Helmet of a Thracian gladiator. These helmets are often topped with an ornamental griffin crest, for griffins draw the chariot of Nemesis. In practical terms, the griffin means that a Thracian must duck further and faster to completely avoid a blow. (Museo Archeologico, Naples)

‘Parade armour’. These showy greaves (leg-warmers for gladiators) depict a gladiatorial dilemma – should one go with sensible armour that allows one to fight better, or slightly impractical kit that will impress the audience? (Museo Archeologico, Naples)

In this mosaic from the province of Africa, five venatores (beast-fighters) carouse at an arena-shaped table with their future victims before them. Each venator carries the symbol of his particular guild. A worried slave rushes over with finger to his lips saying, ‘Quiet – let the bulls sleep!’ (Bardo Museum, Tunis)

The importance of shields as advertising is shown in this mosaic of equites. Regrettably, Maternus has no further use for his. The theta symbol by his name shows that his wound is fatal. (Museo Arqueologico Nacional, Madrid)

Astanax the secutor v. Kalendio the retiarius. This mosaic shows that Kalendio successfully cast his net over the secutor, but even so he could not stop Astanax from making his kill. (Museo Arqueologico Nacional, Madrid)

Death in the arena. This 1st-century BC bas-relief shows a gladiator being finished off by his opponent. Since then, gladiator equipment has become more elaborate, and the fighters are now armoured against minor wounds. (Associated Press)

Bruised and bleeding, a gladiator slumps to the sand during a training bout. His opponent, a Nubian retiarius, lies prone, his trident cast aside. This mosaic, from the Villa Wadi Lebda, near Leptis Magna, Tunisia, dating to 2nd century AD, has carefully depicted the different muscle formations in the gladiator’s sword and shield arms. (Leptis Magna Museum, photo Marlies Wendowski, courtesy of Mark Merrony)

Riot in Pompeii (see chapter VIII – The opening bouts). The pitched battle between Pompeians and Nucerians in AD 59 represents one of the few times when it was safer to be in the arena than in the spectators’ seats. The Pompeians won, but were harshly punished afterwards. (Museo Archeologico, Naples)