12. Ibid., 119; Petr Pekarskii, Istoriia imperatorskoi Akademii nauk v Peterburge, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1870), xxi–xxii.
13. Ger’e, Otnosheniia, 133–200; P. Pekarskii, Nauka i literatura v Rossii pri Petre Velikom, vol. 1. Vvedenie v istoriiu prosveshcheniia v Rossii XVIII stoletiia (St. Petersburg: V tip. tov. Obshchestvennaia Pol’za, 1862), 25–33. Patriotically minded Russians who have found the influence of Germans on their academic institutions distasteful occasionally have downplayed Leibniz’s role. See, for example, Pekarskii, Istoriia imperatorskoi Akademii nauk, 32–33.
14. Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture: A History to 1860 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1963), 65–66; K. V. Ostrovitianov et al., eds., Istoriia Akademii nauk SSSR, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1958), 30; Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, 307.
15. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 46–47.
16. Ostrovitianov, Istoriia Akademii nauk, 32–33.
17. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 31; Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 78–80.
18. Franke, “Leibniz und China,” 174–174.
19. Ger’e, Otnosheniia, 133.
20. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 31–32.
21. Franz Babinger, Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694–1738): Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der morgenländischen Studien im 18. Jahrhundert (Leipzig: Otto Harrasowitz, 1916); Pekarskii, Istoriia imperatorskoi Akademii nauk, 180–196; P. E. Skachkov, Ocherki istorii russkogo kitaevedeniia (Moscow: Nauka, 1977), 52–54; A. N. Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov v Rossii: Dooktiabr’skii period (Leningrad: Nauka, 1972), 31–33.
22. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 32. See also Tuska Benes, “Comparative Linguistics as Ethnology: In Search of Indo-Germans in Central Asia, 1770–1830,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24, no. 2 (2004): 117.
23. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 32. On the German fascination with central Asia more generally, see Benes, “Comparative Linguistics,” 117–129.
24. It was never, however, quite as acrimonious a debate as the Normanist one.
25. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 45. Nevertheless, Bayer’s translations made an important impact on early Russian historiography. See J. L. Black, G.-F. Müller and the Imperial Russian Academy (Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1986), 39–40.
26. M. Shuvalov, “Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk zhizni i deatel’nosti Orientalista Kera,” Sbornik moskovskago glavnago arkhiva Ministerstva inostrannykh del 5 (1893): 91–110; Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 33–45; B. M. Dantsig, “Iz istorii izucheniia Blizhnego Vostoka v Rossii (vtoraia chetvert’ XVIII v.),” Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia, vol. 5 (Moscow: Izd-vo vostochnoi literatury, 1959), 7–11.
27. Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, 315.
28. Pekarskii, Nauka i literatura, vol. 1, 558–561; Jozien Driessen, Tsaar Peter en zijn Amsterdamse vrienden (Utrecht/Antwerp: Kosmos—Z & K Uitgevers, 1996), 55–56.
29. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 391.
30. Shuvalov, “Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk,” 91.
31. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 34.
32. Skachkov, Ocherki, 54.
33. For the first four years, its minutes adhered to the Gregorian calendar, rather than the Julian. See Black, G.-F. Müller, 12.
34. Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 25.
35. N. N. Ogloblin, “Pervyi Iaponets v Rossii, 1701–1705 gg.,” Russkaia Starina 72 (October 1891): 11–24; K. E. Cherevko, Zarozhdenie russko-iaponskikh otnoshenii XVII–XIX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), 43–55; George Alexander Lensen, The Russian Push toward Japan: Russo-Japanese Relations, 1697–1875 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959), 26–30.
36. Cherevko, Zarozhdenie, 78–82; Lensen, Russian Push, 41–42; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 26–29.
37. There would be a Japanese language school in Irkutsk from 1753 to 1816, but according to historian Vladimir Bartol’d, “during its entire existence [the school] did not manage to prepare anyone to be competent in Japanese nor did it leave any traces in the history of Russian orientology.” Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 390.
38. Eric Widmer, The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking during the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 159–160.
39. Pekarskii, Nauka i literatura, vol. 1, 187; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 29.
40. Among the studies of his musical contributions is Eugenia Popescu-Judet, Prince Dimitrie Cantemir: Theorist and Composer of Turkish Music (Istanbul: Pan Yayıncılık, 1999). A recent audio compact disc features both some of his own music as well as several modern Turkish compositions in his honor: Cantemir: Music in Istanbul and Ottoman Europe around 1700, with Linda Burman-Hall, İhsan Özgen, and Lux Musica (Golden Horn Records CD GHP-0192).
41. In Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 101.
42. Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, 47–48.
43. Werner Bahner, “Ein bedeutender Gelehrter an der Schwelle zur Frühauflärung: Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723),” Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR 13 (1973): 7–9; P. Panaitescu, “Le prince Démètre Cantemir et le mouvement intellectuel russe sous Pierre le Grand,” Revue des études slaves 6, nos. 3–4 (1926): 253–256.
44. Vasilii Nikitich Ermuratskii, Dmitrii Kantemir: Myslitel’ i gosudarstvennyi deiatel’ (Kishinev: Kartia Moldoveniaske, 1973), 36.
45. N. A. Smirnov, Ocherki istorii izucheniia Islama v SSSR (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1954), 27; Popescu-Judet, Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, 35–36; Ermuratskii, Dmitrii Kantemir, 108.
46. In Ermuratskii, Dmitrii Kantemir, 94; Christina Bîrsan, Dimitrie Cantemir and the Islamic World, trans. Scott Tinney (Istanbul: Isis Press, 2004), 40–43.
47. Pekarskii, Nauka i literatura, vol. 1, 567–570; Panaitescu, “Le prince,” 252. A Soviet scholar suggests that the synod saw in Cantemir’s critique of Islam an aesopian attack on Christianity; see Ermuratskii, Dmitrii Kantemir, 100–103.
48. Demetrius Cantemir, The History of the Growth and Decay of the Othman Empire, trans. N. Tindal, 2 vols. (London: A. Millar, 1756).
49. Joseph von Hammer, “Sur l’histoire du prince Cantemir,” Journal asiatique 4 (1824): 23–45. Robert Irwin suggests that this was a case of the pot calling the kettle black, as Hammer’s own book “is not much more than an uncritical compilation of Turkish and Greek source material gutted and ordered approximately according to chronology.” Irwin, For Lust of Knowing, 151.
50. Alexandru Duţu and Paul Cernovodeanu, eds., Dimitrie Cantemir: Historian of South East European and Oriental Civilizations (Bucharest: Association internationale d’études du Sud-Est européen, 1973), 319–329; Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 8 (London: Folio Society, 1990), 85n; Voltaire, Essai sur les moeurs et l’esprit des nations, vol. 1 (Paris: Editions Garnier Frères, 1963), 805; George Gordon, Lord Byron, Don Juan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), 194, 206.
51. In fact, one German encyclopedia mistakenly identified Cantimir as holding the post. M. I. Radovskii, Antiokh Kantemir i Peterburgskaia Akademii nauk (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1959), 7; Ostrovitianov, Istoriia Akademii nauk SSSR, vol. 1, 36.
52. “The Life of Prince Cantemir,” in Cantemir, History of the Othman Empire, vol. 2, 458.
53. Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 30.
54. Sergei Vladimirovich Fomin, Kantemiry v izobratel’nykh materialakh (Kishinev: Shtinitsa, 1988), 8–9, 75.
55. Popescu-Judet, Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, 33.
56. In fact, the surname was adopted by Dimitrie’s father, who came from a modest Moldavian family. Ermuratskii, Dmitrii Kantemir, 20; Radovskii, Antiokh Kantemir, 3. With the notable exception of Voltaire, earlier biographers tended to accept this fabricated lineage. See, for example, V. G. Belinskii, “Kantemir,” in Sobranie sochinenii v trekh tomakh, vol. 2 (Moscow: OGIZ, 1948), 734; Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 28. On the philosophe’s scepticism, see Voltaire, “Histoire de Charles XII,” The Complete Works of Voltaire, vol. 4 (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1996), 404.
57. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 537.
58. A. P. Baziants et al., eds., Aziatskii muzei—Leningradskoe otdelenie Instituta vostokovedeniia AN SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1972), 7; Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 27; A. L. Gal’perin, “Russkaia istoricheskaia nauka o zarubezhnom Dal’nem Vostoke v XVII v.—Seredine XIX v.,” Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniei, vol. 2 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1956), 11.
59. Yuri Slezkine, “Naturalists Versus Nations: Eighteenth-Century Russian Scholars Confront Ethnic Diversity,” Representations 47 (1994): 170–171. According to Lindsey Hughes, “The received opinion that Peter’s concept of science and learning was ‘narrowly utilitarian’ has been rightly challenged.” Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, 308.
60. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 29–30.
1. The most thorough study is A. G. Brikner, “Puteshestvie Ekateriny II v Krim,” Istoricheskii vestnik 21 (1885), no. 7: 5–23; 8: 242–264; 9: 444–509. Among primary accounts are Louis-Philippe, comte de Ségur, Memoirs and Recollections, vol. 3 (London: Henry Colburn, 1827), 1–190; Charles-Joseph, prince de Ligne, Lettres à Marquise de Coigny (Paris: Librairie ancienne Honoré Champion, 1914); Catherine II, “Pis’ma imperatritsy Ekateriny II k Grimmu (1774–1796),” Sbornik imperatorskogo russkogo istoricheskogo obshchestva 23 (1878): 392–412. See also Simon Sebag Montefiore, Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin (London: Weidenfield & Nicolson, 2000), 351–379. On Catherine’s tours of her realm more generally, see Nina Viacheslavovna Bessarabova, Puteshestviia Ekateriny II po Rossii (Moscow: Moskovskii gumanitarnyi institut, 2005).
2. Ségur, Memoirs, vol. 3, 45.
3. Ibid., 62.
4. Henri Troyat, Catherine la Grande (Paris: Flammarion, 1977), 392.
5. Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 129; Troyat, Catherine, 394. At one point Ligne joked to Ségur about the impression that would be made on Europe “if these twelve hundred Tartars who now surround us, should take it into their heads to conduct us to some little neighbouring port, there to embark the august Catherine, together with the powerful Emperor of the Romans, Joseph II, and thence to steer them to Constantinople, for the amusement of his Highness Abdul-Hamet, sovereign lord of the faithful?” Ségur, Memoirs, 139–140.
6. Ségur, Memoirs, vol. 3, 130–131.
7. For a study of the eighteenth-century Russian drive to the Black Sea, including the annexation of the Crimea, from the perspective of a former tsarist diplomat, see Boris Nolde, La formation de l’Empire russe, vol. 2 (Paris: Institut d’études slaves, 1953), 5–195. A somewhat more recent account, based also on Turkish sources, is Alan W. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
8. Potemkin entirely ignored all traces of Crimea’s Hellenic past, to the point of using the stones of Greek ruins when building fortifications. See Andreas Schönle, “Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea,” Slavic Review 60 (2001): 11.
9. Catherine, who by her own admission was no great poet, probably had the verse substantially polished by her secretary, Aleksandr Khrapovitskii. See Douglas Smith, Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004), 179.
10. In Brikner, “Puteshestvie,” 490.
11. Ségur, Memoirs, vol. 2, 142, 144–145.
12. Andrei Zorin, Kormia dvuglavogo orla … (Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozre nie, 2001), 100.
13. Schönle, “Garden,” 2; Zorin, Kormia, 114–116.
14. On Hellenism in Russian letters, see Harold B. Segel, “Classicism and Classical Antiquity in Eighteenth- and Early-Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature,” in J. G. Garrard, ed., The Eighteenth Century in Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), 48–71.
15. Richard Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 138; Sara Dickinson, “Russia’s First ‘Orient’: Characterizing the Crimea in 1787,” Kritika 3, no. 1 (Winter 2002): 12.
16. Charles-Joseph, prince de Ligne, Mémoires du prince de Ligne (Brussels: Emile Flatau, 1860), 98; Ligne, Lettres, 21; Ségur, Memoirs, vol. 3, 2.
17. Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), 394.
18. Apparently, in 1783 Catherine’s new ally, Emperor Joseph II, ordered Christoph Willibald Gluck’s opera Iphigénie en Tauride performed in Vienna to honour her annexation of the Crimea. Zorin, Kormia, 112
19. Dickinson, “Russia’s First ‘Orient,’” 9–10.
20. In a slightly different but related context, Marc Raeff detected in Potemkin’s grand projects for his viceroyalty “an unmistakable element of ‘play,’ in the Huizinga sense, of course.” Marc Raeff, “In the Imperial Manner,” in Catherine the Great: A Profile (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 228. Leiden’s historian suggested that eighteenth-century European culture saw the Orient as a source of aristocratic diversion, when he referred to the rococo’s “naive exoticism, which plays with erotic or sentimental images of Turks, Chinese and Indians.” J. Huizinga, Homo Ludens: Proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur (Groningen, the Netherlands: H. D. Tjeenk Willink, 1974), 182.
21. In Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 127.
22. In W. F. Reddaway, ed., Documents of Catherine the Great: The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931), 216.
23. Ségur, Memoirs, vol. 2, 122, 182.
24. V. N. Tatishchev, “Vvedenie k gistoricheskomu i geograficheskomu opisaniiu velikorossiiskoi imperii,” in Izbrannye trudy po geografii Rossii, ed. A. I. Andreev (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo geograficheskoi literatury, 1950), 156; Mark Bassin, “Russia between Europe and Asia: The Ideological Construction of Geographical Space,” Slavic Review 50 (1991): 2–7; Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 149–154.
25. In Pierre Martino, L’Orient dans la littérature française au XVIIe et au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Hachette, 1906), 22.
26. Vasilii Osipovich Kliuchevskii, “Aforizmy i mysli ob istorii,” in Sochineniia v deviati tomakh, vol. 9, Materialy raznykh let (Moscow: Mysl’, 1990), 414.
27. Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 327, 532.
28. In Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great, xxvi.
29. Catherine II, The Memoirs of Catherine the Great, trans. Mark Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (New York: Modern Library, 2005), passim.
30. Catherine II, Sochineniia Imperatritsy Ekateriny II, 11 vols., ed. A. N. Pypin (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1901–7).
31. Michael von Herzen, “Catherine II—Editor of Vsiakaia Vsiachina? A Reappraisal,” Russian Review 38 (1979): 296–297. The Soviet literary scholar Grigorii Gukovskii’s dismissal of Catherine’s literary talents is typical of such disdain. See G. A. Gukovskii, “Ekaterina II,” in Literatura XVIII veka: Istoriia russkoi literatury, eds. G. A. Gukovskii and V. A. Desnitskii, vol. 4, pt. 2 (Moscow: Akademii nauk SSSR, 1947), 364–380. On popular views of the empress’s amatory exploits, see John T. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 329–341.
32. In A. Lentin, ed., Voltaire and Catherine the Great: Selected Correspondence (Cambridge: Oriental Research Partners, 1974), 29.
33. Barbara Widenor Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois’: China in Eighteenth-Century Russian Literature (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1984), 127–128.
34. Petr Romanovich Zaborov, Russkaia literature i Vol’ter: XVIII-pervaia tret’ XIX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1978), 7–78.
35. Giovanni Giacomo Casanova, Mémoires, ed. Robert Abirached, vol. 3 (1763–1774) (Paris: Librairie Gallimard, 1960), 460. Marc Raeff begs to differ; see his “The Enlightenment in Russia,” in Garrard, Eighteenth Century, 38.
36. Catherine II, Memoirs, 48. Among published collections of the letters she exchanged with Voltaire, see Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great.
37. Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 215–218.
38. Among good surveys of the philosophe’s views of China, see Shun-Chap0ing Song, Voltaire et la Chine (Aix-en-Provence: Université de Provence, 1989); Walter Engemann, Voltaire und China (Leipzig, 1932). The former includes a thorough bibliography of Voltaire’s writings about the topic, on pp. 235–243.
39. François Arouet Voltaire, The Works of Voltaire, trans. William F. Fleming, vol. 30 (Paris: E. R. Dumont, 1901), 119.
40. In Song, Voltaire et la Chine, 304.
41. Voltaire, Works, vol. 24, 29.
42. In Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois,’ 137–138.
43. According to Barbara Maggs, very few of Catherine’s contemporaries questioned Voltaire with respect to the Middle Kingdom. See Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois,’ 112. One was the diplomat, Vasilli Bratishchev, who in 1757 during a brief stay in Beijing compiled a “Verification of Voltaire’s remarks about China.” See Barbara Widenor Maggs, “Answers from Eighteenth-Century China to Certain Questions on Voltaire’s Sinology,” Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 120 (1974): 179–198.
44. V. S. Miasnikov, Dogovornymi statiami utverdili: Diplomaticheskaia istoriia russko-kitaiskoi granitsy XVII–XX vv. (Khabarovsk: Priamurskoe geograficheskoe obshchestvo, 1997), 260–265; Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 474; Michael Khodarkovsky, Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600–1771 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 224–235; John LeDonne, “Proconsular Ambitions on the Chinese Border: Governor General Iakobi’s Proposal of War on China,” Cahiers du monde russe 45, nos. 1–2 (2004): 31–60.
45. In Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great, 101.
46. Ibid., 91.
47. Catherine II, Les lettres de Catherine II au prince de Ligne (1780–1796), ed. Princess Charles de Ligne (Brussels: Librairie nationale d’art et d’histoire, 1924), 38
48. Catherine II, Sochineniia, vol. 2, 332–363; Lurana Daniels O’Malley, The Dramatic Works of Catherine the Great (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006), 170–174.
49. This fairy tale was made into a comic opera, Khlor-Tsarevich, or the Rose without Thorns, by D. I. Khvostov in 1786. See P. I. Berkov, Istoriia russkoi komedii XVIII v. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1977), 265.
50. Catherine II, Sochineniia, vol. 1, 347–406. For a translation of the play, see Lurana Daniels O’Malley, Two Comedies by Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1998).
51. For a brief survey of Eastern themes in eighteenth-century Russian literature, see Berkov, Istoriia russkoi komedii XVIII v., 262–266. A more extensive review of Chinese motifs is in Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois,’ 81–112.
52. In Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois,’ 91.
53. N. I. Novikov, “Zaveshchanie Iundzhena, kitaiskogo khana, k ego synu,” in Sa-ti ri cheskie zhurnaly N. I. Novikova, ed. P. N. Berkov (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1951), 267–268.
54. G. Makogonenko, Nikolai Novikov i russkoe prosveshchenie XVIII veka (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1952), 167–170.
55. D. I. Fonvizin, “Ta-Gio, ili velikaia nauka zakliuchaiushchaia v sebe vysokuiu kitaiskuiu filosofiiu,” in Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 2. (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1959), 231–253.
56. Walter Gleason, Moral Idealists, Bureaucracy, and Catherine the Great (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1981), 189–190.
57. Hugh Honour, Chinoiserie: The Vision of Cathay (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), 125. On the journal’s influence in Russia, see G. Gareth Jones, “Novikov’s Naturalised Spectator,“ in Garrard, Eighteenth Century, 149–165.
58. Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, Lettres persanes (Paris: Garnier, 1963).
59. Honour, Chinoiserie, 117; N. A. Samoilov, “Rossiia i Kitai,” in S. M. Ivanova and B. N. Mel’nichenko, Rossiia i Vostok (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo S. Peterburgskogo universiteta, 2000), 241; O. L. Fishman, Kitai v Evrope: Mif i real’nost’ XIII–XVIII vv. (St. Petersburg: Peterburgskoe Vostokovedenie, 2003), 400–404.
60. Skachkov, Ocherki, 67.
61. Dimitri Shvidkovsky, The Empress and the Architect: British Architecture and Gardens at the Court of Catherine the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 168.
62. Galina Agarkova and Nataliia Petrova, 250 let Lomonosovskomu farforovomu zavodu v Sankt-Peterburge 1744–1994 (St. Petersburg: LFZ, 1994), 5–13; T. I. Dul’kina and N. A. Asharina, Russkaia keramika i steklo 18–19 vekov (Moscow: Izobrazitel’noe iskusstvo, 1978), 106; Heikki Hyvönen, Russian Porcelain (Helsinki: Vera Saarela Foundation, 1982), 14–19.
63. V. A. Popov, Russkii farfor: Chastnye zavody (Leningrad: Khodozhnik SSSR, 1980), 5–15.
64. Maria Menshikova, “Oriental Rooms and Catherine’s Chinese Collections,” in Mikhail B. Piotrovski, ed., Treasures of Catherine the Great (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000), 207.
65. Aleksandr Benois, “Kitaiskii dvorets v Oranienbaume,” Khudozhestvennyia sokrovishchia Rossii, 1, no. 10 (1910): 196–201; V. G. Klement’ev, Kitaiskii dvorets v Oranienbaume (St. Petersburg: BLITs, 1998); Will Black, The Chinese Palace at Oranien baum (Boston: Bunker Hill, 2003); Dawn Jacobson, Chinoiserie (London: Phaidon, 1993), 107–110.
66. Klement’ev, Kitaiskii, 74.
67. Igor Grabar, Peterburgskaia arkhitektura v XVIII i XIX v. (St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1994), 244–248; Shvidkovsky, Empress and the Architect, 171–180; Jacobson, Chinoiserie, 171.
68. In Shvidkovsky, Empress and the Architect, 179.
69. Alain Grosrichard, Structure du serial: La fiction du despotisme asiatique dans l’Occident classique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979), 34–67; Asli Çirakman, From the “Terror of the World” to the “Sick Man of Europe”: European Images of the Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth (New York: Peter Lang, 2002), 105–110; Baudet, Paradijs.
70. M. A. Batunskii, Rossiia i Islam, vol. 2 (Moscow: Progress-Traditsiia, 2003), 66n54.
71. Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 336.
72. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 411.
73. Daniel, Islam and the West, 310–313; Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great, 20, 24–5.
74. In Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great, 33–34.
75. Rodinson, Europe and the Mystique of Islam, 44.
76. In Novikov, Satiricheskie, 262–263, 277–278.
77. Berkov, Istoriia russkoi komedii XVIII v., 262–266.
78. G. R. Derzhavin, “Felitsa,” in Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1958), 18–25.
79. William Edward Brown, A History of 18th-Century Russian Literature (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1980), 382; Harold B. Segel, The Literature of Eighteenth-Century Russia, vol. 2 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1967), 264.
80. I. A. Krylov, “Kaib: Vostochnaia povest’,” in Sochineniia, vol. 1 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1969), 377–406.
81. In Nikolai Stepanov, Ivan Krylov (New York: Twayne, 1973), 54.
82. Krylov, “Kaib,” 384.
83. Maggs, “Answers from Eighteenth-Century China.”
84. Maggs, Russia and ‘le rêve chinois,’ 146.
85. Widmer, Russian Ecclesiastical Mission, 166–167.
86. Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 588.
1. Henri Laurens, “Les Lumières et l’Egypte,” in Orientales I: Autour de l’expédition d’Egypte (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2004), 49–54; Marie-Noëlle Bourguet, “Des savants à la conquête de l’Egypte? Science, voyage et politique au temps de l’expédition française,” in Patrice Bret, ed., L’expédition d’Egypte, une enterprise des Lumières, 1798–1801 (Paris: Technique et Documentation, 1999), 21–36; Juan Cole, Napoleon’s Egypt: The Invention of the Middle East (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Geoffrey Symcox, “The Geopolitics of the Egyptian Expedition, 1797–1798,” in Irene A. Bierman, ed., Napoleon in Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 2003), 13–14.
2. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978), 80.
3. Todd Porterfield, The Allure of Empire: Art in the Service of French Imperialism, 1798–1836 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 43–79; Gérard-Georges Lemaire, The Orient in Western Art (Paris: Könemann, 2001), 105–109.
4. Jean Alazard, L’Orient et la peinture française au XIXe siècle (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1930), 35–36; Philippe Julian, The Orientalists (Oxford: Phaidon, 1977), 122–125.
5. Claudine Grossir, L’Islam des Romantiques, vol. 1, Du refus à la tentation (Paris: Editions Maisonneuve et Larose, 1984), 69–78.
6. Victor Hugo, Les Orientales, vol. 1, ed. Elisabeth Barineau (Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier, 1968), 11–12.
7. Maurice Cranston, The Romantic Movement (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 1–48.
8. Friedrich Schlegel, “Gesprach über die Poesie,” in Charakteristiken und Kritiken I, ed. H. Eichner, Kritische-Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe 2 (Munich: Ferdinand Schöningh; Zürich: Thomas-Verlag, 1967), 320.
9. S. Kaganovich, “Romantizm i Vostok,” Voprosy literatury 2 (February 1979): 169; D. I. Belkin, “Pushkinskie stroki o Persii,” in E. P. Chelyshev, ed., Pushkin i mir Vostoka (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), 99.
10. Orest Somov, “O romaticheskoi poezii,” in Selected Prose in Russian, eds. John Merserau Jr. and George Harjan (Ann Arbor: Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures, University of Michigan, 1974), 174–175.
11. V. G. Belinskii, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1955), 372.
12. V. M. Zhirmunskii, Bairon i Pushkin (1924; repr., Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1972), vi–vii. For a recent discussion by an American scholar, see Monica Greenleaf, “Pushkin’s Byronic Apprenticeship: A Problem in Cultural Syncretism,” Russian Review 53 (1994): 382–398.
13. This biographical sketch is largely based on B. V. Tomashevskii, Pushkin, 2 vols. (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR), 1956–1961; P. V. Annenkov, Materialy dlia biografiia A. S. Pushkina (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1984); Iu. M. Lotman, Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin (Leningrad: Prosveshchenie, 1982); T. J. Binyon, Pushkin: A Biography (London: HarperCollins, 2002); and Ernest J. Simmons, Pushkin (New York: Vintage Books, 1964).
14. Aleksandr Puskhin, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 3 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1963), 208.
15. Although initially thought to be Ethiopian, according to a Beninese scholar, Abraham was born near Lake Chad in what is now the city of Logone in Cameroon. See Dieudonné Gnammankou, Abraham Hanibal: L’aïeul noir de Pouchkine (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1996), 19–24. A more recent British writer believes that “the dispute is unresolved.” See Hugh Barnes, The Stolen Prince (New York: HaperCollins, 2006), 49.
16. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 8, 76–77. The official Russian genealogy corroborates this. See Obshchii gerbovnik dvorianskikh rodov Vserossiiskoi imperii, s.v. “Pushkin.”
17. Italics mine. Simmons, Pushkin, 7.
18. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 2, 44; David M. Bethea, “How Black Was Pushkin? Otherness and Self-Creation,” in Catharine Theimer Nepomnyashchy et al., eds., Under the Sky of My Africa (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 122–123.
19. Catherine O’Neil, “Pushkin and Othello,“ in Nepomnyashchy, Under the Sky, 197.
20. A historian of German Arabism points out that “the Orient, which concerns the Orientalist, does not lie to the East, geographically speaking, but rather to the South East.” Rudi Paret, The Study of Arab and Islam at German Universities (Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner, 1968), 3–4.
21. Hugo, Orientales, vol. 1, 11.
22. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 3, 210.
23. Binyon, Pushkin, 19.
24. Ibid., 63.
25. Belkin, “Pushkinskie,” 104.
26. Paul Austin, “The Exotic Prisoner in Russian Romanticism,” Russian Literature 16 (1984): 219.
27. A. S. Pushkin, The Captive of the Caucasus, trans. Katya Hokanson, in Hokanson, “Empire of the Imagination,” 263–285.
28. For example, see Alexander Etkind, “Orientalism Reversed: Russian Literature in the Time of Empires,” Modern Intellectual History 4 (2007): 620.
29. In Eidelman, Byt’ mozhet.
30. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 10, 17–18.
31. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 9, 48–54, 422–437; Belkin, “Pushkinskie,” 134–141.
32. Tomashevskii, Pushkin, vol. 1, 407–408; Ram, Imperial Sublime, 130–132.
33. Layton, Russian Literature and Empire, 87.
34. Hokanson, “Empire of the Imagination,” 53–54.
35. Laurence Kelly, Lermontov (London: Constable, 1977), 192. The phrase tellingly originated in Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin. See Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 5, 150.
36. Layton, Russian Literature and Empire, 156–174.
37. Ibid., 17–30, 103.
38. Belinksii, Sochinenii, vol. 7, 372.
39. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 4, 175–195. On the poem’s origins, see L. P. Grossman, “U istokov ‘Bakhchisaraisaia Fontana,’” Pushkin: Issledovaniia i materialy, vol. 3 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1960), 49–100.
40. N. M. Lobikova, Pushkin i Vostok (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), 57–62; Belkin, “Pushkinskie,” 100–101, Hokanson, “Empire of the Imagination,” 135–136.
41. Belinskii, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7, 379–380.
42. Lobikova, Pushkin i Vostok, 52–55.
43. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 10, 135.
44. Lobikova, Pushkin i Vostok, 65–68.
45. I. S. Braginskii, “Zametki o zapadno-vostochnom sinteze v lirike Pushkina,” Narody Azii i Afriki (1965): no. 4, 123–125; Tomashevskii, Pushkin, vol. 2, 21–22, 31–35.
46. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 6, 637–701.
47. Ibid., vol. 10, 92.
48. D. S. Mirsky, A History of Russian Literature (New York: Vintage, 1958), 86.
49. Iurii Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors (Itahaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 75; Etkind, “Orientalism Reversed,” 626.
50. Lemaire, Orient in Western Art, 20–57.
51. Julian, Orientalists, 28; Michelle Verrier, Les peintres orientalistes (Paris: Flammarion, 1979), 1–2.
52. Jean Alazard, L’Orient et la peinture française au XIXe siècle (Paris: Librarie Plon, 1930), 42–44.
53. Porterfield, Allure of Empire, 117–121; Julian, Orientalists, 47–50.
54. Julian, Orientalists, 28.
55. The following four paragraphs draw on my article, “Orientalizm delo tonkoe,” Ab Imperio 1 (2002): 249–261.
56. Steven Vincent, “Must We Burn the Orientalists?” Art & Auction 20, no. 3 (November 1997): 128.
57. Said, Orientalism.
58. But by no means did all art historians follow suit. See, for example, Donald Rosenthal, Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880 (Rochester, NY: Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, 1982); MaryAnne Stevens, “Western Art and Its Encounter with the Islamic World, 1798–1914,” in The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1984), 15–23; Vincent, “Must We Burn the Orientalists?;” Lemaire, Orient in Western Art; Kristian Davies, The Orientalists: Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia and India (New York: Laynfaroh, 2005). For surveys of the debate, see John M. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1995), 43–71; Louise Jacqueline Shalev, “Vasilii Vereshchagin (1842–1904): Orientalism and Colonialism in the Work of a 19th Century Russian Artist” (master’s thesis, San Jose State University, 1993), 61–76.
59. Linda Nochlin, “The Imaginary Orient,” Art in America, May 1983, 119–131, 186–191.
60. Ibid., 123.
61. Ibid., 122.
62. The most thorough biography is A. K. Lebedev, V. V. Vereshchagin (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1972). Among others, an account written by a friend shortly after his death stands out: F. I. Bulgakov, Vasilii Vasil’evich Vereshchagin i ego proizvedeniia (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvorina, 1896). A more recent work focuses on the artist’s many travels: Lev Demin, S mol’bertom po zemnomu sharu: Mir glazami V. V. Vereshchagina (Moscow: Mysl’, 1991). Aside from a spate of articles written at the turn of the twentieth century, the only English-language biography is Vahan D. Barooshian, V. V. Vereshchagin: Artist at War (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993). There are also many details in the painter’s own published autobiographical writings, such as V. V. Vereshchagin, Detstvo i otrochestvo khudozhnika, vol. 1 (Moscow: Tip. T-va. I. N. Kushnerev, 1895); and V. V. Vereshchagin, Na voine v Azii i Evrope (Moscow: Tip. T-va. I. N. Kushnerev, 1898).
63. Lev Demin, “Vereshchagin i Vostok,” Afrika i Aziia segodnia, August 1992, 61.
64. Vladimir Vasil’evich Stasov, “Vasilii Vasil’evich Vereshchagin,” in Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 2 (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1952), 215.
65. Elizabeth Valkenier, Russian Realist Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 11; Richard Stites, Serfdom, Society, and the Arts in Imperial Russia: The Pleasure and the Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 343.
66. Vereshchagin, Detstvo, 56.
67. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 3–7; David Jackson, The Wanderers and Critical Realism in Nineteenth-Century Russian Painting (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2006), 9–13.
68. N. G. Chernyshevskii, “Esteticheskie otnosheniia iskusstva k deistvitel’nosti,” in Sobranie sochinenii v piati tomakh, vol. 4 (Moscow: Pravda, 1974), 5–117.
69. Ibid., 115.
70. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 33–40; Stites, Serfdom, 413–418; Jackson, Wanderers, 27–33. Although less objective, a good overview of the general trends of Russian art at the time by a champion of the Society is V. V. Stasov, “Dvadtsat’-piat’ let russkogo iskusstva,” in Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 2, 391–472.
71. V. V. Vereshchagin, Listki iz zapisnoi knizhki khudozhnika (Moscow: Tip. T-va. I. N. Kushnerev, 1898), 70.
72. Bulgakov, Vereshchagin, 28.
73. Ibid., 29.
74. The latter is argued convincingly in Gerald Ackerman, “Gérôme’s Oriental Paintings and the Western Genre Tradition,” Arts Magazine, March 1986, 75–80.
75. Largely neglected after his death at the turn of the twentieth century, the artist was rehabilitated in the 1980s by the American art historian Gerald M. Ackerman, whose biography remains the definitive study: Ackerman, The Life and Work of Jean-Léon Gérôme (London: Sotheby’s Publications, 1986). See also Hélène Lafont-Couturier, Gérôme (Paris: Herscher, 1998; and Lemaire, Orient in Western Art, 238–242.
76. Basile Vereschaguine [Vasilii Vereshchagin], “Voyage dans les provinces du Caucase,” trans. Ernest le Barbier, Le tour du monde 17 (1868): 162–208; 19 (1869): 241–336.
77. Ibid., 196.
78. Ibid., 200.
79. Italics in the original. In Lebedev, Vereshchagin, 54.
80. The journey is described in Basile Vereschaguine, “Voyage dans l’Asie centrale: D’Orembourg à Samarcande,” Le tour du monde 25 (1873): 193–272.
81. E. Blanc, “Notes de voyages en Asie centrale: A travers la Transoxiane,” Revue des deux mondes 129 (1895): 904, cited in Irina Kanterbaeva-Bill, “Vasilij Vereščagin (1842–1904): Une vision de l’Orient lors de la conquête russe de l’Asie centrale” (master’s thesis, Université de Toulouse-Le-Mirail, 2005), 31.
82. Vereshchagin, “Voyage dans l’Asie,” 211.
83. Ibid., 263.
84. Ibid., 248.
85. Vereshchagin, Na voine, 1–60. See also A. I. Maksheev, Istoricheskii obzor Turkestana i nastupatel’nago dvizheniia v nego russkikh (St. Petersburg: Voennaia tipografiia, 1890), 268–273; M. A. Terent’ev, Istoriia zavoevaniia Srednei Azii, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Tipo-litrografiia V. V. Komarova, 1906), 453–471.
86. V. V. Vereshchagin to V. V. Stasov, 20 September 1882, in A. K. Lebedev, ed., Perepiska V. V. Vereshchagina i V. V. Stasova, vol. 2 (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1951), 134.
87. Vereshchagin’s public refusal of the appointment generated a lively controversy. See Lebedev, Perepiska, vol. 1, 20–25, 30–31. He also turned down the Order of Saint Stanislaus; see ibid., vol. 2, 320n6.
88. Lebedev, Vereshchagin, 76.
89. Stasov, “Vereshchagin,” 235; Bulgakov, Vereshchagin, 54.
90. The scene was based on personal observation. See Vereshchagin, “Voyage dans l’Asie,” 224.
91. On “the pleasures of the pipe” in Orientalist art, see Davies, Orientalists, 121–143.
92. Kistin [Andrei Ivanovich Somov], “Zametki o khudozhnikakh,” Sankt-Peterburskie Vedomosti, March 16, 1869. Affiliated with the Imperial Academy of Art, the critic was the father of the Mir iskusstva painter Konstantin Andreevich Somov.
93. Vereshchagin, “Voyage dans l’Asie,” 224.
94. Barooshian, Vereshchagin, 32–33.
95. Nor, for that matter, did women appear in many of his other paintings. Stasov, “Dvadtsat’-piat’,” 445–6.
96. Vereshchagin, “Voyage dans l’Asie,” 227.
97. Bulgakov, Vereshchagin, 64.
98. Ibid., 139.
99. Vereshchagin, Na voine, 16.
100. Ibid., 12.
101. Vladislav Artemov, Voiny, srazheniia, polkovodtsy v proizvedeniiakh klassicheskoi zhivopisi (Moscow: Olma-Press, 2002), 206.
102. “Sketches of Central Asia,” Pall Mall Gazette, April 9, 1873, 11; “Khiva on Canvas,” The Spectator, April 12, 1873, 470.
103. A. M. Gorchakov, memorandum, November 21, 1864, in D. C. B. Lieven, ed., British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America, 1983–1989), part I, series A, vol. 1, 287.
104. Retranslated from the Russian in Lebedev, Vereshchagin, 119.
105. In “Sketches of Central Asia,” 11.
106. A. V. Nikitenko, Zapiski i dnevnik (Moscow: Zakharov, 2005), vol. 3, 426.
107. Some conservative papers, however. criticized it for being “antipatriotic.” See Solomon Volkov, St. Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 1995), 104.
108. In Bulgakov, Vereshchagin, 12; Volkov, St. Petersburg, 105–106.
109. Italics in the original. Vereshchagin to Stasov, mid-March 1874, in Lebedev, Perepiska, vol. 1, 13.
110. Bulgakov, Vereshchagin, 139.
111. Vereshchagin to Stasov, mid-March 1874, Perepiska, vol. 1, 15.
112. Vereshchagin, “Voyage dans l’Asie,” 222.
113. In Lebedev, Vereshchagin, 57.
114. Vereshchagin to Stasov, 4 October 1877, in Lebedev, Perepiska, vol. 1, 192.
115. Vereshchagin to Nicholas II, 18 February 1904, Krasnyi Arkhiv 2 (1931): 169.
116. Vereshchagin, Listki, 146.
117. Vereshchagin, Ibid., 82.
118. A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinskii, Sochinenii v dvukh tomakh, vol. 2 (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1958), 599.
1. A. V. Martynov, Zhivopisnoe puteshestvie ot Moskvy do kitaiskoi granitsy (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Aleksandra pliushara, 1819), 28.
2. In A. N. Khokhlov, “Mirza Kazem-Bek i V.P. Vasil’ev v Kazani i Peterburge (kharakter nauchnykh kontaktov vostokovedov),” in M. Z. Zakiev and R. M Valeev, eds., Mirza Kazem-Bek i otechestvennoe vostokovedenie (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 2001), 189–190.
3. The definitive account of tsarist nationalities policy in the region is Andreas Kappeler, Russlands erste Nationalitäten: Das Zarenreich und die Völker der Mittleren Wolga vom 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert (Cologne: Böhlau, 1982).
4. Geraci, Window on the East.
5. G. F. Shamov, “Nauchnaia deiatel’nost O. M. Kovalevskogo v Kazanskom universitete,” Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia 2 (1956): 118–119.
6. M. K. Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet imeni V. I. Ul’ianova-Lenina za 125 let, vol. 1 (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 1930), 133.
7. V. Vladimirtsov, ed., Istoricheskaia Zapiska o 1-i Kazanskoi gimnazii: XVIII stoletie, part 1 (Kazan: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1867), 45–48; N. P. Zagoskin, Istoriia imperatorskago Kazanskogo universiteta za pervye sto let ego sushchestvovaniia, 1804–1904, vol. 1 (Kazan: Tip. Imp. Kazanskogo universiteta, 1902), 220; Ramil M. Valeev, Kazanskoe vostokovedenie: Istoki i razvitie (XIX v. –20 GG. XX v.) (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 1998), 74.
8. Alexander I also confirmed the status of universities already existing at Helsinki and Dorpat, and fifteen years later he elevated the status of St. Petersburg’s pedagogical institute, thereby bringing the total number of universities in his empire to seven.
9. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 191–193; James T. Flynn, The University Reform of Tsar Alexander I, 1802–1835 (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1988).
10. S. V. Rozhdestvenskii, Istoricheskii obzor’ deiatel’nosti Ministerstva Narodnago Prosveshcheniia, 1802–1902 (St. Peterburg: Ministerstva Narodnago Prosveshcheniia, 1902), 54; Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kizevetter, “Iz istorii borby s prosveshcheniem,” in Istoricheskie ocherki (Moscow: Izd-vo Okto, 1912), 157.
11. N. I. Veselovskii, “Svedeniia ob offitsial’nom prepodavanii vostochnykh iazykov v Rossii,” in V. V. Grigor’ev, Trudy tret’iago mezdhunarodnago s”ezda or’entalistov v S. Peterburge (St. Petersburg: Tip. Brat’ev Panteleevikh, 1876), 109; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 232.
12. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 43; G. F. Kim and P. M. Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo vostokovedeniia do serediny XIX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), 111–114.
13. As censor, Boldyrev permitted the Russian translation of Petr Chaadaev’s highly critical “First Philosophical Letter” to be published. See Alla Mikhailovna Kulikova, Vostokovedenie v rossiiskikh zakonodatel’nykh aktakh (konets XVII v.—1917 g.) (St. Petersburg: Institut vostokovedenie, 1994); Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 98–99.
14. P. Savel’ev, O zhizn’ i uchenykh trudakh Frena (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Ekspeditsii zagotovleniia bumag, 1855), 13–23.
15. N. A. Mazitova, Izuchenie blizhnego i srednego vostoka v kazanskom universitete (pervaia polovina XIX veka) (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 1972), 34.
16. There are no comprehensive surveys of German orientology. However, the following provide useful details about the development of the discipline: Rudi Paret, The Study of Arabic and Islam at German Universities: German Orientalists since Theodor Nöldeke (Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner, 1968), 2–15; Johann Fück, Die arabischen Studien in Europa (Leipzig: Otto Harrasowitz, 1955), esp. 158–194; Kaushik Bagchi, “Orientalism without Colonialism? Three Nineteenth-Century German Indologists and India” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1996), 92–129.
17. Suzanne Marchand, “To Be a German Orientalist (1830–1930)” (paper presented at National Humanities Center, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 2002).
18. Sergei Timofeevich Aksakov, A Russian Schoolboy, trans. J. D. Duff (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 147.
19. Kizevetter, “Iz istorii,” 155.
20. Zagoskin, Istoriia imperatorskago Kazanskogo universiteta, vol. 1, 375; Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 13–18; Pavel Nikolaevich Miliukov, Ocherki po istorii russkoi kul’tury, vol. 2 (Paris: Sovremennyia zapiski, 1930), 780; Edward Tracy Turnerelli, Russia on the Borders of Asia: Kazan, the Ancient Capital of the Tatar Khans, vol. 1 (London: R. Bentley, 1854), 290–291.
21. S. V. Rozhdestvenskii, Istoricheskii obzor’, 106.
22. Kizevetter, “Iz istorii,”171–174.
23. N. P. Zagoskin, Iz vremen Magnitskogo: Stranichka iz istorii Kazanskogo uni-versiteta 20-kh godov (Kazan: Tip. Tov. Pechenkina i K., 1894), 8; Valeev, Kazanskoe vostokovedenie, 97.
24. Mazitova, Izuchenie blizhnego, 100.
25. William H. E. Johnson, Russia’s Educational Heritage (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press, 1950), 79–80.
26. Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 19; Johnson, Heritage, 80–81.
27. Although the government’s Siberian Committee approved the initiative, the project was deferred. Rozhdestvenskii, Istoricheskii obzor’, 158–159.
28. A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Avtobiograficheskaia zapiska,” Russkii Arkhiv, October 1893, 220.
29. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 126.
30. A. K. Rzaev, Mukhammad Ali Kazem-Bek (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), 23.
31. Kazem-Bek, “Avtobiograficheskaia,” 222–223.
32. Along with Kazem-Bek’s own recollections, there are also some English-language accounts of his conversion. As the first and most distinguished Muslim that the Presbyterian “Tatar Mission” to Astrakhan managed to baptize, Kazem-Bek inspired several devotional tracts, including Rev. Dr. Ross, “The Persian Convert,” in Rev. William Ellis, ed., The Christian Keepsake and Missionary Annual (London: Fisher, Son & Co., 1836), 155–168; A Brief Memoir on the Life and Coversion of Mohammed Ali Bey, A Learned Persian, of Derbent (New York: Carlton and Porter, ca. 1830). See also Rev. William Brown, History of the Propagation of Christianity among the Heathen since the Reformation, vol. 3 (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1854), 425–428.
33. In Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 25.
34. Kazem-Bek’s noble status was only formally registered in 1840, when he successfully petitioned the government of Kazan to have him inscribed in the rodoslovnaia kniga (family register). Kazem-Bek was listed in the third section, for those who were eligible by virtue of state service. As a professor at the time, he held the seventh chin in the Table of Ranks, thereby being entitled to this estate. See Il’ia Nikolaevich Berezin, “Aleksandr Kasimovich Kazem-Bek,” Protokoly zasedanii soveta Imperatorskago S.-Peterburgskago universiteta no. 4 (1872): 110. Nevertheless, Ermolov was not being untruthful, since it was common practice in Russia to recognize foreign nobility.
35. E. Kozubskii, “A. P. Ermolov i A. K. Kazem-Bek: Po povodu biograficheskikh svedenii o Kazembeke,” Russkii Arkhiv, December 1893, 556–560. “Eshche k biografii A. K. Kazem-Beka,” Russkii Arkhiv, June 1894, 165–174; Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 26.
36. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek” 103.
37. Rozhdestvenskii, Istoricheskii obzor’, 358; Valeev, Kazanskoe vostokovedenie, 97–99; Shamov, “Nauchnaia,” 122–123; Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 114.
38. Barthol’d, Obzor, 83.
39. Sergei Semenovich Uvarov, “Project d’une académie asiatique,” Etudes de philologie et de critique (St. Petersburg: L’imprimerie de l’académie impériale des sciences, 1843), 3–65; P. S. Savelev, “Predpolozheniia ob uchrezhdenii vostochnoi akademii v S. Peterburge, 1733 i 1810 gg.,” Zhurnal Ministerstvo Narodnago Prosveshcheniia 89 (1855): 27–36; Cynthia Whittaker, “The Impact of the Oriental Renaissance in Russia: The Case of Sergej Uvarov,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 26 (1978): 503–524.
40. Shamov, “Nauchnaia,” 120–122.
41. Mazitova, Izuchenie blizhnego, 70.
42. Geraci, Window on the East, 309–341.
43. The most complete bibliography of the scholar’s published and unpublished works is in Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 191–193.
44. B. Dorn, “Razbor sochineniia Ordinarnago Professora Mirzy Aleksandra Kazem-Beka: Grammatika Turetsko-Tatarskago Iazyka,” Desiatoe prisuzhdnie uchrezhdennykh P. N. Demidovym nagrad (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1841).
45. A. K. Kazem-Bek, Allgemeine Grammatik der türkisch-tatarischen Sprache, trans. Julius Theodor Zenker (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1848).
46. A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Notice sur la marche et du progrès de la jurisprudence parmi les sects orthodoxies musulamanes,” Journal asiatique ser. 4, vol. 15 (1850): 158–214; Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 177.
47. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 116–118.
48. Thus one columnist for the pro-government Severnaia Pchela roundly condemned Kazem-Bek’s “Muslim articles” for Russkoe Slovo. M. Kazem-Bek, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Baku: ELM, 1985), 378; Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 113, Mazitova, Izuchenie blizhnego, 159.
49. Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 54.
50. A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Muridizm i Shamil’,” Russkoe Slovo, December 1859, 182–242; A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Bab et les Babis, ou le soulèvement politique et réligieux en Perse de 1845 à 1853,” Journal asiatique, April–May 1866, 329–384; August–September 1866, 196–252; October–November 1866, 357–400; December 1866, 473–507.
51. Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 28–29.
52. P. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’ Nikolae Ivanovich Il’minskom (Kazan: Tip. N. A. Il’iashenko, 1892), 15.
53. V. B. Shklovskii, Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoi (Moscow: Molodaia Gvardiia, 1967), 49–54. V. M. Dantsig, Izuchenie Blizhnego Vostoka v Rossii (XIX–nachalo XX v.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), 43.
54. August Freiherr von Haxthausen, The Russian Empire: Its People, Institutions and Resources, trans. Robert Faire (London: Frank Cass, 1968), vol. 1, 325–326; Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 30.
55. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 105.
56. Turnerelli, Russia on the Borders of Asia, vol. 1, 178.
57. These children were in addition to two legitimate sons and a daughter by his wife, Praskovia Aleksandrovna, née Kostlivtseva. See Mireille Massip, La Vérité est fille du temps: Alexandre Kasem-Beg et l’émigration russe en Occident, 1902–1977 (Geneva: Georg Editeur, 1999), 19. This work is a biography of the Mirza’s great-grandson, Aleksandr-Lvovich, the leader of the émigré monarchist movement Mladorossii. Another work about the latter is Nicholas Hayes, “Kazem-Bek and the Young Russians’ Revolution,” Slavic Review 39 (1970): 255–268.
58. A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Istoriia Islama,” Russkoe Slovo (1860): no. 2, 119–152; no. 3, 267–306; no. 8, 129–162; no. 10, 270–302.
59. Ibid., no. 10, 280.
60. Ibid., no. 10, 281.
61. Ibid., no. 10, 283–284.
62. Ibid., no. 10, 290–291.
63. Italics in the original. Ibid., no. 8, 162.
64. Ibid., no. 2, 151.
65. Kazem-Bek, “Muridizm i Shamil,” 187.
66. The American scholar Paul Werth suggests that the European notion of Islam as fanatical arose with the difficult French effort to subdue Algeria beginning in the 1830s. Paul Werth, At the Margins of Orthodoxy: Mission, Governance, and Confessional Politics in Russia’s Volga-Kama Region, 1827–1905 (Itahaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 181n13.
67. Kazem-Bek, “Muridizm i Shamil,” 183.
68. Ibid.
69. Kazem-Bek, “O poiavlenii i uspekhkakh slovesnosti v Evrope i upadke ee v Azii,” in Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Baku, Azerbaijan: Elm, 1985), 339.
70. Ibid., 338.
71. Kazem-Bek, “Bab et les Babis,” 66.
72. Ibid., 67.
73. Ibid.
74. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 124.
75. Kazem-Bek was named acting state councillor (deistvitel’nyi statnyi sovetnik) in 1852 and made confidential councillor (tainyi sovetnik) eleven years later. His decorations included the Order of Saint Anne, first class with an Imperial Crown (1860); Order of Saint Stanislas, first class (1855); and the Order of Saint Vladimir, third class (1851). Meanwhile, the Persian shah also bestowed upon him his Order of the Lion and the Sun. See Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 117–119; Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 73.
76. Cynthia H. Whittaker, The Origins of Modern Russian Education: An Intellectual Biography of Count Sergei Uvarov, 1786–1855 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1984), 160–161.
77. Veselovskii, “Svedeniia,” 180–184.
78. In Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 116.
79. Shirap Bodievich Chimitdorzhiev, ed., Rossiiskie Mongolovedy (XVIII–nachalo XX vv.) (Ulan-Ude, Buriat Republic: Izd-vo BNTs, 1997), 19–23; C. R. Bawden, Shamans, Lamas and Evangelicals: The English Missionaries in Mongolia (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 30–34.
80. G. F. Shamov, “Mongolskaia kafedra Kazanskogo universiteta (Istoriia otkrytiia),” Uchenye zapiski Kazanskogo Gosudarstvennogo universiteta 114, no. 9 (1954): 173.
81. Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 313.
82. Ibid., 314.
83. G. F. Shamov, Professor O. M. Kovalevskii: Ocherk zhizni i nauchnoi deiatel’nosti (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 1983), 13–15; Władysław Kotwicz, Józef Kowalewski Orientalista (1801–1878) (Wroclaw: Nakladem wroclawskiego towarzystwa naukowego, 1948), 27.
84. Shamov, Professor O. M. Kovalevskii, 22.
85. Ibid., 25–28.
86. Ibid., 26.
87. Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 125–127; A. N. Khokhlov, “Poezdka O. M. Kovalevskogo v Pekine (1830–1831 gg.) i ego sviazi s rossiiskimi kitaevedami,” Voprosy istorii 5 (2003): 150–159.
88. A. S. Shofman and G. F. Shamov, “Vostochnyi razriad Kazanskogo universiteta,” Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia, vol. 2 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1956), 427–430; Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 427–430.
89. Bawden, Shamans, 32; Shamov, Professor O. M. Kovalevskii, 76–78.
90. R. M. Valeev, Osip Mikhailovich Kovalevskii (Kazan: Izd-vo Kazanskogo universiteta, 2002), 12.
91. The most complete bibliography is in Kotwicz, Kowalewski, 145–155.
92. O. M. Kovalevskii, “O znakomstve evropeitsev s Aziei,” Obozrenie prepodavaniia nauk v Imperatorskom Kazanskom universitete na 1837–1838 uchebnyi god (Kazan: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1857), 22–36.
93. Shamov, Professor O. M. Kovalevskii, 52–53.
94. Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent, 99.
95. Shamov, Professor O. M. Kovalevskii, 52.
96. Ibid., 58.
97. Kovalevskii, “O znakomstve,” 22–36.
98. Kotwicz, Kowalewski, 134–135.
99. Dorzhi Banzarov, Chernaia vera ili shamanstvo u mongolov (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1891).
100. Khokhlov, “Poezdka,” 150.
101. Karl Voigt, Obozrenie khoda i uspekhov prepodavaniia aziatskikh iazykov v Imperatorskom Kazanskom Universitete (Kazan: V universitetskom tipografii, 1852).
102. Freiherr August von Haxthausen, Studien über die inneren Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands, vol. 1 (Hildesheim, Germany: Georg Olms, 1973), 469.
103. Turnerelli, Russia on the Borders of Asia, vol. 1, 277–278.
104. Zagoskin, Istoriia imperatorskago Kazanskogo universiteta, vol. 2, 333–335; Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, “Les missions orthodoxes en pays musulmans de moyenneet bas-Volga, 1552–1865,” Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique 8 (1967): 394–395; Werth, At the Margins, 193–194.
105. Materialy dlia istorii Fakul’tet vostochnykh iazykov, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Tip. M. M. Stasiulevich, 1905), 7.
106. Ibid., 12.
107. Ibid., 29.
108. Ibid., 4–5.
109. Ibid., 14.
110. Ibid., 143–145.
111. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 125–126.
112. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 46–47; Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 15; R. M. Valeev, “Mirza A. Kazem-Bek i vostokovedenie v Rossii v XIX v.,” in M. Z. Zakiev and R. M. Valeev, eds., Mirza Kazem-Bek i otechestvennoe vostokovedenie (Kazan: Izdatel’stvo Kazanskogo universiteta, 2001), 58.
113. A good indication of his pedagogy is given in the curriculum he developed for the First Kazan Gymnasium: A. K. Kazem-Bek, Raspredelenie prepodavaniia arabskago, persidskago i turetsko-tatarskago iazykov v Pervoi Kazanskoi Gimnazii (Kazan: V universitetskoi tipografii, 1836). The itinerary for two of his students was also published: A. K. Kazem-Bek, Plan uchenago puteshestviia po Vostoky magistrov kazanskago univer-siteta Dittelia i Berezina (Kazan: V universitetskoi tipografii, 1841).
114. Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 8–9.
115. Berezin, who opposed his former teacher on this point, cattily speculated that Kazem-Bek’s poor knowledge of German may have been one reason for his practical orientation. Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 126. See also Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 126–127.
116. In Rzaev, Kazem-Bek, 7.
117. Korbut, Kazanskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 116; Shofman and Shamov, Vostochnyi razriad, 424.
118. Shamov, “Nauchnaia,” 118; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 83–84; Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 121–122.
119. Veselovskii, “Svedeniia,” 14; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 467.
1. Veselovskii, “Svedeniia,” 113–114.
2. Epiphanus the Wise, Zhitie Sv. Stefana episkopa Permskogo, ed. V. Druzhinin (1897; repr., The Hague: Mouton, 1959).
3. Nolde, La formation de l’Empire russe, vol. 1, 35–36; Jaroslav Pelenski, Russia and Kazan: Conquest and Imperial Ideology (1438–1560s) (The Hague: Mouton, 1974), 251. According to the American historian Michael Khodarkovsky, “These conquests were first and foremost a manifestation of the political and ideological supremacy of Orthodox Muscovy over its former Muslim overlords.” Michael Khodarkovsky, “The Conversion of Christians in Early Modern Russia,” in Robert P. Geraci and Michael Khodarkovsky, eds., Of Religion and Empire: Missions, Conversion, and Tolerance in Tsarist Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), 120.
4. Kappeler, Russlands erste Nationalitäten.
5. Nolde, La formation de l’Empire russe, vol. 1, 36–41.
6. A. Mozharovskago, “Izlozhenie khoda missionerskago dela po prosveshcheniiu kazanskikh inorodtsev s 1552 po 1867 goda,” Chteniia v Imperatorskom Obshestv istorii i drevnostei pri Moskovskom universitete no. 1 (1880): 2.
7. Isabelle Teitz Kreindler, “Educational Policies towards the Eastern Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A Study of the Il’minskii System” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1969), 25.
8. Josef Glazik, Die Islammission der russisch-orthodoxen Kirche (Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 1959), 50.
9. Lemercier-Quelquejay, “Les missions orthodoxes,” 371.
10. Matthew P. Romaniello, “Mission Delayed: The Russian Orthodox Church after the Conquest of Kazan,” Church History 73 (2007): 513.
11. Bushkovitch, “Orthodoxy and Islam in Russia.”
12. Nancy Shields Kollman, Cartographies of Tsardom (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 165.
13. Before the Stalin era, the only analogous example in Russia was in the 1850s, toward the end of the Caucasus war, when several hundreds of thousands of Muslims left the empire. See Robert Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 15.
14. Eugene Smirnoff, A Short Account of the Historical Development and Present Position of Russian Orthodox Missions (London: Rivingtons, 1903), 73.
15. Orlando Figes, “Islam: The Russian Solution,” New York Review of Books, December 12, 2006, 74.
16. Kappeler, Russlands erste Nationalitäten, 270–287; Glazik, Islammission, 68; Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 47–53.
17. Paul W. Werth, “Coercion and Conversion: Violence and the Mass Baptism of the Volga Peoples, 1740–55,” Kritika 4 (2003): 543.
18. Ibid., 545–546.
19. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar, 32–34.
20. Glazik, Islammission, 112.
21. Nikolai Il’minskii, “Izvlechenie iz proekta 1849 o tatarskoi missii,” in P. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 328–330.
22. Geraci, Window on the East, 39.
23. Werth, At the Margins, 180–183.
24. P. Znamenskii, Istoriia Kazanskoi dukhovnoi akademii za pervyi (doreformennnoi) period eia sushchestvovaniia (1842–1870 gody), vol. 1 (Kazan: Tip. Imp. universiteta, 1891–1892), 1–5.
25. Elena Vladimorovna Kolesova, “Vostokovedenie v sinodal’nykh uchebnykh zavedeniiakh Kazani (seredina XIX–nachalo XX vekov)” (diss., Kazan State University, 2000).
26. Glazik, Islammission, 116; V. L. Uspenskii, “Kazanskaia dukhovnaia akademiia—odin iz tsentrov otechstvennogo mongolovedeniia,” Pravoslavie na Dal’nem Vostoke 2 (1996): 118.
27. Znamenskii, Istoriia Kazanskoi, vol. 1, 21.
28. Ibid., 1–7; Veselovskii, “Svedeniia,” 140–141; Kolesova, “Vostokovedenie,” 46–47.
29. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 18–19.
30. Ibid., 29.
31. Geraci, Window on the East, 52.
32. Znamenskii, Istoriia Kazanskoi, 360–362
33. Igor Smolitsch, Geschichte der russischen Kirche, vol. 2, ed. Gregory L. Freeze, Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte 45 (Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1991), 287. For similar opinions, see Glazik, Islammission, 133, and Lemercier-Quelquejay, “Les missions orthodoxes,” 403–403, as well as Kreindler, “Educational Policies,” and, more recently, Wayne Dowler, Classroom and Empire: The Politics of Schooling Russia’s Eastern Nationalities, 1860–1917 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001). Robert Geraci has a distinctly less positive view; see Geraci, Window on the East.
34. B. V. Lunin, Sredniaia Aziia v dorevoliutsionnom i sovetskom vostokovedenii (Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Nauka, 1965), 57. The chapter about “The Study of Islam in the Capitalist Period (1860s–1890s),” in the Stalinera history of Russian Islamology ignores Il’minskii altogether. See Smirnov, Ocherki istorii izucheniia Islama, 58–83.
35. Isabelle Kreindler, “A Neglected Source of Lenin’s Nationality Policy,” Slavic Review 36 (1977): 86–100.
36. Kreindler, “Educational Policies,” 114.
37. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 7.
38. Il’minskii, “Izvlechenie,” 323–337.
39. Ibid., 337.
40. N. I. Il’minskii, “Oproverzhenie islamizma, kak neobkhodimoe uslovie k tverdomu priniatiiu tatarami khristianskoi very,” in Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 388.
41. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 82–84.
42. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 180.
43. N. I. Il’minskii, “Otchet bakkalavra Kazanskoi Dukhovnooi Akademii N. I. Il’minskago za pervyi god prebyvaniia ego na Vostoke,” in Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 338–356.
44. N. I. Il’minksii, “Obshchii otchet bakkalavra N. I. Il’minskago ob ego zaniatiakh vo vse vremie prebyvaniia na Vostoke,” in Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 357–386.
45. Ibid., 361.
46. Ibid., 367.
47. Ibid., 379.
48. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 107.
49. Glazik, Islammission, 134.
50. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 262.
51. Ill’minskii, “Oproverzhenie islamizma,” 401.
52. Znamenskii, Istoriia Kazanskoi, 375–376.
53. Geraci, Window on the East, 55.
54. Glazik, Islammission, 140.
55. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 95–102.
56. Dowler, Classroom and Empire, 57.
57. Znamenskii, Na pamiat’, 107–111.
58. Smirnoff, A Short Account, 52.
59. Geraci, Window on the East, 77.
60. Ibid., 109.
61. The feeling appears to have been mutual. According to one liberal author, “Mention [Il’minskii’s] name in front of even a partially educated Russian Muslim and you will see that he will either turn pale or make a face as if seeing the devil in person.” In Kreindler, “Educational Policies,” 113.
62. N. I. Il’minskii to K. P. Pobedonostsev, February 2, 1887, in Pis’ma Nikolaia Ivanovicha Il’minskago (Kazan: Tipografiia Imperatorskago universiteta, 1895), 215.
63. In Mark Batunsky, “Russian Clerical Islamic Studies in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries,” Central Asian Survey 13 (1994): 218.
64. Znamenskii, Istoriia Kazanskoi, 405.
65. In Kolesova, “Vostokovedenie,” 139.
66. Ibid., 64–65; Werth, At the Margins, 192.
67. A. V. Talanov and N. I. Romanova, Drug Chzhungo (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1955); V. Krivtsov, Otets Iakinf (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1984); V. P. Romanov, Vol’nodumets v riase (Cheboksary, Chuvash Republic: Chuvhashskoe knizhnoe izd-vo, 1987).
68. Ieromonakh Nikolai (Adoratskii), Istoriia Pekinskoi Dukhovnoi Missii v pervyi period ee deiatel’nosti (1685–1745) (Kazan: Tipografiia Imperatorskago universiteta, 1887); B. G. Aleksandrov, ed., Beiguan’: Kratkaia istoriia Rossiiskoi dukhovnoi missii v Kitae (Moscow: Alians-Arkheo, 2006); Widmer, Russian Ecclesiastical Mission.
69. Mark Mancall, Russia and China: Their Diplomatic Relations to 1728 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Gaston Cahen, Histoire des relations de la Russie avec la Chine sous Pierre le Grand (Paris: F. Alcan, 1912); “O nachale torgovykh i Gosudarstvennykh snoshenii Rossii s Kitaem i o zavedenii v Pekine Rossiiskoi tserkvi i Dukhovnoi Missii,” Sibirskii vestnik 18 (1822): 95–196; V. A. Aleksandrov, Rossiia na dalnevostochnykh rubezhakh (vtoraia polovina XVII v.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1969); V. S Miasnikov, Imperiia Tsin i Russkoe gosudarstvo v XVII veke (Khabarovsk, Russia: Khabarovskoe knizhnoe izd-vo), 1987; Peter Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 161–173.
70. V. S. Miasnikov, Russko-kitaiskie dogovorno-pravovye akty (1689–1916) (Moscow: Pamiatniki istoricheskoi mysli, 2004), 27–29.
71. E. F. Timkovskii, Puteshestvie v Kitai cherez Mongoliiu v 1820 i 1821 godakh, vol. 2. (St. Petersburg: V Tip. Meditsinskago departamenta Ministerstva vnutrennykh del, 1824), 181.
72. Miasnikov, Russko-kitaiskie, 44.
73. Nikolai, Istoriia Pekinskoi, 17–18.
74. Adoratskii’s claim that Russians were less driven by commercial greed than their Western rivals in China was disingenuous. Leading Russians from Peter the Great to the late-nineteenth-century finance minister Sergei Witte held great hopes for developing the China trade. However, Russians were never capable of competing effectively with more adept mercantile powers like the British. See Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun, 79–80.
75. P. M. Ivanov, “Pravoslavnye missionerskie stany v Kitae v nachale XX veka,” in S. L. Tikhvinskii et al., eds., Istoriia rossiiskoi dukhovnoi misii v Kitae (Moscow: Izd-vo Sviato-Vladimirskogo Bratstva, 1997), 253.
76. The most complete biography of Father Hyacinth is P. V. Denisov, Zhizn’ monakha Iakinfa Bichurina (Cheboksary, Chuvash Republic: Chuvashskoe knizhnoe izd-vo, 1997). See also I. N. A. [Ieromonakh Nikolai Adoratskii], “Otets Iakinf Bichurin: Istoricheskii etiud,” Pravoslavnyi sobesednik (1886): no. 1, 164–80, 245–278; no. 2, 53–80, 271–316; Skachkov, Ocherki, 89–120; Edward J. Kasinec, “A Secular Religieux of Late Imperial Russia: The Sinologist Father Iakinf ” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1968).
77. In Skachkov, Ocherki, 92.
78. Iakinf Bichurin, “Opisanie bunta, byvshego v Kitae v 1813 g.,” Dukh zhurnalov (1819): no. 10, 527–558, in Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 290.
79. Nikitenko, Dnevnik, vol. 3, 43.
80. In Denisov, Zhizn’ monakha, 65.
81. Nikitenko, Dnevnik, vol. 3, 43. Timkovskii’s own extensive travel account, which was also published in French, German, and English, was another important early contribution to early Russian Sinology. Timkovskii, Puteshestvie v Kitai.
82. For a list of Father Hyacinth’s publications, see Hertmut Walraven, Iakinf Bičhurin: Russischer Mönch und Sinologe, Eine Bibliographie (Berlin: C. Bell, 1988).
83. O. I. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii Senkovskago (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1858), vol. 5, 380–407.
84. D. I. Belkin, “Russkie literatory 20-kh—nachala 40-kh godov XIX v. i kitaeved N. Ia. Bichurin,” Formirovanie gumanisticheskikh traditsii otechestvennogo vostokove-deniia (do 1917 goda) (Moscow: Nauka, 1984), 53–99.
85. In Denisov, Zhizn’ monakha, 104.
86. M. P. Alekseev, “Pushkin i Kitai,” in Chelyshev, Pushkin i mir Vostoka, 65–73; D. I. Belkin, “Pushkin i kitaeved o. Iakinf,” Narody Azii i Afriki (1974): no. 6, 126–134; L. A. Cherevskii, Pushkin i ego okruzhenie (Leningrad: Nauka, 1975), 37–38; Binyon, Pushkin, 310–311.
87. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 8, 293n8.
88. Binyon, Pushkin, 311.
89. Iakinf Bichurin, “Otrivok liubopytnago pis’ma … iz Kiakhty,” Moskovskii Telegraf (1841): no. 42, 142.
90. Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 186–194.
91. Senkovskii, Sochinenii, vol. 6, 406.
92. V. G. Belinskii, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1982), vol. 8, 598.
93. A. N. Khokhlov, “N. Ia. Bichurin i ego trudy o Mongolii i Kitae,” Voprosii istorii (1978): no. 1, 71; V. G. Rodionov, “Po puti v khrame,” in Iakinf Bichurin, Radi vechnoi pamiati (Cheboksary, Chuvash Republic: Chuvashkoe knizhnoe izd-vo, 1991), 13–14.
94. Iakinf Bichurin, Kitai v grazhdanskom i nravstvennom sostoianii, vol. 4 (St. Petersburg: V tipografii voenno-uchebnykh zavedenii, 1848), 173.
95. Ibid., vol. 1, 299.
96. Senkovskii, Sochinenii, vol. 6, 27.
97. Bichurin, Radi vechnoi, 19.
98. Ibid., 175.
99. A. N. Bernshtam, “N. Ia. Bichurin (Iakinf) i ego trud,” in Iakinf Bichurin, Sobranie svedenii o narodakh, obitavshikh v Srednei Azii v drevnie vremena, vol. 1 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1950), xxvi.
100. A. K. Kazem-Bek, review of Sobranie svedenii o narodakh, obitavshchikh v Srednei Azii v drevnie vremena, by Iakinf Bichurin, Otechestvennye zapiski 84 (1852): pt. 5, 1–34.
101. Iakinf, Radi vechnoi, 20.
102. Senkovskii, Sochinenii, vol. 6, 28.
103. The assessment of the University of St. Petersburg’s Professor Nikolai Veselovskii is fairly typical; see Russkii biograficheskii slovar’, s.v. “Iakinf.” See also Bernshtam, “Bichurin,” xxv–xlvii.
104. In Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 305.
105. From the start Russia’s theological academies did teach Hebrew, which is technically an Asian language. See Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 178.
106. A notable exception is Kolesova, “Vostokovedenie.”
107. Mark Batunsky, “Russian Missionary Literature on Islam,” Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte 39 (1987): 261.
1. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture 222. See also F. A. Petrov, Formirovania sistemy universitetskogo obrazovaniia v Rossii v pervye desiatiletiia XIX veka, vol. 1 (Moscow: Izd-vo Moskovskogo universiteta, 2002–3), 1.
2. Walter Rüegg, “Themes,” in A History of the University in Europe, vol. 3, Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 4–6; A. Iu. Andreev, “‘Gumbol’dt v Rossii’: Ministerstvo narodnogo prosveshcheniia i nemetskie universitety v pervoi polovine XIX veka,” Otechestvennaia istoriia no. 2 (2004): 37–55.
3. Petrov, Formirovanie, vol. 1, 12. For a discussion of the reasons behind this decision, see Andreev, “Gumbol’dt,” 37–54.
4. Nicholas I awarded him the title in 1849.
5. Particularly scathing about Uvarov’s politics is S. Durylin, “Drug Gete,” Literaturnoe nasledstvo 4–6 (1932): 186–217. See also Ostrovitianov, Istoriia Akademiia nauk SSSR, vol. 2, 20; Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia, 1825–1855 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 46, 70–72.
6. The best description of his political views is in Cynthia H. Whittaker, “The Ideology of Sergei Uvarov: An Interpretive Essay,” Russian Review 37 (1978): 158–176. See also Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education; and M. M. Shevchenko, Konets odnogo Velichiia: Vlast’, obrazovanie i pechatnoe slove v Imperatorskoi Rossii na poroge Osvoboditel’nykh reform (Moscow: Tri Kvadrata, 2003), esp. 57–86.
7. Sergei Mikhailovich Solov’ev, “Moi zapiski dlia detei moikh, a esli mozhno, i dlia drugikh,” in Sochineniia, vol. 18 (Moscow: Mysl’, 1995), 571.
8. Obshchii gerbovnik dvorianskikh rodov Vserossiiskoi imperii, s. v. “Uvarov.”
9. Friedrich von Schlegel, “Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier,” in Studien zur Philosophie und Theologie, ed. Ernst Behler and Ursula Struc-Oppenberg, Kritische-Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe 8 (Munich: Ferdinand Schöningh; Zürich: Thomas-Verlag, 1975), 111.
10. Schwab, La renaissance orientale, 79–86.
11. S. S. Uvarov, “Projet d’une académie asiatique,” in Etudes de philologie et de critique (St. Petersburg: Académie impériale des sciences, 1843), 3–49.
12. Ibid., 12.
13. Ibid., 22–23.
14. Ibid., 8.
15. Ibid., 9.
16. Mention of the interpreters, however, was only made in a footnote. Ibid., 9.
17. Ibid., 28.
18. Ibid., 26.
19. P. S. Savel’ev, “Predpolozheniia ob uchrezhdenii vostochnoi akademii v S. Peterburge, 1733 i 1810 gg.,” Zhurnal Ministerstvo Narodnago Prosveshcheniia 89 (1855): pt. 3, 27–36; A. P. Baziants and I. M. Grinkrug, “Tri proekta organizatsii izucheniia vostochnykh iazykov i Vostoka v Rossii v XVIII–XIX stoletiiakh,” in Formirovanie gumanisticheskikh traditsii otechestvennogo vostokovedeniia (do 1917 goda) (Moscow: Nauka, 1984), 33–52; A. M. Kulikovo, “Proekty vostokovednogo obrazovaniia v Rossii (XVIII-1-ia pol XIX v.), Narody Azii i Afriki (1970): no. 4, 133–139.
20. N. V. Tairova, “Proekt I. O. Pototskogo otnositel’no sozdaniia Aziatskoi Akademii v Rossii,” Narody Azii i Afriki (1973): no. 2, 202–207.
21. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 97.
22. Whittaker, “Impact of the Oriental Renaissance,” 517; Georg Schmid, ed., “Goethe und Uwarow und ihr Briefwechsel,” Russische Revue 28 (1888): 139–143.
23. V. V. Grigor’ev, Imperatorskii S. Peterburgskii universitet (St. Petersburg: Tip. Bezobrazova i komp., 1870), 6.
24. A. M. Kulikova, Stanovlenie universitetskogo vostokovedeniia v Peterburge (Moscow: Nauka, 1982), 28–31. A. N. Kononov, “Vostochnyi fakul’tet Leningradskogo universiteta (1855–1955),” Vestnik Leningradskogo universiteta, Seriia istorii iazyka i literatury 8, no. 2 (1957): 3–4.
25. Sergei Uvarov, Rech’ prezidenta Imp. Akademii nauk, popechitelia Sanktpeterburgskogo uchebnogo okruga v torzhestvennom sobranii Glavnogo pedagogicheskogo instituta 22 marta 1818 goda (St. Petersburg, 1818), 3. For a partial translation of the speech’s second half, which outlines Uvarov’s Burkean vision of the Russian empire’s gradual evolution toward constitutionalism, see Cynthia Whittaker, ed. and trans., “On the Use of History: A Lesson in Patience: A Speech by Sergei Uvarov,” Slavic and European Education Review 2 (1978): no. 2, 29–38.
26. Kulikova, Stanovlenie, 38; Barthold, Obzor, 52.
27. Baziants et al., Aziatskii muzei 5–29; S. F. Ol’denburg, Aziatskii Muzei Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, 1818–1918 (Petrograd: Rossiiskaia Gosudarstvennaia Akedemicheskaia Tipografiia, 1919). For an exhaustive chronicle of the institution’s acquisitions under its first director, see his predecessor’s work, Bernhard Dorn, Das Asiatische Museum der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St. Petersburg (St. Petersburg: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1846), 2 vols. He provides a brief description in B. Dorn, “Aziiatskii Muzei,” Zapiski Imp. Akademii nauk 5 (1864): 163–174.
28. Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education, 74.
29. S. V. Rozhdestvenskii, “Pervonachal’noe obrazovanie”: S.-Peterburgskogo universiteta 8 fevralia 1819 goda i ego blizhaishaia sud’ba (Petrograd: 2-ia Gosudarstvannaia tipografiia, 1919), 32–62; Grigor’ev, Imperatorskii, 33–38.
30. Kulikova, Stanovlenie, 44–45, 58.
31. P. S. Savel’ev, “O zhizni i trudakh O. I. Senkovskago,” in O. I. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii Senkovskago (St. Petersburg: Tip. Imp. Akademii nauk, 1858), vol. 1, xciv. Two other biographies are Louis Pedrotti, Józef-Julian Sękowski: The Genesis of a Literary Alien (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), and Veniamin Aleksandrovich Kaverin, Baron Brambeus (Moscow: Nauka, 1966). On Senkovskii and the Orient, see L. G. Alieva, “O. I. Senkovskii—Puteshestvennik i vostokoved” (candidate’s diss., Tadzhikskii gosudarstvennoe universitet, 1977), and the relevant chapter in John Hope, “Manifestations of Russian Literary Orientalism” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2001), 48–102. A more recent American monograph examines Senkovskii’s career as a literary entrepreneur: Melissa Frazier, Romantic Encounters: Writers, Readers, and the “Library for Reading” (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).
32. Pedrotti, Sękowski, 11–15; Kaverin, Baron Brambeus, 24–29.
33. A. I. Gertsen, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademi nauk SSSR, 1956), 89.
34. Jan Reychman, Podróżnicy polscy na bliskim wschozie w XIX w (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Wiedza Powszechna, 1971), 23; D. A. Korsakov, O. I. Senkovskij i M. P. Pogodin kak zhurnalisti (Kazan: Tip. Imperatorskogo universiteta, 1902), 3–5.
35. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 86–87; Izabela Kalinowska, Between East and West: Polish and Russian Nineteenth-Century Travel to the Orient (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2004), 62–63.
36. In Savel’ev, “O zhizni,” 19.
37. The details of his trip are difficult to reconstruct, in part because the various travelogues he published were embellished. See Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 3–218. The most detailed and reliable account is in Alieva, “Senkovskii,” 62–93. Senkovskii’s letters are also helpful: O. I. Senkovskii, Senkovskii v svoei perepiske s I. Lelevelem (Warsaw: Tip. A Paevskogo, 1878), 9–29. If Senkovskii kept a diary of his journey (he had promised to send one to his Polish sponsors), it does not appear to have been preserved. However, the central archive in Lithuania does hold extensive notes and transcriptions he made during his Near Eastern travels in Polish, French, Greek, Turkish, Arabic, and Hebrew: O. I. Senkovskii, “Notaty Jozefa Sękowskiego dotycace jego podrozy na Wschod, 1819–21,” Tsentr. gosudarstvennoe istoricheskii arkhiv MVD Lit. SSR, fond 56, opis’ 5, ed. khr. 91. I am very grateful to Jurga Miknyte-Vigotiene for helping me with this source.
38. On Arida, see the entry Senkovskii wrote in the Entsiklopedicheskii leksikon, vol. 3 (St. Petersburg: Tip. A. Pliushara, 1835), 295–296.
39. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochineniia, vol. 1, 191–192.
40. Ibid., 8–23.
41. Ibid., 59–104.
42. In Alieva, “Senkovskii,” 67.
43. In Pedrotti, Sękowski, 48.
44. Ibid., 61–62.
45. Ibid., 31.
46. Kulikova, Stanovlenie, 46–49; Alieva, “Senkovskii,” 96–97.
47. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7, 149–164.
48. Savel’ev, “O zhizni,” 42; I. Iu. Krachkovskii, “Vostokovedenie v pismakh P. Ia. Petrov k V. G. Belinskomu,” in Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia, vol. 1 (Moscow: Izd-vo vostochnoi literatury, 1953), 12.
49. Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de Sacy, review of Supplément à l’histoire générale des Huns, des Turks et des Mogols, by M. Joseph Senkowski [O. I. Senkovskii], Journal des savants, July 1825, 387–395.
50. [O. I. Senkovskii], Lettre de Tutundju-Oglou-Moustafa-Aga (St. Petersburg: Imprimerie de N. Gretsch, 1828). This is a more extensive version of the original, which was published in Russian the previous year. It also appears in Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 5, 335–379.
51. Savel’ev, “O zhizni,” 55–56. For a rebuttal, see “M. von Hammer’s Reply to M. Senkowski,” Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany 26 (September 1828): 271–277. The Austrian’s reputation has not improved with time. The British Arabist Robert Irwin judges “many [of his ideas and insights] not only wrong but also slightly mad.” See Irwin, For Lust of Knowing, 150–151.
52. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 6, 17.
53. Hope, “Manifestations,” 64–65.
54. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 6, 74–75; vol. 7, 41.
55. Ibid., vol. 6, 379, 384.
56. [Senkovskii], “Vostochnye iazyki,” Entsiklopedicheskii leksikon, vol. 12, 110.
57. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 7, 171; “Aziia,” Entsiklopedicheskii leksikon, vol. 1, 271.
58. Ibid., vol. 6, 92, 112–113.
59. Ibid., vol. 8, 111.
60. Mirsky, History of Russian Literature, 125. See also Sidney Monas, The Third Section: Police and Society in Russia under Nicholas I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 117–122.
61. As early as 1825, he wrote Lelewel that his erstwhile mentor “seems to be going mad.” See Senkovskii, Senkovskii v svoei perepiske, 76. Two decades later, he confided to a friend that he found Bulgarin “a man without character or scruples, the unhappy slave of his own whims.” See E. N. Akhmatova, “Osip Ivanovich Senkovskii (Baron Brambeus),” Russkaia starina 20 (May 1889): 296.
62. Alieva, “Senkovskii,” 15–16.
63. In Pedrotti, Sękowski, 56.
64. For an interesting comparison of Senkovskii’s and Pushkin’s literary Orientalism, see Rachel Polonsky, “Hajji Baba in St. Petersburg: James Morier, Osip Senkovskii and Pushkin’s Literary Diplomacy between East and West,” Journal of European Studies 35 (2005): 253–270.
65. Senkovskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 2, 1–278. For a recent reading by a Slavist, see Andreas Schönle, Authenticity and Fiction in the Russian Literary Journey, 1790–1840 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 169–181.
66. V. Zilber, “Senkovsky (Baron Brambeus),” in B. M. Eikhenbaum and Yuri Tynyanov, eds., Russian Prose (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1985), 133.
67. Timothy Kiely, “The Professionalization of Russian Literature: A Case Study of Vladimir Odoevsky and Osip Senkovsky” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1998), 141–142.
68. In Pedrotti, Sękowski, 4. Senkovskii is still generally regarded as a second-rate writer, although there are periodic efforts in Russia to rehabilitate him. See Kaverin, Baron Brambeus; A. E. Novikov, “Tvorchestvo O. I. Senkovskogo v kontekste razvitiia russkoi literatury kontsa XVIII–pervoi poloviny XIX v” (Avtoreferat disertatsii na soiskanie uchenoi stepeni kandidata filologicheskikh nauk) (St. Petersburg: Institut russkoi literatury, 1995).
69. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 620.
70. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 107.
71. Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 147–148; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 67–71; Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education, 209–211.
72. Kulikova, Stanovlenie, 158.
73. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 1, 141. This collection is the basic resource for the faculty’s organizational history. See also Bartol’d, Sochinenii, vol. 9, 85–106; Grigor’ev, Imperatorskii, 123–125; A. A. Vigasin, A. N. Khokhlov, and P. M. Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo vostokovedeniia s serediny XIX veka do 1917 goda (Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 1997), 7–18.
74. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 1, 7.
75. Katya Hokanson, “Russian Orientalism” (MA thesis, Stanford University, 1987), 28.
1. The story of this remarkable house of worship is told in Aleksandr Ivanovich Andreev, Khram Buddy v Severnoi stolitse (St. Petersburg: Nartang, 2004). See also John Snelling, Buddhism in Russia: The Story of Agvan Dorzhiev, Lhasa’s Emissary to the Tsar (Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element, 1993), 129–141, 157–162.
2. In Andreev, Khram Buddy, 54.
3. In ibid., 65.
4. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 123.
5. A. K. Kazem-Bek, “Rech’ po sluchaiu otkrytiia v S. Peterburgskom universitete fakul’teta Vostochnyk iazykov,” Zhurnal ministerstva narodnago prosveshcheniia 88 (1855): 19–20.
6. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 169–172; V. M. Alekseev, Nauka o Vostoke (Moscow: Nauka, 1982), 7n1.
7. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 1, 188–189.
8. Ibid., vol. 2, 185.
9. Ibid., vol. 1, 366–375.
10. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 118–119.
11. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 1, 507.
12. Ibid., vol. 2, 140.
13. Petrov, Formirovanie, vol. 2, 447.
14. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar, 178–189; Berezin, “Kazem-Bek,” 116–118.
15. Ol’ga Boratynskaia, “Trudy Aleksandra Kasimovicha Kazembeka,” Russkii Arkhiv no. 2 (1894): 282.
16. N. I. Veselovskii, Vasilii Vasil’evich Grigor’ev po ego pis’mam i trudam, 1816–1881 (St. Petersburg: Tip. A. Transhelia, 1887), 244–249.
17. A. A. Vigasin, “I. P. Minaev, i russkaia politika na Vostoke v 80–e gody XIX v.,” Vostok (1993): no. 3, 109.
18. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 2, 200–205.
19. Ibid., 207–218.
20. Ibid., 218–278. See also the scathing critique by the Sinologist Dmitrii Pozdneev in response to yet another inquiry ordered by the education minister: D. M. Pozdneev, K voprosu ob organizatsii izucheniia Vostoka v russkikh uchebnyh zavedeniiakh (St. Petersburg: Tip. B. M. Volf ’fa, 1904).
21. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 2, 260–278.
22. A. P. Baziants, Lazarevskii institut v istorii otechestvennogo vostokovedeniia (Moscow: Nauka, 1973); Vigasin, Khokhlov, and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestve, 27–35.
23. Vigasin, Khokhlov, and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestve, 48–75; Skachkov, Ocherki, 27–35; David Wolff, To the Harbin Station: The Liberal Alternative in Russian Manchuria, 1898–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 187–190.
24. V. P. Vasil’ev, “Vasil’ev, Vladimir Petrovich,” in S. A. Vengerov, Kritiko-biograficheskii slovar’ russkikh pisatelei i ucheenykh.
25. Ibid., 154.
26. A. N. Khoklov, “V. P. Vasil’ev v Nizhnem Novgorode i Kazani,” in L. S. Vasil’ev, ed., Istoriia i kul’tura Kitaia (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), 41.
27. Z. L. Gorbacheva et al., “Russkii kitaeved akademik Vasilii Pavlovich Vasil’ev (1818–1900),” in Ocherki po istorii russkogo vostokovedeniia, vol. 2 (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1956), 239.
28. V. P. Vasil’ev, “Vospominanii o starom Pekine,” in Otkritye Kitaia i drugie stat’ia Akademika V. P. Vasil’eva (St. Petersburg: Vestnik vsemirnoi istorii, 1900), 34–62.
29. The most extensive bibliography is in Gorbacheva et al., “Russkii kitaeved akademik,” 329–338.
30. V. P. Vasil’ev, “O znachenii Kitaia,” manuscript, 1850, S. P. B. Filial Arkhiva Rossiiskii Akademii nauk, fond 775, opis’ 1, delo 32.
31. Ibid., list 6.
32. Ibid., list 5.
33. Vasil’ev, “Otkrytie Kitaia,” in Otkrytie Kitaia, 1.
34. Wolff, To the Harbin Station, 185.
35. Vasil’ev, “O znachenii,” list 8.
36. Vasil’ev, “Vasil’ev,” 153.
37. V. P. Vasil’ev, “Kitaiskii progress,” Vostochnoe obozrenie (1884), no. 4, 8.
38. Vasil’ev, “Otkrytie,” 1–33.
39. K. Sh. Khafizova, “Rossiia, Kitai i narody Turkestana v publitsistike V. P. Vasil’eva,” Vasil’ev, Istoriia i kul’tura Kitaia, 116–117.
40. Vasil’ev, “O znachenii,” list 32.
41. In Gorbacheva et al., “Russkii kitaeved akademik,” 258.
42. Skachkov, Ocherki, 227–228.
43. V. P. Vasil’ev, “Veikha-veiskii vopros,” Sankt-Peterburgskie vedomosti, April 10, 1898, 1–2.
44. V. P. Vasil’ev, Tri voprosa: Uluchshenie ustroistvo sel’skoi obshchiny. Assignatsiiden’gi. Chemu i kak uchitsia (St. Petersburg: Tip. G. E. Blagosietova, 1878).
45. Gorbacheva et al., “Russkii kitaeved akademik,” 248–250.
46. W. Wassiljew [V. P. Vasil’ev], Der Buddhismus, seine Dogmen, Geschichte und Literatur, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1860), v–vi.
47. N. A. Petrov, “Akademik V. P. Vasil’ev i vostochnyi fakul’tet,” Vestnik Leningradskogo universiteta (1856): no. 8, 87.
48. Skachkov, Ocherki, 210–211; Petrov, “Akademik V. P. Vasil’ev,” 89–91.
49. In Gorbacheva et al., “Russkii kitaeved akademik,” 270–272.
50. Victoria Lysenko, “La philosophie bouddhique en Russie: Brève histoire de l’approche et des methods d’étude de la fin du XIX siècle aux années 1940,” Slavica occitania 21 (2005): 93–95.
51. Wassiljew, Buddhismus, 25.
52. Wassiliew, Buddhismus. One German called it “epochal,” while another confessed that, until he had read the book, his publications about the subject were like those “of a blind man writing about colors.” See S. F. Ol’denburg, “Pamiati Vasiliia Pavlovicha Vasil’eva i o ego trudakh po buddizmu,” Izvestiia Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk 12 (1918): 545 n9.
53. In Ia. V. Vasil’kov, “Vstrecha Vostoka i Zapada v nauchnoi deiatel’nosti F. I. Shcherbatskogo,” Vostok-Zapad, vol. 4 (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), 185.
54. V. M. Alekseev, “Akademik V. P. Vasil’ev: Zamechaniia po povodu nauchnogo tvorchestva i naslediia,” in Nauka o Vostoke, 67.
55. V. P. Vasil’ev, “Religii Vostoka: Konfutsianstvo, Buddizm i Daotsism,” Zhurnal ministerstva narodnago prosveshcheniia, April 1873, 239.
56. Alekseev, “Akademik V. P. Vasil’ev,” 66.
57. Bulletin de la 3ème session du congrès internationale des orientalistes no. 4 (1876): 25–26; “The Oriental Congress,” Times (London), August 6, 1876, 8.
58. The family is best known today for the Decembrist Baron Andrei Evgenevich Rozen. Victor’s brother, Roman, also made a career of the East, as minister to the Russian mission in Tokyo at the turn of the twentieth century.
59. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 139. Baron Rosen was the only prerevolutionary Russian to merit a separate entry in an important German history of the field: Fück, Arabischen Studien, 222–223.
60. Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial,” 118.
61. Krachkovskii, Ocherki, 143; Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial,” 120.
62. Irwin, For Lust of Knowing, 146–147.
63. Kim and Shastitko, Istoriia otechestvennogo, 209–210.
64. Materialy dlia istorii, vol. 2, 1–7.
65. D. E. Mishin and M. A. Sidorov, eds., “Perepiska V. R. Rozena i S. F. Ol’denburga,” Neizvestnye stranitsy otechestvennogo vostokovedeniia 2 (2004): 202; Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 590–593; Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial,” 115, 118–119.
66. Michael D. Gordin, “A Well-Ordered Thing”: Dmitrii Mendeleev and the Shadow of the Periodic Table (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 113–138; K. V. Ostrovit’ianov, ed., Istoriia Akademii nauk SSSR, vol. 2 (Moscow: Nauka, 1964), 272–275; Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 1861–1917 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 66–68.
67. In Gordin, Well-Ordered Thing, 124.
68. Rosen explained his reasons for the move in a letter to a sympathetic academician. See I. Iu. Krachkovskii, ed., Pamiati Akademika V. R. Rozena (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1947), 119–123; Ostrovit’ianov, Istoriia Akademii nauk, vol. 2, 622–623; Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial,” 113–114.
69. Ostrovit’ianov, Istoriia Akademii nauk, vol. 2, 622.
70. The definitive biography was recently published: B. S. Kaganovich, Sergei Fedorovich Ol’denburg: Opyt biografii (St. Petersburg: Fenix, 2006). See also Oldenburg’s brief autobiographical entry in Materialy dlia biograficheskago slovaria deistvitel’nykh chlenov Imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, vol. 2 (Petrograd: Imp. Akademii nauk, 1917), 54–62; G. K. Skriabin et al., eds., Sergei Fedorovich Ol’denburg (Moscow: Nauka, 1986); I. Iu. Krachkovskii, ed., Akademik S. F. Ol’denburg: K piatidesiatiletiiu nauchnoobshestvennoi deiatel’nosti (Leningrad: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR), 1934.
71. They should not be confused with the princely Ol’denburgskii line.
72. Bartol’d, Sochineniia, vol. 9, 463–464.
73. Krachkovskii, Akademik S. F. Ol’denburg, 18.
74. Kaganovich, Ol’denburg, 22.
75. G. V. Vernadskii, “Bratstvo ‘Priiutino’,” Novyi zhurnal 27, no. 93 (1968): 147–170; E. V. Anichkov, “Ustav 1884-go goda i studenchestvo na pereput’i,” Pamiati russkogo studenchestva kontsa XIX, nachala XX vekov (Paris: Izd-vo Svecha, 1934), 50–55.
76. Mishin and Sidorov, “Perepiska V. R. Rozena i S. F. Ol’denburga,” 201–399.
77. Lévi’s letters to his Russian friend were recently published in Grigorij M. Bongard-Levin et al., eds., Correspondances orientalistes entre Paris et Saint-Pétersbourg (1887–1935) (Paris: Boccard, 2002).
78. S. F. Ol’denburg, [editorial], Vostok (1922): no. 1, 4, 5.
79. S. F. Ol’denburg, Kultura Indii (Moscow: Nauka, 1991), 48.
80. Ol’denburg, [editorial], 5.
81. Mishin and Sidorov, “Perepiska,” 216.
82. Italics in the original. Mishin, “Perepiska,” 314.
83. In V. S. Sobolev, Avgusteishii president: Velikii kniaz’ Konstantin Konstantinovich vo glave Imperatorskoi Akademii nauk (St. Petersburg: Iskusstvo-SPB, 1993), 46.
84. Kaganovich, Ol’denburg, 48.
85. Ibid., 42.
86. Vera Tolz, “Orientalism, Nationalism, and Ethnic Diversity in Late Imperial Russia,” Historical Journal 48 (2005): 135–145.
87. Nathaniel Knight, “Grigor’ev in Orenburg,” Slavic Review 59 (2000): 97n84.
88. For a good analysis, see Randall Poole’s introduction to his translation of the volume, in Poole, ed., Problems of Idealism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 1–78.
89. S. F. Ol’denburg, “Renan, kak pobornik svobody mysli,” in Problemy idealizma (1902; repr., ed. Modest Kolerov, Moscow: Tri Kvadrata, 2002), 795–808.
90. Ibid., 805.
91. Alekseev, Nauka o Vostoke, 26.
92. In Kaganovich, Ol’denburg, 53.
93. On the Exploration Fund’s Russian branch, see N. N. Nazirova, Tsentral’naia Aziia v dorevoliutsionnom otechestevennom vostokovedenii (Moscow: Nauka, 1992).
94. The classic account is Peter Hopkirk, Foreign Devils on the Silk Road (London: John Murray, 1980).
95. William G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 53, 209, 230.
96. Vera Tolz, Russian Academicians and the Revolution (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1997), 111–115.
97. Francine Hirsch, Empire of Nations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), 58–61.
98. Loren Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), 120–153; Tolz, Russian Academicians, 39–67; Hirsch, Empire of Nations, 138–143.
99. B. S. Kaganovich, “Nachalo Tragedii,” Zvezda (1994): no. 12, 136–144; V. M. Alpatov and M. A. Sidorov, “Dirizher akademicheskogo orkestra,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk 67 (1997): 169–172; Tolz, Russian Academicians, 115–122.
100. Entsiklopedicheskii slovar, s.v. “Sankt-Peterburgskii universitet;” Materialy dlia biograficheskago, vol. 2, 216.
101. Tolz, “European, National, and (anti-)Imperial,” 108.
102. Ivan Minaev, “Ob izuchenii Indii v russkikh universitetakh,” Otchet o sostoianii Imp. S.-Peterburgskago universiteta (St. Petersburg: Tip. Shakht, 1884), 89.
1. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakoff, My Musical Life, trans. Judah A. Joffe (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1935), 181–182.
2. A. Borodin, “V Srednei Azii”: Muzikal’naia kartinka dlia orkestra (Leipzig: M. P. Beliaev, 1890), 3.
3. The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, s.v. “Prince Igor.”
4. Miriam K. Whaples, “Early Exoticism Revisited,” and Mary Hunter, “The Alla Turca Style in the Late Eighteenth Century: Race and Gender in the Symphony and the Seraglio,” both in Jonathan Bellman, ed., The Exotic in Western Music (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 3–25 and 43–72, respectively.
5. Catherine II, Sochineniia, vol. 2, 355.
6. Gerald Abraham, “The National Element in Early Russian Opera, 1799–1800,” Music & Letters 42, no. 3 (July 1961): 261. See also L. A. Rapatskaia, “Problema orientalizma v russkoi muzykal’noi kul’ture XVIII–XIX vv.,” in B. D. Pak, ed., Vzaimootnosheniia narodov Rossii, Sibiri i stran Vostoka: Istorii i sovremennost’ (Irkutsk, Siberia: Irkutsk State Pedagogical Institute, 1995), 31–35. According to one Stalin-era musicologist, the opera’s libretto “set something of a record in feebleness and tastelessness,” while the score “did not succeed in achieving a musical whole.” Political considerations may have played a role in this negative assessment. See A. S. Rabinovich, Russkaia opera do Glinki (Moscow: Muzgiz, 1948), 73.
7. Ralph Locke, “Cutthroats and Casbah Dancers, Muezzins and Timeless Sands: Musical Images of the Middle East,” in Bellman, Exotic in Western Music, 110–114.
8. B. Dobrokhotov, Aleksandr Aliab’ev: Tvorcheskii put’ (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Muzyka, 1966); Thomas P. Hodge, A Double Garland: Poetry and Art-Song in Early Nineteenth-Century Russia (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2000), 102–103; Adalyat Issiyeva, “Nationalism, Decembrism and Aliab’ev: Reconsidering Russian Orientalism in Song” (paper presented at the annual conference of the Canadian University Music Society, Vancouver, 2008). I am grateful to Ms. Issiyeva for giving me a copy of her work.
9. In Edgar Istel and Theodore Baker, “Rimsky-Korsakov, the Oriental Wizard,” Musical Quarterly 15 (1929): 393.
10. Stasov, “Dvadtsat’-piat’,” 528.
11. Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 38–44.
12. Francis Maes, Geschiedenis van de Russische muziek (Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Uitgevery SUN, 1996), 67–68; Taruskin, Defining Russia, 145–146.
13. Stasov, “Dvadtsat’-piat’,” 523–528.
14. Marina Frolova-Walker, Russian Music and Nationalism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 151–152.
15. Rimsky-Korsakoff, Musical Life,, 58.
16. Frolova-Walker, Russian Music, 153.
17. The definitive biography, written by his adopted daughter’s son, is S. A. Dianin, Borodin (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe muzykal’noe izd-vo, 1955). See also V. A. Stasov, “Aleksandr Porfir’evich Borodin,” in Izbrannye sochineniia, vol. 3 (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1952), 329–365; André Lischke, Alexandre Borodine (Paris: Bleu nuit, 2004). A more impressionistic account is Nina Berberova, Alexandre Borodin, 1834–1887: Biographie, trans. Luba Jurgenson (Arles, France: Actes sud, 1989).
18. Stasov, “Borodin,” 329.
19. On Borodin’s scientific career, see N. A. Figurovskii and Yu. I. Solov’ev, Aleksandr Porfir’evich Borodin: A Chemist’s Biography, trans. Charlene Steinberg and Georgre B. Kauffman (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 1988).
20. Dianin, Borodin, 38–39.
21. Stasov, “Borodin,” 347.
22. Italics in the original. A. P. Borodin, Pis’ma A. P. Borodina, vol. 1 (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe Izd-vo Muzykal’nyi sektor, 1927–28), 142.
23. Dianin, Borodin, 194–195.
24. Ibid., 329.
25. Serge Dianin, Borodin, trans. Robert Lord (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 305–321. This English edition includes an extensive analysis of the composer’s principal works. For a more recent discussion of the second act’s sources, see Marek Bobéth, Borodin (Munich: Musikverlag Emil Katzbichler, 1982), 47–51.
26. Taruskin, Defining Russia, 165.
27. A. P. Borodin, Kniaz’ Igor (Leipzig: M. P. Belaieff, n.d.), 11.
28. The text of Stasov’s scenario is reproduced in Dianin, Borodin, 70–75.
29. Firoozeh Kharzai, “Orientalism in Borodin’s Prince Igor” (unpublished paper, August 1997, http://www.anotherbirth.net/orientalism.htm).
30. Borodin, Knaz’ Igor, 195.
31. Borodin, Pis’ma, vol. 3, 69.
32. Borodin, Knaz’ Igor, 2.
33. Borodin, Knaz’ Igor, 203.
34. G. N. Khubov, A. P. Borodin (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe muzykal’noe izd-vo, 1933), 73.
35. Dianin, Borodin, trans. Lord, 325n1.
36. Borodin, Pis’ma, vol. 2, 108.
37. Harlow Robinson, “‘If You’re Afraid of Wolves, Don’t Go into the Forest’: On the History of Borodin’s Prince Igor,” Opera Quarterly 7, no. 4 (Winter 1990–91): 9–11.
38. A. S. Suvorin, “‘Igor’ Opera Borodina,” Novoe vremia, October 24, 1890, 2.
39. A. S. Suvorin, “Malenkiia Pis’ma,” Novoe vremia, October 30, 1890, 2.
40. In Alfred Habets, Alexandre Borodine (Paris: Librarie Fischbacher, 1893), 63.
41. I am grateful for the help of my research assistant, Denis Kozlov, with this section.
42. D. S. Merezhkovskii, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 18 (St. Petersburg: Tip. T-va. I. D. Sytina, 1914), 173–275; B. G. Rosenthal, D. S. Merezhkovskii and the Silver Age: The Development of a Revolutionary Mentality (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1975), 43–56.
43. Italics in the original. Merezhkovskii, Sochinenii, vol. 18, 215–218.
44. Avril Pyman, A History of Russian Symbolism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 9.
45. The classic study remains Arthur Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1919).
46. George C. Schoolfield, A Baedeker of Decadence: Charting a Literary Fashion, 1884–1927 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 1–15; Brian Stableford, ed., The Dedalus Book of Decadence (Moral Ruins) (Sawtry, UK: Dedalus, 1990), 1–83.
47. Paul Verlaine, Jadis et naguère chair (Paris: Rombaldi, 1936), 94.
48. Roger Keys, The Reluctant Modernist: Andrei Bely and the Development of Russian Fiction, 1902–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 3–18.
49. The relevant stanzas were included as an appendix to an important American anthology, Carl Proffer and Elendea Proffer, eds., The Silver Age of Russian Culture (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1971–75), 447–452.
50. Pyman, Russian Symbolism, 2.
51. Referring to his prolific romantic entanglements, the poet once remarked, “I have many wives, after all on my mother’s side I am by blood the Mongol Prince White Swan of the Golden Horde.” In The Dictionary of Literary Biography, s.v. “Konstantin Dmitrievich Balmont.” According to the Slavist Robert Bird, the poet’s Asian genealogy is probably spurious. Robert Bird, e-mail message to author, August 3, 2008.
52. K. M. Azadovskii and E.M. D’iakonova, Balmont i Iaponiia (Moscow: Nauka, 1991), 4–35.
53. G. M. Bongard-Levin, ed., Ashvaghosha. Zhizn’ Buddy. Kalidasa. Dramy (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1990), 10.
54. In ibid., 15.
55. The classic study is A. I. Shifman, Lev Tolstoi i Vostok (Moscow: Nauka, 1971). See also Paul Birukoff, Tolstoi und der Orient (Zürich: Rotapfel-verlag, 1925); Derk Bodde, Tolstoy and China (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950); Dmitrii Burba, Tolstoi i Indiia: Prikosnovenie k sokrovennomu (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo “Fenshui tsentr,” 2000).
56. Schwab, Oriental Renaissance, 451–452.
57. In Bodde, Tolstoy and China, 37.
58. In Susmita Sundaram, “The Land of Thought: India as Ideal and Image in Konstantin Balmont’s Oeuvre” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2004), 36.
59. Konstantin Mochulsky, Andrei Bely: His Life and Works (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1977); J. D. Elsworth, Andrei Bely (Letchworth, UK: Bradda Books, 1972). See also Andrei Bely, Vospominaniia ob Aleksandre Aleksandroviche Bloke (Letchworth, UK: Bradda Books, 1964) and the brief autobiography he submitted to a literary encyclopedia: Andrei Bely, “Avtobiograficheskaia spravka,” in S. A. Vengerov, ed., Russkaia literatura XX veka, vol. 2, pt. 3 (Moscow: Tovarishchesta Mir, 1916), 9–12. The memoir trilogy Bely wrote in later life is overly subjective: Andrei Bely, Nachalo veka (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo Khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1933); Bely, Na rubezhe dvukh stoletii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1989); Bely, Mezhdu dvukh revoliutsii (Leningrad: Izd-vo pisatelei v Leningrade, 1934).
60. Bely, “Avtobiograficheskaia spravka,” 11.
61. V. S. Solov’ev, “Panmongolism,” in Solov’ev, Cheteniia o bogochelovechestve (St. Petersburg: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1994), 392–393. For a more extensive discussion of Asia’s place in Solov’ev’s eschatology, see Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun, 82–86.
62. V. S. Solov’ev, “Kratkaia povest’ ob Antikhriste,” in Chteniia, 459–486.
63. Bely, Vospominaniia, 17.
64. In Vladimir Alexandrov, Andrei Bely: The Major Symbolist Fiction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 72.
65. Andrei Bely, “Apokalipsis v russkoi poezii,” Vesy (1905): no. 4, 12.
66. Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, “Eschatology and the Appeal of Revolution: Merezhkovsky, Bely, Blok,” California Slavic Studies 11 (1980): 110.
67. In I. V. Koretskaia, “K istorii ‘griadushchikh gunnov’ Briusova,” in Z. S. Papernyi and E. A. Polotskaia, eds., Dinamicheskaia poetika (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), 182. Another study of the poet’s attitudes to the war is Dany Savelli, “L’appel à la violence de Valerij Brjusov en 1904 et 1905,” in Savelli, ed., Faits et imaginaires de la guerre russo-japonaise, Carnets de l’exotisme 5 (Paris: Kailash, 2005), 129–150.
68. Andrei Bely, The Silver Dove, trans. George Reavy (New York: Grove Press, 1974).
69. Ibid., 342; Pyman, Russian Symbolism, 256.
70. Bely, Silver Dove, 307–308.
71. Ibid., 303.
72. Andrei Bely, Petersburg, trans. Robert A. Maguire and John E. Malmsted (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978).
73. Mochulsky, Bely, 147–148.
74. Bely, Petersburg, 238–239.
75. Ibid., 166.
76. Georges Nivat, “Du ‘panmongolisme’ au ‘mouvement eurasien,’” in Vers la fin du mythe russe (Lausanne, Switzerland: L’Age d’homme, 1988), 131.
77. Italics in the original. A. V. Lavrov and John E. Malmsted, eds., Andrei Belyi i Ivanov-Razumnik: Perepiska (St. Petersburg: Atheneum-Feniks, 1998), 57.
78. Rosenthal, “Eschatology,” 107.
79. In Mochulsky, Bely, 150.
80. The most detailed study in English is Stefani Hope Hoffman, “Scythianism: A Cultural Vision in Revolutionary Russia” (PhD thesis, Columbia University, 1957). See also Stefani Hoffman, “Scythian Theory and Literature,” in Nils Åke Nilsson, ed., Art, Society, Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1979), 138–164, as well as N. V. Kuzina, “Ideologiia skifstva v russkoi obshchestvennoi mysli i literatury,” in Gosudarstvenno-patrioticheskaia ideologiia i problemy ee formirovaniia (Smolensk, Russia: Izd-vo Voennoi akademii, 1997), 95–97.
81. Pushkin, Sochinenii, vol. 3, 390.
82. The most important works are listed in Koretskaia, “K istorii,” 181.
83. K. D. Bal’mont, Stikhotvoreniia (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1969), 150.
84. Andrzej Walicki, Poland between East and West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1994), 9–15. See also Kalinowska, Between East and West, 3.
85. Walicki, Poland, 11.
86. Nivat, “Panmongolisme,” 135–136; Irene Masing-Delic, “Who Are the Tatars in Aleksandr Blok’s The Homeland?” Poetica 35 (2003): 131–132.
87. Ettore Lo Gatto, “Panmongolismo di V. Solovëv, I venienti unni di V. Brjusov e Gli Sciti di A. Blok,” in Morris Halle et al., eds., For Roman Jakobson (The Hague: Mouton, 1956), 300.
88. Alexandre Blok, Selected Poems (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1972), 183.
89. In Alexandrov, Bely, 3.
90. Barry Scherr, “The Russo-Japanese War and the Russian Literary Imagination,” in John W. Steinberg et al., eds., The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective, vol. 1 (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 2005), 426.
91. In Rosenthal, “Eschatology,” 106.
1. Mark Bassin, “Russia between Europe and Asia: The Ideological Construction of Geographical Space,” Slavic Review 50 (1991): 6–7. See also W. H. Parker, “Europe: How Far?” Geographical Journal 126 (1960): 278–297.
2. Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, 588.
3. Nikolai Karamzin, Karamzin’s Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia, ed. Richard Pipes (New York: Atheneum, 1974), 123–124.
4. P. Ia. Chaadaev, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii i izbrannye pis’ma (Moscow: Nauka, 1991), vol. 1, 89.
5. Aleksandr Herzen, My Past and Thoughts, trans. Constance Garnett (London: Chatto & Windus, 1968), vol. 2, 516.
6. Andrzej Walicki, The Slavophile Controversy, trans. Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989), 445–455.
7. Riasanovsky, “Asia through Russian Eyes,” 9–10.
8. Nicholas Riasanovsky, Russia and the West in the Teaching of the Slavophiles (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 66–83, 215–218.
9. Chaadaev, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 531.
10. Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent, 99–100. Ernst Rose, “China as a Symbol of Reaction in Germany,” Comparative Literature 3 (1951): 57–65.
11. Tol’kovyi slovar’ russkogo iazyka, 3rd ed., s.v. “Aziat,” “azitatskii.”
12. In Dany Savelli, “L’asiatisme dans la literature et la pensée russe de la fin du XIXème siècle au début du XXème siècle” (PhD thesis, Université de Lille III, 1994), 9.
13. Belinskii, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 8, 660n19.
14. V. G. Belinskii, Pol’noe sobranii sochinenii (Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1954), vol. 5, 98.
15. Ibid., vol. 5, 99.
16. Ibid., vol. 5, 92–99.
17. V. A. Koshelov, “Istoriosofskaia oppozitsiia ‘Zapad-Vostok’ v tvorcheskom soznanii Pushkina,” in Chelyshev, Pushkin i mir Vostoka, 157–170.
18. Olga Maiorova, “Intelligentsia Views of Asia in the 19th Century” (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Philadelphia, 2008).
19. V. I. Sakharov, ed., “Rossiia—zveno Vostoka s Zapadom,” Mezhdunarodnaia zhizn’ (1998), no. 4, http://www.ln.mid.ru/mg.nsf/ab07679503c75b73c325747f004d0dc2/4c09412e9f344444c32565e5002b7f52.
20. Emmanuel Sarkisyanz, “Russian Attitudes toward Asia,” Russian Review 13 (1954): 246–247.
21. Susanna Soojung Lim, “Chinese Europe: Alexander Herzen and the Russian Image of China,” Intertexts 10 (2006): 56–59.
22. In ibid., 58.
23. Sarkisyanz, “Russian Attitudes,” 246–247.
24. Gertsen, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 23, 175. Herzen’s geography is not always consistent. On another occasion, he likened Russians to a more Occidental destructive force: “Our relations with the Europeans … bear some resemblance to those of the Germans and the Romans.” Ibid., vol. 16, 169.
25. In P. M. Shastitko et al., eds., Russko-indiiskie otnosheniia v XIX v.: Sbornik arkhivnykh dokumentov i materialov (Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 1997), 8.
26. In Roger Conant, The Political Poetry and Ideology of F. I. Tiutchev (Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1983), 34.
27. In Nicholas Riasanovsky, “Russia and Asia: Two Russian Views,” California Slavic Studies 1 (1960): 179–180.
28. Ibid., 178–179.
29. N. M. Przheval’skii, “On the Current Situation in Eastern Turkestan,” memorandum, June 6, 1877, Archive of the Russian Geographical Society, fund 13, inventory 1, file 26, 2.
30. A. N. Kuropatkin, “Dnevnik A. N. Kuropatkina,” Krasnyi Arkhiv 2 (1922): 31.
31. Catherine II, Sochineniia, vol. 8, 17–20.
32. Zorin, Kormia, 110n1.
33. Kononov, Istoriia izucheniia tiurkskikh iazykov, 39n82.
34. I. Tolstoi and N. Kondakov, Russkiia drevnosti v pamiatnikakh iskusstva, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg: A. Benke, 1889); Véronique Schiltz, La redécouverte de l’or des Scythes (Paris: Gallimard, 1991), 56–99.
35. Karamzin, Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskago, vol. 5, 223.
36. V. V. Stasov, “Proiskhozhdenie russkikh bylin,” Vestnik Evropy 3 (1868): 597.
37. V. V. Stasov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia M. M. Stasiulevicha, 1894), 197–212. See also V. Stasov, Slavianskii i vostochnyi ornament po rukopisiam drevniago i novago vremeni (St. Petersburg: Kartograficheskoe zavedenie A. A. Il’ina, 1887).
38. Vladimir Karenin, Vladimir Stasov: Ocherk ego zhizni i deiatel’nosti (Leningrad: Mysl’, 1927), 315–318. One notable exception was in Alfred Rambaud, Russie épique: Etude sur les chansons héroïques de la Russie (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1876), 163–193.
39. E. Viollet-le-Duc, L’art russe: Ses origins, ses éléments constitutifs, son apogée, son avenir (Paris: A. Morel, 1877), 58.
40. Nicolas Berdiaev, Constantin Leont’ev, trans. Hélène Iswolski (Paris: Berg International, 1993), 49.
41. Konstantin Leontiev, The Egyptian Dove, trans. George Reavy (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1969).
42. In Savelli, “L’asiatisme,” 46.
43. K. Leont’ev, Vostok, Rossiia i Slavianstvo (Moscow: Eksmo, 2007), 606–607.
44. Ibid., 147.
45. Ibid., 636.
46. For more details about Prince Ukhtomskii, see the relevant chapter in Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun, 42–60.
47. Prince Hesper Ookhtomsky [Ukhtomskii], Travels in the East of Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, When Cesarewitch, vol. 2 (Westminster, England: A. Constable, 1900), 287.
48. vol. Ibid., 32.
49. vol. Ibid., 446.
50. Until recently, the most thorough study of the Eurasian movement was Otto Böss, Die Lehre der Eurasier: Ein Beitrag zur russischen Ideengeschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1961). In recent years, however, there has been a renewed interest in the movement, especially in Russia. Two useful monographs are Margarita Georgievna Vandalovskaia, Istoricheskaia nauka rossiiskoi emigratsii: “Evraziiskii soblazn” (Moscow: Pamiatniki istoricheskii mysli, 1997), and O. D. Volkogonova, Obraz Rossii v filosofii Russkogo zarubezhia (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1998). For an account that takes the story up to the present, see Marlène Laruelle, Russian Eurasianism: An Ideology of Empire, trans. Mischa Gabowitsch (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
51. P. N. Savitskii et al., eds., Exodus to the East: Foreboding and Events, an Affirmation of the Eurasians, trans. Ilya Vinkovetsky (Idylwild, CA: Charles Schlacks Jr., 1996).
52. G. V. Vernadsky, Nachertanie russkoi istorii: Chast’ pervaia (Prague: Evraziiskoe knigoizdatelstvo, 1927), and Opyt istorii Evrazii s poloviny VI veka do nastoiashchego vremeni (Berlin: Izdania evraziitsev, 1934).
53. Vernadsky, A History of Russia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961), 10.
54. Vernadsky, Nachertanie, 12–13, 18.
55. Ryszard Paradowski, “The Eurasian Idea and Leo Gumilëv’s Scientific Ideology,” Canadian Slavonic Papers 41 (1999): 3.
56. Charles J. Halperin, “Russia and the Steppe: George Vernadsky and Eurasianism,” Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte 36 (1985): 185.
57. See his spirited critique of Eurasianism in Paul Miliukov, “Eurasianism and Europeanism in Russian history,” Festschrift Th. G. Masaryk zum 80. Geburtstag, vol. 1 (Bonn: Friedrich Cohen, 1930), 225–36.
58. Michael Ignatieff, “Can Russia Return to Europe?” Harper’s Magazine, April 1992, 15.
59. Among such anthologies are L. N. Novikova and I. N. Sizemskaia, eds., Rossiia mezhdu Evropoi i Aziei: Evraziiskii soblazn (Moscow: Nauka, 1993); I. A. Isaev, ed., Puti Evrazii: Russkaia intelligentsiia i sudby Rossii (Moscow: Russkaia kniga, 1992); N. N. Tolstoi, ed., Russkii uzel evraziistva: Vostok v russkoi mysli (Moscow: Belovode, 1997).
60. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 292.
61. Interview with Nikita Mikhailkov, Rossiiskaia gazeta, December 14, 1991.
62. Gennady Zyuganov, My Russia: The Political Autobiography of Gennady Zyuganov (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 71–72.
63. Andrei Vladimirovich Novikov, “Brak v kommunalke: Zametki o sovremennom evraziistve,” Zvezda (1998): no. 2, 230.
64. G. A. Ziuganov, Geografiia pobedy: Osnovy rossiiskoi geopolitiki (Moscow: n.p., 1997), 182–183.
65. Solov’ev, Chteniia, 385.
66. Jean-Jacques Waardenburg, L’Islam dans le mirroir de l’Occident (Paris: Mouton, 1963), 315.
67. V. I. Lenin, Pol’noe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izd-vo politicheskoi literatury, 1962), 196.
68. Igor Ivanov, “Dipkurer,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, January 2000, 1.