Gladiator

The tiro faces two life-changing choices, which will literally define his identity for the remaining years of service. From the very beginning it will have been made plain that, while ancient, his profession is not an honourable one. Therefore he should follow the example of the even older and equally dishonourable profession of the prostitutes (who do a roaring trade outside the amphitheatre when the gladiators have finished their bouts), and do his dirty work under the cover of an assumed nom de guerre.

This hankering for anonymity is also one reason why some gladiatorial helmets do as good a job of protecting the gladiator’s identity as they do of protecting his skull. Nemo the secutor can appear in the arena with even his nearest and dearest watching from the stands unaware of his original identity as Marcus Ovis Nero Familiae.*

Spectators sometimes accuse a poorly performing gladiator of being a runaway slave, since slaves are notoriously lacking in moral fibre. An undiscriminating ludus does indeed make a secure hideout for those prepared to leap from the frying pan of slavery to the fire of the arena, since, even during his public performances, the identity of the runaway is protected.

Therefore, for a variety of reasons, gladiators assume a variety of names – or have names chosen for them. A gladiator is essentially in show business, and the lanista might fancy his marketing skills. Gladiatorial anonymity means that we have no idea who the most famous gladiator in history actually was, since Spartacus adopted the name of a town in Thracia.

Names can come from many sources. Mythology offers a rich vein, if one fancies fighting as a Hector or an Ajax (and though calling oneself after the famously invulnerable Achilles might be tempting fate, some gladiators are prepared to take the risk). One gladiator in the past called himself Hermes, the god who leads souls to the underworld. His divine namesake must have approved, for Hermes was indeed highly successful. The poet Martial cannot repeat his name often enough.

Hermes, favourite fighter of the day…Hermes, skilled with every weapon, Hermes, both gladiator and doctor, Hermes the Hurricane, terror of his ludus, Hermes, who frightens Helius (and is the only man who can), Hermes, who knocks down Advolans (and is the only man who can)…Hermes, the ticket scalper’s gold-mine, Hermes, the darling and heart-breaker of his female groupies, Hermes, proud with martial spear, Hermes, threatening with the trident, Hermes, fearsome with trailing helmet, Hermes, the glory of all kinds of war, Hermes, everything in himself, and three times unique.

Those really keen on anonymity choose generic, everyday names, so common that they are highly forgettable, such as:

Those bearing a single name are often slaves, so some auctorati, even if they forswear their real names, might still use a two-part name such as Lucius Pompeius or Marcus Rutilius. Some even advertise that they are Roman citizens, as did Marcus Quintus Ducenius, who proudly uses his distinctive three-part Roman name, the tria nomina, on the same tombstone that boasts of his arena victories.

Those with but a single name will find the lack compensated for by the use of their chosen speciality, with the name of the familia gladiatoria completing the identification. So a graffito praising Hilarus Ner. XI v) XIII clearly identifies Hilarus of the Neronian family, who has won nine times in the thirteen combats he has survived.

M. Attilius the beginner takes on the experienced Hilarus. Probably to his own surprise, Attilius emerges as the victor. (This is shown by the ‘V’ which finishes the line.) (From Francesco Paolo Maulucci Vivolo, Pompeii: I Graffiti Figurati, 1993)

Choosing a speciality

Some gladiator types, such as the Gaul or Samnite, are now out of fashion, but plenty of choices remain. As well as choosing the name, the magister and lanista must decide on the role for which their tiro is best suited. They may even consult the individual whose future depends on their choice, but don’t bet on it.

Statuettes of provocator-style gladiators. With everything aligned for combat, helmet, shield and greaves present a solidly armoured front to an opponent. (Left: Musée de Lectoure, Gers; right: Staatliche Museen, Berlin)

Heavies

A physically powerful type with (relatively) limited agility will probably end up in the heavy squad. This is a generic name for several types of gladiator, properly called the scutarii, or ‘shield carriers’). These are gladiators who fight with a sword, large shield and a considerable amount of armour, including that anonymizing helmet. Soldiers and ex-soldiers take a particular interest in these types, as their kit is the closest to actual legionary equipment. Since legionaries are encouraged to watch gladiator fights to get them used to bloodletting, soldiers will be a discerning part of a heavy’s audience, especially in provincial amphitheatres. Types of ‘heavy’ include:

Provocator ‘The challenger’

Weapon – a short sword (sometimes a short, short sword).

Shield – large, rectangular. A superior version of legionary issue.

Helmet – all-encompassing, with grille-covered eyeholes for visibility.

Armour – manica (protective sleeve), greave (protecting the forward leg) and cardiophylax (chest protector).

Usual opponent – another provocator.

Anyone who uses a shield purely for defence is missing half the weapon’s potential. In this mosaic from Germania, a gladiator demonstrates this powerfully. (Römerhalle, Bad Kreuznach, copyright INTERFOTO/Alamy)

Murmillo ‘The fish man’

Weapon – short sword.

Shield – large, wooden, partly oval or rectangular.

Helmet – full face, with the distinctive crest that might look like a ‘fish-fin’ from some angles.

Armour – padded or armoured guard on the sword arm, protective greave.

Usual opponent – Thracian, though smaller arenas might also match a murmillo with a provocator or retiarius (though the murmillo’s helmet is so vulnerable to a good net cast that the latter is not really a fair fight).

A murmillo takes a bow after his combat. (Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart)

Secutor ‘The chaser’

Weapon – short sword and a dagger as back-up.

Shield – large, wooden, rectangular.

Helmet – full face, smooth and egg-shaped, with few projections a net can catch on.

Armour – padded or armoured guard on the sword arm, protective greave.

Usual opponent – retiarius. In fact, chasing the nimble retiarius gives the secutor his name.

A secutor prepares to finish off a retiarius. (Musée Romain, Avenches)

Small-shield fighters (parmularii)

Sometimes it pays to be agile. A lightly armoured fighter can skip around his more cumbersome opponent looking for an opening. Also, while the heavies are limited to a sword, and sometimes a rather limited sword at that, the lighter fighters are equipped with a variety of items to ruin an opponent’s day. Types of parmularii include:

Two parmularii adopt fighting poses as they measure up the opposition. (Museo Archeologico ‘La Civitella’, Chieti)

Hoplomachus ‘The hoplite fighter’

Weapon – thrusting spear, short sword and dagger.

Shield – round, small, curved. Generally made of metal, such as bronze.

Helmet – Grecian style, as a nod to the original hoplite opponents of Rome.

Armour – padded or armoured guard on the sword arm and thigh, protective greave.

Usual opponent – murmillo or Thracian.

The metal shield of a hoplomachus deflects an opposing Samnite’s thrust over his shoulder, and he prepares a counter-strike. (British Museum, London)

Thracian

Weapon – curved Thracian dagger, about a foot long.

Shield – small, curved and rectangular.

Helmet – distinctive, wide-brimmed, often with a griffin. (Griffins were the companions of Nemesis, goddess of impending doom.)

Armour – padded arm and thigh guards and greave.

Usual opponent – murmillo or hoplomachus.

Retiarius ‘The net-man’

Weapon – a trident and a net, dagger as back-up.

Shield – the galerus, armour fitted to the shoulder as part of the arm-guard. One part flares up and protects the neck on that side.

Helmet – none.

Armour – padded arm-guard on the non-trident-carrying arm.

Usual opponent – secutor.

During a break from the action, a retiarius holds what appears to be a rolled-up net in his hands. (British Museum, London)

Eques ‘The horseman’

Weapon – lance and short sword.

Shield – parma equestris, the small cavalry shield.

Helmet – old-style brimmed cavalry type.

Armour – padding on right arm.

Usual opponent – because they start the combat on horseback, equites only fight their own kind. However, after the initial horsing around, the equites generally dismount and finish their business on foot.

After sparring on horseback, two equites dismount and finish the combat on foot. (Römermuseum, Augst)

Speciality fighters

The editores who present the games are always on the lookout for novelty. There are also advantages in being an unusual class of fighter, because while such gladiators are experienced in facing the regular arena types, the regulars don’t know what they are up against. Some of the most common uncommon types are:

Andabata The andabatae have helmets without eyeholes, so that they fight without being able to see their opponent. For obvious reasons they only fight other andabatae. Hilariously lethal, if that’s your idea of fun.

Dimachaerus A fighter with two swords and no shield. For those who believe that attack is the best form of defence.

Essedarius A chariot fighter in the old Celtic tradition. Popular a hundred years ago, but now rare.

Laquearius Basically a retiarius with a lasso. The type is very rare and will probably never really catch on.

Practical anatomy

The physician Galen remarked that the best school for a surgeon is the battlefield, though a gladiatorial school comes a close second. Only in these places do doctors get a close look at the workings of the human anatomy while they are still working, at least temporarily. It behooves a gladiator who wants to walk out of the arena likewise to acquaint himself with the human body. A few fingers’ breadth can make the difference between an opponent infuriated by his wound and one dead from it. A strictly non-medicinal anatomy course will consider the following aspects.

Major organs

The thoughtful gladiator will carefully note the length of his sword, and the fact that there are very few vital organs of the body that a correctly inserted blade of more than four inches cannot penetrate – and even the short sword of a provocator is at least twice this length. However, ‘vital’ is a relative term when referring to organs. The only immediate kills come from injuries to the heart and brain.

Nature has made the same observation, and armoured the brain with the bony helmet of the skull and located the heart under the solid sternum, providing that organ with the protection that gladiator equipment has carefully neglected to provide. (Gladiators are well protected from minor wounds, but are deliberately exposed to killing blows.) If stabbing for the heart through the ribcage, remember to turn the blade sideways, since otherwise only the tip goes in and the blade jams between the ribs. However, at the point of the arch of the ribs an upward stab can reach the heart very handily. Also note that a somewhat straighter and deeper stab to the same point has a good chance of severing the aorta or the vena cava, which run against the spine.

Likewise, though both nature and helmet have armoured the gladiator’s head, a solid upward stab through the soft tissue under the chin will probably make it to the brain stem. Just take care to avoid the helmet chinstrap.

Arteries and veins

Again, nature has carefully tucked these vulnerable points deep within the protection of the body, but the design of human anatomy means that major blood vessels are occasionally exposed. The subclavian artery is too well protected to interest a gladiator, and most helmets are careful to shield the jugular and carotid. However, the junction of the jugular and innominate veins just below where the throat meets the ribcage is accessible to a quick probing downward stab. And even more attractive are the brachial and axillary vessels, through which you can feel the blood pumping if you tuck your fingers into your armpit – and how do you armour an armpit?

Also, do not forget the femoral artery, armoured on the outside by the basin of the hip-bone but vulnerable to an inward stab above the groin, where even if you miss there’s a chance of slicing the great saphenous vein. Note that even if an opponent protects his major vulnerabilities, a series of minor wounds will eventually cause debilitation from blood loss, so cut and nick whenever possible.

Connective tissue

Muscle has been designed by nature to take a lot of punishment, and sticking a weapon into it is generally not worth the effort, since every strike makes the attacker vulnerable to a better-aimed counter-strike. However, there are several exceptions, provided one remembers the rule that one stabs for vital organs and slashes at connective tissue. For example, the stomach muscles are not themselves essential organs, but they hold the intestines in place (until slashed open). Gladiators like the very wide metal belt (balteus) which guards against this eventuality. This belt also means that anyone with a heavy enough sword must aim for the small space between belt and ribs if aiming to cut the spine.

Leg guards give some protection, but an opponent can still be slowed down if his hamstrings are cut by a slash across the back of the knee. A blow that crushes the larynx or the accompanying cartilage causes the injured organ to swell up and block the trachea, causing a quick death by suffocation.

Overall, a trained gladiator tends to see the human body as irrelevant flesh surrounding a number of crucial vulnerabilities. For non-gladiators this can actually be rather good news. Rome is a rough place. Many who meet a gladiator in the course of business outside the arena are being persuaded of the need to repay their debts at any cost, or are otherwise discovering that the hirer of the gladiators is extremely displeased with them. Those being beaten to within an inch of their lives can find a certain reassurance in knowing the job is being done by professionals who know where and precisely how hard to hit – and when to stop hitting. If they do beat someone to death, at least it won’t be accidental.

Case study I: The making of a provocator

A provocator fights carrying about 30 pounds of equipment in all. For a large, fit fighter, the weight is less of a problem than the fact that the helmet, body protection and shield significantly restrict both mobility and visibility. Above all, a provocator rapidly develops a love-hate relationship with his helmet.

A distinctive signature piece, protector of anonymity, and defender of the cranium, the helmet is also hot, suffocating and neck-wrenchingly heavy. For all the advantages helmets give the wearer, few gladiators love their headgear. (From Victor Duruy, History of Rome and the Roman People, vols I–V, London, 1884)

The helmet

This provides excellent protection, making the head virtually invulnerable to most attacks. Since people locate their conscious selves at a point about four inches back from the eyes, a protected head is a great confidence booster. But it comes at a price.

It’s dehumanizing A gladiator in a helmet is deliberately made a faceless killing machine. This can help to intimidate an opponent, but it also makes it easier for someone (perhaps even someone you shared a drink with a few hours ago) to see you as un-human and easier to kill without qualms.

It’s confining Any provocator knows that it’s usually five seconds after the helmet is fitted that an unscratchable itch develops on the edge of his nose. But an itch goes away when more pressing concerns arise. Sweat trickling into your eyes is much more serious when you can’t just brush it away, so ensure the helmet’s padding can absorb lots of moisture.

It makes breathing difficult Even a trained gladiator gets out of breath in a provocator helmet. In fact, a trained gladiator gets out of breath faster, because his body sucks in a larger amount of oxygen. More, in fact, than the airholes can provide.

It dangerously restricts visibility In smaller arenas a provocator may sometimes fight other gladiator types. Here, a favourite trick of the retiarius is to trail his net on the ground, knowing that the provocator’s helmet does not allow the fighter to look down to see where he is treading. In a large arena, the well-prepared provocator will carefully locate all trapdoors on the fighting surface. They never manage to get the blasted things exactly flush with the ground, and sometimes stumbling over a trapdoor edge can really ruin your day.

Because visibility is so limited, the provocator is trained not to take his eyes off his opponent no matter what. Many a gladiator who failed to do this has died literally never knowing what hit him. Watch your opponent, and let your other senses take care of the rest.

As a result of all these factors, unless anonymity is absolutely essential, his helmet is the last thing a provocator puts on before going into action, and the first thing he takes off.

Feet

Though relatively well-armoured for a gladiator, the provocator, like other gladiators, fights barefoot. Anyone who has ever walked along a beach wearing sandals will quickly work out why. Sand behind the heel and between the toes rapidly becomes a crippling distraction.

A provocator has an additional reason for fighting barefoot. That’s because his toes tell him about the surface underfoot which his helmet won’t let him see. The provocator is trained to approach an opponent by sliding each foot forward along the ground. This helps to maintain stance and balance, but also gives warning of nasty surprises (such as nets) lurking unseen underfoot.

The shield

For the provocator in his faceless helmet, a shield is more than body protection; it’s even more than an auxiliary offensive weapon (though it performs both these tasks excellently). A shield is advertising space. It’s somewhere to show a distinctive personality, something that allows a particular fighter to be immediately recognized by the crowd. Features such as triple-ply oiled oak construction with iron rims top and bottom come as standard in any good ludus. What the provocator agonizes over is the motif and colour scheme on the front. Ideally this should both impress the crowd and terrify an opponent (or, since a gladiator doesn’t terrify easily, at least remind him of his mortality with an image of Nemesis, or Cerberus, the hell-hound he might soon be meeting).

The best defence is attack Shields are not just for hiding behind. Generally, the grip is right in the middle. It lies sideways so that one holds the shield ‘suitcase-style’, as though the handle is a knuckleduster clenched in a closed fist. Indeed, a well-trained gladiator can punch startlingly hard and fast with a shield. Another form of ‘shield-bash’ is when the gladiator makes a sudden rush to hit an off-balance opponent with his full body weight behind the shield.

Getting edgy Generally, one does not want the shield too far from one’s body, which is why an opponent constantly tries to ‘open’ the shield by pulling it away from the provocator at an angle (a retiarius’s trident is good at this). However, occasionally in mid-melee it helps to give someone a good whack somewhere vulnerable with a shield edge (or better, a shield corner). And then there’s the ‘shield drop’. This is when, going toe-to-toe with an opponent, you drop your whole body into a crouch and slam your metal shield edge down hard on his vulnerable bare tootsies.

Swords take second place to shields as offensive weapons here. The middle gladiator steps under a shield slamming at his face, and bangs his own shield down hard on his opponent’s toes. (Museo Nazionale delle Terme, Rome)

Taking the weight off A shield is heavy, and after a few minutes the way it is carried makes it a weight even for over-developed gladiatorial biceps. So except in a crisis, it’s a good idea to rest the bottom edge of the shield against the protective greave of the left leg. One can even advance in that position, with the left leg kept forward and shuffled along the ground, so that an opponent sees mostly the shield advancing inexorably, with only small bits of gladiator showing behind.

Graffiti of gladiators in action at Nola in Italy. As togaed spectators look on, musicians (far right) play rousing music. (From Francesco Paolo Maulucci Vivolo, Pompeii: I Graffiti Figurati, 1993)

The sword

If you’re lucky, you’ll get about a foot and a half of blade. Training with the sword is constant, and a gladiator is trained to know exactly where the sword tip is at any given moment. Fighting with a short sword is utterly unlike fencing with a long one. Sword-to-sword is rare.

One stab is better than three slashes Eighteen inches might not sound a lot, but you only need to insert a quarter of that into an opponent if you pick your target. If you have a well-sharpened weapon – and many gladiators prefer to sharpen their own – it takes a surprisingly gentle push to get a blade into most parts of the body. (You don’t want to do a really hard stab, because blades embedded in bone are hard to pull out.) Therefore a quick attack (which is more a coordinated series of moves than a single stab) is the order of the day, and if it fails, go back to the guard position and await another chance.

Now you see it… The shorter blade has one advantage. It’s easy to keep it behind the shield with just the tip showing, or even hidden completely, so that an opponent is unsure of the angle of attack. Then a lightning attack, followed by a quick revert to the initial position, and it’s easy to get an opponent off-guard and uncertain.

Case study II: The making of a retiarius

The position of the net-man is an ambiguous anomaly in the otherwise rigid hierarchy of the ludus. For some, the retiarius is the lowest of the lot, since he fights without a helmet, with his face and his shame clear for all to see. For others the retiarius is actually more prestigious, as of all arena fighters, he relies most on his skill and courage for victory. There is a theory that while an average secutor will beat an average retiarius eight times out of ten, a really good retiarius will beat a skilled secutor by the same margin. (Though you won’t get many secutores agreeing with this proposition.)

This drawing from a Spanish mosaic shows a secutor struggling to free himself from a successful net cast in the few moments remaining before the retiarius brings his trident into play. (From Victor Duruy, History of Rome and the Roman People, vols I–V, London, 1884)

The role of retiarius is also favoured by some who like to fight in the arena as non-professionals, just to show off their skill at arms. The lack of a helmet makes it clear exactly who is doing the fighting. On the other hand, since a retiarius’s equipment is so different from standard military gear, even ex-soldiers must learn how to use it from scratch.

The net

The problem with a net is that it is generally a one-shot weapon. Once it is cast, half the retiarius’s offensive capability has gone with the throw. A miss, and you have a half-naked man with a trident against an armoured opponent whose morale has just improved. On the other hand, a really good throw so incapacitates an opponent that it is game over, with victory to the retiarius. So a retiarius in training spends an awful amount of time learning how and when to make that all-important throw. It’s no use just draping the net over an opponent, for example, if you don’t tangle him up thoroughly while you are at it.

Dangerous by design Though his kit comes from that of a fisherman, neither a gladiator’s trident nor his net would be much good for catching fish. (Fish-men, such as the murmillo fighter, are another matter.) Years of experience have taught the ludus net-makers the optimal weave that will allow weapons, swords or helmets to get well entangled. Large holes are better in the centre of the net, with a finer mesh at the edges. Larger holes are better for tangling, and a finer mesh at the edges makes the net heavier there. Because it is heavier at the rim, the net does not need weights to open properly when cast.

It’s all in the wrist A proper cast needs a nifty arm and wrist action, a sort of circular movement which sends the net spinning slowly as it flies towards its target. The spin transfers centrifugal force to the edges, thus fully opening the net. Because different parts of the net stop spinning at different times when it has landed on something, this helps to tangle everything up nicely. A veteran gladiator can drop his net over a target 30 feet away. This is not a good idea, however, since a net in flight takes easily four seconds to cover this distance – and an able secutor can catch a quick nap or exchange a few words of gossip with a friend and still leave himself time to step aside.

Get it right first time The ideal throwing distance varies from retiarius to retiarius, which is one reason why a heavy paired against a net-man will be well advised to take any chance to study his opponent in action before they meet in combat. Most net-men prefer to throw the net just two or three yards, and some do their cast at very close range with one hand wrapped in the folds of the net so they don’t lose it even if a throw goes wrong.

Staying with the net There is also the possibility of having the net on a tether so it can be pulled back if a throw misses. This is not a good idea, however, because the tether interferes with the rotatory action of a smooth deployment. Also, if throwing any distance (rather than draping the net over an opponent when up close), a net is a fire-and-forget weapon. Most secutores will attack immediately after a throw, and a retiarius pre-occupied with getting his net back is a retiarius unable to deal with more pressing concerns.

Happy endings An empty net thumping on to the sand represents a fail for the retiarius. Snagging any part of an opponent will discombobulate him at least temporarily, and an able net-man will immediately exploit the options for attack that the net has opened up. A cast in which the net completely envelops the body and sword of an opponent is ideal. A retiarius smiling in his sleep at night is probably dreaming of that perfect cast in which head and sword are inextricably tangled with each other, and the secutor has no choice but to struggle to free one finger long enough to plead with the crowd for mercy.

The trident

This is the retiarius’s main offensive weapon. Its three teeth (which is what ‘tri-dent’ means) are very different from those used by a fisherman. First, the prongs are shorter (remember, more than 4 inches is unnecessary), though some retiarii favour a trident with a middle prong almost half as long again as the others. Secondly, the prongs are not barbed. A fisherman does not want his fish to slip off the end of his barbed trident, but the last thing a net-man wants is to have his principal striking weapon irretrievably stuck in the thigh of an opponent. It is also harder than it appears to keep the prongs of the trident from getting tangled in the net, and barbed prongs would make untangling impossible.

Mix it up Variety is the spice of the retiarius’s bag of tricks. Sometimes he will stab overhand, using the superior reach of the trident to hit the helmet and shoulder of an opponent. Catching the top of the shield might allow the retiarius his prime ambition – to ‘open’ his opponent by peeling his shield away from his body. Underhand stabs aim at the sword hand, the torso and the top of the thigh. A well-trained net-man might even use his trident as a quarter-staff, swinging the butt-end to good effect. (However, unlike a staff, the trident is not balanced, and its solidity makes it heavy and hard to swing fast.) Ideally, a secutor should have no idea of what the retiarius’s next attack will be or what angle it will come from.

Trip him up There are two techniques for this. If a secutor makes a rush, sometimes all it takes is the trident poked in front of his back foot, and down he goes.

The second method is more complicated and requires a lot of practice. There’s also the risk of losing the trident. Make several fast thrusts at the helmet of the secutor, forcing him to raise his guard. Then move the trident swiftly down and hack behind the ankle of his front foot and pull. Your opponent will momentarily be off-balance. While he is teetering on one leg, you have less than a second to hit his helmet again – this time very hard – and so bring him down. Alternatively, you can try a body charge. If you succeed the secutor will go down, and a well-trained retiarius will make sure he never gets up.

Break it up A secutor standing on balance with all his kit aligned is almost impossible to defeat. So the job of the retiarius is to get his opponent off-balance, with his body unshielded, and his sword wrongly deployed. He does this by breaking down his opponent’s composure with quick stabs and feints, constantly changing the angle of attack and relying on the fact that eventually his opponent’s relatively limited mobility and vision will lead him to make a mistake. Just don’t count on getting a second chance.

Flexibility and mobility

The galerus (arm and shoulder guard) is not the main protection of the retiarius. Mobility is. Fighting toe-to-toe with the well-armoured and well-equipped secutor is suicide, so a net-man has to rely on his mobility and his wits. At the beginning the secutor will aim to finish the fight with a single well-aimed thrust of his sword. The job of the retiarius is not to be there when that stab happens. More than most gladiators, he is grateful for the shape of the arena. You can’t get cornered in a place that doesn’t have corners, and the longer the fight goes on, the more the secutor will tire. Being aware that his advantage is slipping away, he is more likely to make mistakes.

Note: The writer particularly thanks Cerberus (retiarius) and Medusa (provocatorix) (a.k.a. Alexander and Svenja) of the Ludus Nemesis for sharing their hands-on experience.

Codex Gladiorum

There was a Pompeian gladiator called Jesus, presumably a man of Jewish origin.

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Left-handed legionaries are strongly discouraged. But a left-handed gladiator has the edge on someone accustomed to fighting fellow righties.

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While other gladiators fight bare-chested, equites traditionally have sleeveless tunics.

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If a trident does get entangled in a net, the retiarius might decide to throw the lot over an opponent, and leave him with the task of disentangling the trident. This is especially effective if the retiarius is allowed a smaller secondary weapon such as a dagger.

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A retiarius might also ‘open’ his opponent’s guard by kicking the bottom of his shield hard, and then, as the top tips forward, wrenching it away with the trident.

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A gladiator helmet is about twice the weight of an infantry helmet. The secutor’s helmet must resist the thrusts of a trident and, therefore, is even thicker and heavier.

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A later historian (Ammianus) refers to Sassanian Persian infantry as ‘sheltering behind their shields as murmillos do’ – a reference to the murmillian belief that defence is the best form of attack.

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A murmillo helmet, with its traditional ‘fish-fin’ crest. (From Victor Duruy, History of Rome and the Roman People, vols I–V, London, 1884)