I CAN IMAGINE THE EXCITEMENT OF AN ARCHEOLOGIST IN EASTERN MACEDONIA, absorbed in the puzzle of his or her work, of piecing together an image of life in prehistoric Greece, meticulously brushing away dirt and debris to unearth some vessel or ancient ditch to find charred pits and the gossamer residuals of pressed grapes. A eureka moment, perhaps, revealing a wine making history that stretches as far back as eight thousand years. So old is the vine and its pleasure-giving juice in this country where almost everything edible and imbibed has been savored in one uninterrupted continuum to this very day.
Wild then domesticated Vitis vinifera grapes were part of life in Greece from the deepest recesses of history. Wine has been a prized commodity almost as long as the grape has existed in Greece. Homer mentions the wine trade between islands in the northern Aegean and Asia Minor, and writes of renowned wines such as the Pramnios Oinos of Ikaria—by some accounts the same wine with which Odysseus plied the cyclops to get him drunk enough so that he and his men could escape! By the time the Minoan civilization on Crete and the Mycenaean in the Peloponnese flourished, wine was being shipped and traded all over the known world.
The ancient Greeks were the first to develop a system of identifying provenance and quality, the precursor to today’s designations of origin, a way to help identify specific areas whose unique microclimate helps produce wines of distinct character and extraordinary quality.
Of course, as the Greeks colonized the Mediterranean, they took their farming techniques and crops with them, spreading not only the love of wine, but also the very grapes needed for making it.
Wine’s importance spurred innovations in the ceramic arts, for the old skins and pouches used to transport wine were inefficient and thus the amphorae were born. And how to seal those porous clay vessels, all the better to keep wine from spoiling in the hulls of ships as they bounced on choppy waters? With a brushing of pine resin, of course, the first incarnation of retsina came to be, arguably Greece’s most famous wine and one that’s seen a glorious reinvention today.
Ancient vintners studied and perfected their art, leaving a legacy of techniques and varietals that are still part of Greece’s wine lore. Sweet wines made with sun-dried grapes were first envisioned by those ancient imbibers. Today, some of the most esteemed wines produced in Greece, such as the honey-gold muscats of Samos and Limnos and the chocolaty Vinsanto of Santorini, are produced from grapes left to dehydrate under the hot Greek sun. The ancient Greeks flavored their wines with honey and herbs; today, in a place I am most familiar with, Ikaria, my native island, winemakers still abide by the ancient tradition of aging wine in amphorae buried in the ground (to keep it cool), and stopping the slab-like cover with sprigs of laudanum, a wild plant that is said to repel insects and keep microbes away. That continuum … rearing its beautiful head in common countryside practices.
There is a vase at the Benaki Museum in Athens that always stirs my heart and imagination. It depicts one of the most detailed scenes of ancient Greeks partaking in one of the most civilized of all human activity: enjoying a meal with wine and company during the course of an ancient symposium. Wine fueled these cultural salons. Indeed, the word symposium means to drink together. Ancient Greek winemaking reached its zenith during the Classical Period and the Golden Age of Athens. The writers and philosophers of the day waxed poetic about the great wines of antiquity, which, I can only guess, helped them, in turn, free thought and tongue so that food, wine, and philosophy were all intimately connected. It was during this time that the idea of wine as an accompaniment to food was first embraced.
Modern Greek grape cultivation and winemaking owe a tremendous debt to the foundations that were established during the Classical Period. It was then, for example, that a system of protected designations of origin was first organized, based on the unique qualities and characteristics of specific places and vineyards. Provenance, terroir, the appreciation of aromas, and the language to describe the experience were born in that unique, seminal period of human—and Greek—history. Wine flowed from that glorious Classical world into Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman, and, finally, modern times, filling cups and coffers and finding a seminal place in the rituals of Eastern Orthodoxy.
The Classical Period ended with the death of Alexander the Great, whose conquests had played a seminal role in the dispersal and dissemination of wine and the vine. For one, his armies had to be supplied with wine, not only for recreational use but also for antiseptic reasons, as a “safe” quaff, which meant that through Hellenistic times, Macedonian ships sailed the Aegean and Mediterranean to deliver wine to the likes of Rhodes and Kos, Cyprus, the Asia Minor coast, Lesvos, and Egypt, all outposts of Alexander’s vast army. Many of these places developed winemaking industries of their own; Alexandria’s was especially renowned.
The pleasure-loving Romans adapted many of customs and traditions of the Greeks, including, of course, the love of wine. Greek wines were much in demand throughout the Roman Empire. Horace nicknamed Homer and his epics Homerus vinosus; Virgil waxed poetic about Greek grape varietals; and Pliny catalogued Greek wines with detailed descriptions. Taking a cue from Hippocrates, the Golden-Age Greek father of medicine, two Greek doctors who lived during the Roman period, Dioskourides and Galenos, wrote of the therapeutic value of wine, a precursor, at least to my mind, of how the Greek-Mediterranean way of eating and living impart both physical and emotional well-being. Moderation—παν μέτρον άριστον to the ancient Greeks—has always been the way Greeks sip and savor their beautiful wines.
As the ancient world faded and Christianity took root, Greek wine continued to flourish. The vine is ever present in Byzantine iconography; monasteries throughout the Christian world, and especially the Orthodox Christian world, were beacons of viticulture and winemaking. To this day, some of the finest wines in Greece are produced on Mount Athos, the thousand-year-old monastic community in the Halkidiki peninsula of northern Greece. The sacrament of Holy Communion in Eastern Orthodoxy is expressed with a sip of dark, sweet Greek red wine, symbolic of the blood of Christ. There was a time, just a few centuries ago, when the famed sweet wine of Santorini, vinsanto, was exported almost exclusively to Russia to supply churches with the wine for Holy Communion.
With the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman, which dominated most of Greece for four hundred years, wine was surprisingly undisturbed for the simple reason that taxes trumped religion. Despite the Muslim ban on wine consumption, the Ottomans saw wine as a source of income and levied both vineyards and wines with taxes.
During the almost eight thousand years of wine production on Greek soil, its continuity was genuinely threatened only three times. The first was during the Greek War of Independence, in 1821, and in the six or so years that followed, as able-bodied Greeks abandoned their fields to take up arms, but also as the Ottoman Turks employed a scorched-earth policy to much of Greek agriculture, destroying vineyards, olive groves, and more as their stronghold waned. When the young nation was firmly rooted, its agriculture rebounded, propitiously for the grape, since at the time, toward the end of the nineteenth century, France was experiencing the devasting effects of the phylloxera blight, which wiped out most of its vineyards, making room for the need to import wine. Greece was a ready supplier. One of the most prized of all Greek wines in demand in France was the sweet muscat of Samos.
It would take but a few decades for most of the Greek vineyards to fall prey to the same blight. Santorini, with some of the oldest continuously producing vineyards in the world, was one of the few places not hit, something that the island’s vintners like to boast when they say that their vines are three thousand years old.
During the twentieth century, the war years and massive immigration wrought havoc on Greece’s historic wine production. It wasn’t until the 1980s that a glimmer of light started to shine again on the vines and wines of Greece. A new generation of oenologists emerged, having studied both inside and outside of Greece, mainly in France and Germany. Today, many young oenologists study at U.C. Davis. A few visionary winemakers took this generation under their wings and let them fly, so to speak, creating a kind of critical mass of talent, ambition, education, and opportunity. Today, there are over six hundred vineyards throughout Greece and the Greek vineyard is renowned for both its indigenous varieties—those very same grapes that were so prized in antiquity—but also for the international grapes that flourish and find new expression on Greek soil.
Greek vineyards are among the world’s oldest, thanks largely to the country’s temperate climate, which is so conducive to grape cultivation.
The Greek landscape is 80 percent mountains, and most Greek wines are, indeed, produced in mountainous and semi-mountainous regions, something reflected in the country’s number of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) products, which come from these regions. The second most important areas for Greek wine production are the coastal areas, such as Halkidiki in Nothern Greece, as well as the coastal areas of Thrace, Kavala, continental Greece, the Peloponnese, and, of course, the islands, with the exception of Santorini, which is in a category all its own. Santorini’s volcanic soil provides the most distinct of all microclimates in Greece and, arguably, in the world.
Like all agriculture in Greece, grape cultivation, and, so by extension, winemaking, is done on a human scale. Wine-producing areas are small and vineyards are family-owned. The mountainous terrain is often so difficult to cultivate that many vineyards are planted on terrace-like steps carved out of mountain slopes. Mechanical cultivation is almost impossible because machinery simply doesn’t fit on these plots. The same, by the way, holds true for olive cultivation, with groves family-owned and small and cultivation largely manual, even to this day.
In Europe, there is an appellation system that sets apart the wine and food products from specific areas that are distinct either because of tradition or unique geographic characteristics. You may have seen abbreviations such as AOC and AOQS on French wines, for example; in Greece, these are called PDO (Protected Designation of Origin). There are twenty-nine such regional wines, and the nomenclature is displayed on the wines’ labels. PDO wines can display vintage years.
The PDO Wines of Greece are: PDO Anchialos; PDO Amynteo; PDO Archanes; PDO Goumenissa; PDO Dafnes; PDO Zitsa; PDO Lemnos; PDO Mantinia; PDO Mavrodaphne of Cephalonia; PDO Mavrodaphne of Patras; PDO Messenikola; PDO Monemvassia-Malvasia; PDO Muscat of Cephalonia; PDO Muscat of Lemnos; PDO Muscat of Patras; PDO Muscat of Rio Patras; PDO Muscat of Rhodes; PDO Naoussa; PDO Nemea; PDO Paros; PDO Patras; PDO Peza; PDO Slopes of Meliton; PDO Rapsani; PDO Rhodes; PDO Robola of Cephalonia; PDO Samos; PDO Santorini; and PDO Sitia.
There is another category called Protected Geographic Indication (PGI), also displayed on wine labels, a category which basically covers all regional wines and any of the wines of “traditional designation.” To confuse things even further (God bless the EU!), there are three PGI levels: PGI Regional Wines, PGI District Wines, and PGI Area Wines. Essentially, the PGI tag lets the consumer know that the wine has some traditional and authentic standing in the local agricultural history of a place. It’s a broader distinction than PDO, but PGI wines can also display vintage years.
Other categories in the wine appellation system include a new one, Varietal Wines, which can display vintage years, and Table Wines, which are neither PDO nor PGI and are not in the Varietals category, either. Vintage years are not allowed to be displayed on table wines. In the Table Wine category for Greek wines is a subcategory called “Wines of Traditional Designation,” which basically refers to retsina.
If there is anything to remember about Greek wines, it is that most are produced by distinctly Greek grapes. There are dozens, if not hundreds, of indigenous, regional grape varietals in Greece, and these are what give Greek wines their unique, fascinating character, a far cry from the monotony of chardonnay and pinot noir!
That said, there are also two broad categories of Greek wines: those produced from exclusively Greek grapes and those produced with a blend of Greek and international varieties. The range is available to American consumers.
Four Greek grape varietals are considered the noblest and most commercially important: xinomavro and agiorgitiko among the reds, and assyrtiko and moschofilero among the whites.
XINOMAVRO is one of the world’s most singular grapes, producing a vast range of dry red wines that are noted for their deep red color, acidity, strong tannings, and ability to age well. They can be compared to the great Nebbiolo-based reds of Barolo and Barbaresco, or the pinot noirs of Burgundy. Xinomavro is synonymous with the regions of Naoussa and Amynteo in northern Greece, the two most important xinomavro appellations. There are two other appellations as well for xinomavro, in Goumenissa, north of Thessaloniki, and in Rapsani, on the eastern slopes of Mount Olympus.
AGIORGITIKO is the other great red varietal of Greece, native to the Nemea region in the Peloponnese, a two-hour drive from Athens and well worth a visit. Nemea was once called St. George, Agios Giorgios, which is where the grape gets its name. The wine is also sometimes referred to as the “blood of Hercules,” because it is here in this region that Hercules slayed the famed lion, one of his twelve labors.
The agiorgitiko variety is one of the oldest indigenous Greek grapes and it thrives in its native land, a lovely terrain of rolling hills. Agiorgitiko is a dark, ruby red with concentrated red-berry flavor and lively aromas. They are softer than xinomavro and often compared to merlot. Agiorgitiko wines are produced in a range of styles, from light and subtle to complex and ageworthy. They are among the most drinkable, food-friendly wines produced in Greece.
MOSCHOFILERO is one of the two most important white grape varietals, a native of the Mantinia region of the Peloponnese. Its name means “aromatic leaf,” and the wines produced from this grape are, indeed, characterized by a floral intensity, but also by a surprising freshness, tangy crispness, and aromatic nose. Moschofilero also produces some of the finest sparkling wines as well as delicious rosés in Greece. It’s a great wine to pair with seafood, even the likes of sushi, and goes beautifully with the heady flavors of robust Greek cuisine as well as with the spice and aromas of Middle Eastern and Far Eastern foods.
The ASSYRTIKO grape from Santorini is perhaps the most unique of all Greek grapes, cultivated in some of the world’s most ancient vineyards, on the chalky volcanic soil of Santorini, for more than three thousand years. Assyrtiko produces dry white wines that can be enjoyed both fresh and aged. The assyrtiko from Santorini is renowned for its intense minerality and crisp citrusy aromas, but also for its body and density, especially when barrel-aged. It has the unusual ability to retain high acidity as it ripens, but also to accumulate sugar, like a fine Riesling. The vineyards on Santorini are the most unique anywhere, as the island is a volcano, characterized by punishing aridity, intense summer heat, whipping winds, and cool, moist, evenings. To protect the grapes, vintners on the island long ago developed a traditional pruning method called kouloures, in which the vine is trained into a basket shape with the grapes growing on the inside.
OTHER INDIGENOUS GREEK VARIETIES
I would be doing an injustice to Greek winemaking if I did not mention at least some of the other important grapes that help make the Greek vineyard so distinct and so worthy of exploration.
ATHIRI (a-THEE-ree). This is another white grape, common to the islands of the southern Aegean (Rhodes) and Halkidiki, in eastern Macedonia. Athiri produces food-friendly wines with lovely floral aromas.
DEBINA (de-BEE-na). A white variety from Epirus that produces wines noted for their refreshing acidity, aromas of green apple and pear, and finesse. Debina is also one of the white varietals in Greece that are used to produce sparkling wines.
KOTSIFALI (ko-tsee-FA-lee). Kotsifali, from Crete, produces “juicy” wines that have a slightly plummy taste. Kotsifali is usually blended with another Greek island variety, mantilaria.
LIATIKO (lee-A-tee-ko). One of the oldest Greek red grape varieties, this grape is native to Crete and produces wines that have high alcohol potential.
LIMNIO (lee-mnee-O): Limnio is an ancient a red grape varietal native to the island of Limnos. Today it is cultivated throughout northern Greece, especially in Halkidiki, and produces beautiful, silky wines with exotic notes of wild cherries and violets.
MALAGOUZIA (ma-la-ghoo-zee-A). One of the most interesting Greek white grape varietals to be sure, with a long, illustrious history to boot. Malagouzia is related to the Medieval wine Malvasia and had almost completely disappeared until a few visionary Greek producers revived it. Malagouzia produces aromatic, floral, and structured wines that can be quite complex. It’s a great match for fish and seafood prepared any way—fried, grilled, marinated, or baked.
MANTILARIA (man-dee-la-ree-A). This “rough,” earthy red Aegean variety flourishes on the islands of Paros, Rhodes, and Crete and is usually blended with other varieties that balance out its unruly character.
MAVRODAPHNE (ma-vro-THA-fnee). One of the best-known varieties for the production of sweet dessert wines, mavrodaphne is cultivated mainly in the Patras area of the Peloponnese and on the Ionian island, Cephalonia. Although mavrodaphne is one of the best-known dessert wines in Greece, a few innovative winemakers have been producing some delicious dry mavrodaphne wines that are well worth seeking out.
MAVROTRAGANO (ma-vroe-TRA-ga-noe) is one of the most intriguing, if least-known, Greek grapes. It is indigenous to Santorini and can produce great, full-bodied but balanced red wines.
MOSCHATO (moss-HA-toe), or muscat, is cultivated in several places but is most closely associated with the great sweet wines of Samos, which are dense and full-bodied, with amazing aromas of pear and apple. Older Samos muscats have delicious hints of caramel and chocolate.
ROBOLLA (ro-BO-la). A famed white grape from the island of Cephalonia, robolla produces elegant wines with bright but subtle hints of lemon.
RODITIS (ro-THEE-tees). Roditis is a kind of all-purpose red grape varietal that is best known for producing white wines. It is cultivated all over Greece but most closely associated with the western Peloponnese, Thessaly, and parts of Macedonia. Wines made with the roditis grape are light and friendly, easy to drink, with fresh notes of citrus, apple, and pear. Roditis pairs beautifully with all types of fish, as well as with chicken, pork, and light pasta dishes. Roditis is also one of the two main grape varietals used to produce retsina.
SAVATIANO (sa-va-tee-a-NO). One of the most ubiquitous Greek white grape varietals, Savatiano is synonymous with Attica, the area around Athens, but is also grown all over central Greece. Along with roditis, it is the main grape in the production of retsina.
VILANA (vee-LA-na). A traditional variety from Crete, vilana produces pleasant wines with flowery and fruity aromas.
Retsina, one of the most famous wines of Greece, is one of two officially designated Traditional Wines. It is produced from the savatiano and roditis varietals in Attica, Viotia, and Evia. There is also a rosé retsina called kokineli.
Classic retsina is made just like any white wine, with one exception: a small amount of resin from the Aleppo pine, which dominates the landscape in Attica, Evia, and Corinth and flourishes all over the Mediterranean, is added during the fermentation process.
Resinated wines have existed in Greece since antiquity, when thick pine resin was used to seal the amphorae in which wine was transported, making it less permeable. The resin is also a natural antiseptic. Over time, retsina became stigmatized because too many mediocre vintners used resin to camouflage subpar wines. That’s totally changed now, and retsina is seeing its own little renaissance as a few very visionary Greek winemakers are producing some light, crisp exceptional retsinas worth looking for.
Retsina goes with everything, which makes it the perfect wine to pair with a Greek meze platter or meal. It’s also great with succulent grilled octopus and other seafood and stands up well to all the heady, robust cheeses and other foods of Greece.
SOME OF THE MOST SEDUCTIVE—AND FAMOUS—GREEK WINES ARE SWEET.
The moschato, or muscat, grape dominates the sweet wine shelf, with exceptional and very different expressions of the grape produced in Samos, an island in the northeastern Aegean, and in nearby Limnos, as well as Rhodes, in the southern Aegean, Cephalonia in the Ionian, and Patras in the Peloponnese. The most widely available in the United States is the range of sweet Samos muscats, which are also among the most highly prized value-for-money wines anywhere in the world.
One of the most unique Greek dessert wines is the luscious vinsanto of Santorini, produced from the island’s sun-dried white assyrtiko grape, which otherwise makes bone-dry, crisp wines.
Mavrodaphne, a dark, sweet red wine produced in Patras and Cephalonia, is also fairly easy to find in the United States, and is a wine for anyone who loves the flavors of dried fruit and a velvety mouthfeel.
