References
Abdala, F., and A. M. Ribeiro. 2010. Distribution and diversity patterns of Triassic cynodonts (Therapsida, Cynodontia) in Gondwana. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 286:202–217.
Ahlberg, P. E., J. A. Clack, E. Lukševičs, H. Blom, and I. Zupinš. 2008. Ventastega curonica and the origin of tetrapod morphology. Nature 453:1199–1204.
Ahlbert, P. E. and Z. Johanson. 1998. Osteolepiforms and the ancestry of tetrapods. Nature 395:792–794.
Algeo, T. J., R. A. Berner, J. B. Maynard, and S. E. Scheckler. 1995. Late Devonian oceanic anoxic events and biotic crises: “Rooted” in the evolution of vascular land plants? GSA Today 5:63–66.
Algeo, T. J., S. E. Scheckler, and J. B. Maynard. 2001. Effects of the Middle to Late Devonian spread of vascular land plants on weathering regimes, marine biotas, and global climate. In Plants invade the land, ed. P. G. Gensel and D. Edwards, 213–236. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ali, J. R., G. M. Thompson, M.-F. Zhou, and X. Song. 2005. Emeishan large igneous province, SW China. Lithos 79:475–489.
Aljinovic, D., Y. Isozaki, and J. Sremac. 2008. The occurrence of giant bivalve Alatoconchidae from the Yabeina zone (Upper Guadalupian, Permian) in European Tethys. Gondwana Research 13:275–287.
Archer, D., H. Kheshgi, and E. Maier-Reimer. 1997. Multiple timescales for neutralization of fossil fuel CO2. Geophysical Research Letters 24:405–408.
Averbuch, O., N. Tribovillard, X. Devleeschouwer, L. Riquier, B. Mistiaen, and B. van Vliet-Lanoe. 2005. Mountain building-enhanced continental weathering and organic carbon burial as major causes for climatic cooling at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary (c. 376 Ma)? Terra Nova 17:25–34.
Babarro, J. M. F., and A. De Zwaan. 2008. Anaerobic survival potential of four bivalves from different habitats: A comparative survey. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 151:108–113.
Baker, R. A., and W. A. DiMichele. 1997. Biomass allocation in Late Pennsylvanian coal-swamp plants. Palaios 12:127–132.
Balseiro, D. 2016. Compositional turnover and ecological changes related to the waxing and waning of glaciers during the late Paleozoic ice age in ice-proximal regions (Pennsylvanian, western Argentina). Paleobiology 42:335–357.
Bambach, R. K. 1983. Ecospace utilization and guilds in marine communities through the Phanerozoic. In Biotic interactions in recent and fossil benthic communities, ed. M. J. S. Tevesz and P. L. McCall, 719–746. New York: Plenum.
Bambach, R. K. 1985. Classes and adaptive variety: The ecology of diversification in marine faunas through the Phanerozoic. In Phanerozoic diversity patterns, ed. J. W. Valentine, 191–253. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bambach, R. K., A. H. Knoll, and S. C. Wang. 2004. Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity. Paleobiology 30:522–542.
Barham, M., J. Murray, M. M. Joachimski, and D. M. Williams. 2012. The onset of the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation: Reconciling global stratigraphic evidence with biogenic apatite δ18O records in the late Visean. Journal of the Geological Society, London 169:119–122.
Becker, R. T., M. Piecha, M. Gereke, and K. Spellbrink. 2016. The Frasnian/Famennian boundary in shelf basin facies north of Diemelsee-Adorf. Münster Forschungen zur Geologie und Paläontologie 108:220–231.
Beerling, D. J., and R. A. Berner. 2000. Impact of a Permo-Carboniferous high O2 event on the terrestrial carbon cycle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97:12428–12432.
Beerling, D. J., M. Harfoot, B. Lomax, and J. A. Pyle. 2007. The stability of the stratospheric ozone layer during the end-Permian eruption of the Siberian Traps. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London) A365:1843–1866.
Beerling, D. J., F. I. Woodward, M. R. Lomas, M. A. Wills, W. P. Quick, and P. J. Valdes. 1998. The influence of Carboniferous palaeo-atmospheres on plant function: An experimental and modelling assessment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London) B353:131–140.
Bell, C. D., D. E. Soltis, and P. S. Soltis. 2010. The age and diversification of the angiosperms re-revisited. American Journal of Botany 97:1296–1303.
Benton, M. J. 1985. Patterns in the diversification of Mesozoic non-marine tetrapods and problems in historical diversity analysis. Special Papers in Palaeontology 33:185–202.
Benton, M. J. 1989. Mass extinctions among tetrapods and the quality of the fossil record. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London) B325:369–386.
Benton, M. J. 2003. When life nearly died: The greatest mass extinction of all time. London: Thames and Hudson.
Benton, M. J. 2005. Vertebrate palaeontology. 3d ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
Benton, M. J. 2015. Vertebrate palaeontology. 4th ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
Berner, R. A. 2002. Examination of hypotheses for the Permo-Triassic boundary extinction by carbon cycle modeling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99:4172–4177.
Berner, R. A. 2006. GEOCARBSULF: A combined model for Phanerozoic atmosphere O2 and CO2. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70:5653–5664.
Berner, R. A. 2009. Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: New results using the GEOCARBSULF model. American Journal of Science 309:603–606.
Berner, R. A., D. J. Beerling, R. Dudley, J. M. Robinson, and R. A. Wildman. 2003. Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31:105–134.
Bishop, J. W., I. P. Montañez, E. L. Gulbranson, and P. L. Brenckle. 2009. The onset of mid-Carboniferous glacio-eustacy: Sedimentologic and diagenetic constraints, Arrow Canyon, Nevada. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 276:217–243.
Black, B. A., J.-F. Lamarque, C. A. Shields, L. T. Elkins-Tanton, and J. T. Kiehl. 2014. Acid rain and ozone depletion from pulsed Siberian Traps magmatism. 2014. Geology 42:67–70.
Blackburn, T. M., and K. J. Gaston. 1994. Animal body size distributions: Patterns, mechanisms and implications. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:471–474.
Blakey, R. C. 2008. Gondwana paleogeography from assembly to breakup—A 500 m.y. odyssey. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 1–28. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Blieck, A. 2011. From adaptive radiations to biotic crises in Palaeozoic vertebrates: A geobiological approach. Geologica Belgica 14:203–227.
Bond, D. P. G., J. Hilton, P. B. Wignall, J. R. Ali, L. G. Stevens, Y. Sun, and X. Lai. 2010. The Middle Permian (Capitanian) mass extinction on land and in the oceans. Earth-Science Reviews 102:100–116.
Bond, D. P. G., and P. B. Wignall. 2014. Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update. In Volcanism, impacts, and mass extinctions: Causes and effects, ed. G. Keller and A. C. Kerr, 29–55. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America Special Paper 505.
Bond, D. P. G., P. B. Wignall, W. Wang, G. Izon, H.-S. Jiang, X.-L. Lai, Y.-D. Sun, R. J. Newton, L.-Y. Shao, S. Védrine, and H. Cope. 2010. The mid-Capitanian (Middle Permian) mass extinction and carbon isotope record of South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 292:282–294.
Bonelli, J. R., Jr., and M. E. Patzkowsky. 2011. Taxonomic and ecologic persistence across the onset of the late Paleozoic ice age: Evidence from the upper Mississippian (Chesterian Series), Illinois Basin, United States. Palaios 26:5–17.
Bottjer, D. J., and W. I. Ausich 1986. Phanerozoic development of tiering in soft substrata suspension-feeding communities. Paleobiology 12:400–420.
Bowring, S. A., D. H. Erwin, Y. G. Jin, M. W. Martin, D. Davidek, and W. Wang. 1998. U/Pb zircon geochronology and tempo of the end-Permian mass extinction. Science 280:1039–1045.
Boyce, C. K., and W. A. DiMichele. 2016. Arborescent lycopod productivity and lifespan: Constraining the possibilities. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 227:97–110.
Braddy, S. J., M. Poschmann, and O. E. Tetlie. 2007. Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod. Biology Letters 4:106–109.
Brezinski, D. K., C. B. Cecil, and V. W. Skema. 2010. Late Devonian glacigenic and associated facies from the central Appalachian Basin, eastern United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin 122:265–281.
Briggs, D. E. G. 1985. Gigantism in Palaeozoic arthropods. Special Papers in Palaeontology 33:1571.
Brunton, C. H. C., S. S. Lazarev, and R. E. Grant. 2000. Productida. In Treatise on invertebrate paleontology, part H, ed. R. L Kaesler, 350–643. Boulder, Colo: Geological Society of America and Lawrence, Kan.: University of Kansas.
Bryan, S. E., and R. E. Ernst. 2008. Revised definition of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs). Earth-Science Reviews 86:175–202.
Bryan, S. E., I. Ukstins-Peate, D. W. Peate, S. Self, D. A. Jerram, M. R. Mawby, J. S. Marsh, and J. A. Miller. 2010. The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth. Earth-Science Reviews 102:207–229.
Caputo, M. V., J. H. G. Melo, M. Streel, and J. L. Isbell. 2008. Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous glacial records of South America. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 161–173. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Carmichael, S. K., J. A. Waters, C. J. Batchelor, D. M. Coleman, T. J. Suttner, E. Kido, L. M. Moore, and L. Chadimová. 2016. Climate instability and tipping points in the Late Devonian: Detection of the Hangenberg Event in an open oceanic island arc in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Gondwana Research 32:213–231.
Carrano, M. T., C. M. Janis, and J. J. Sepkoski. 1999. Hadrosaurs as ungulate parallels: Lost lifestyles and deficient data. Acta Palaeontological Polonica 44:237–261.
Carroll, R. 2009. The rise of amphibians: 365 million years of evolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cascales-Miñana, B., J. B. Diez, P. Gerrienne, and C. J. Cleal. 2015. A palaeobotanical perspective on the great end-Permian biotic crisis. Historical Biology 28:1066–1074.
Chumakov, N. M. 1994. Evidence of Late Permian glaciation in the Kolyma River Basin: A repercussion of the Gondwana glaciations in northeast Asia? Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation 2:426–444.
Clack, J. A. 2002. Gaining ground: The origin and evolution of tetrapods. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Clack, J. A. 2012. Gaining ground: The origin and evolution of tetrapods. 2d ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Clack, J. A., P. E. Ahlberg, H. Blom, and S. M. Finney. 2012. A new genus of Devonian tetrapod from north-east Greenland, with new information on the lower jaw of Ichthyostega. Palaeontology 55:73–86.
Clapham, M. E., and J. A. Kerr. 2012. Environmental and biotic controls on the evolutionary history of insect body size. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109:10927–10930.
Clapham, M. E., and J. L. Payne. 2011. Acidification, anoxia, and extinction: A multiple logistic regression analysis of extinction selectivity during the Middle and Late Permian. Geology 39:1059–1062.
Clapham, M. E., S. Z. Shen, and D. J. Bottjer. 2009. The double mass extinction revisited: Reassessing the severity, selectivity, and causes of the end-Guadalupian biotic crisis (Late Permian). Paleobiology 35:32–50.
Clarkson, E. N. K. 1998. Invertebrate palaeontology and evolution. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Clarkson, M. O., S. A. Kasemann, R. A. Wood, T. M. Lenton, S. J. Daines, S. Richoz, F. Ohnemueller, A. Meixner, S. W. Poulton, and E. T. Tipper. 2015. Ocean acidification and the Permo-Triassic mass extinction. Science 348:229–232.
Cleal, C. J. 2010. Tiering on land—trees and forests (Late Palaeozoic). In Encyclopedia of life sciences (ELS). Chichester: Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0001642.pub2.
Cleal, C. J., and B. Cascales-Miñana. 2014. Composition and dynamics of the great Phanerozoic Evolutionary Floras. Lethaia 47:469–484.
Cleal, C. J., R. M. James, and E. L. Zodrow. 1999. Variation in stomatal density in the Late Carboniferous gymnosperm frond Neuropteris ovata. Palaios 14:180–185.
Cleal, C. J., and B. A. Thomas. 2005. Palaeozoic tropical rainforests and their effect on global climates: Is the past the key to the present? Geobiology 3:13–31.
Coates, M. I., M. Ruta, and M. Friedman. 2008. Ever since Owen: Changing perspectives on the early evolution of tetrapods. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 39:571–592.
Coffin, M. F., and O. Eldholm. 1991. Large igneous provinces: JOI/USSAC workshop report (Technical Report 114). Austin: University of Texas at Austin Institute for Geophysics.
Coffin, M. F., and O. Eldholm. 1994. Large igneous provinces: Crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences. Review of Geophysics 32:1–36.
Copper, P. 1977. Paleolatitudes in the Devonian of Brazil and the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 21:165–207.
Copper, P. 1986. Frasnian-Famennian mass extinctions and cold water oceans. Geology 14:835–838.
Copper, P. 1998. Evaluating the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction: Comparing brachiopod faunas. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 43:137–154.
Copper, P. 2002. Silurian and Devonian reefs: 80 million years of global greenhouse between two ice ages. SEPM Special Publications 72:181–238.
Courtillot, V. E. 1999. Evolutionary catastrophes: The science of mass extinction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Courtillot, V. E., V. A. Kravchinsky, X. Quidelleur, P. R. Renne, and D. P. Gladkochub. 2010. Preliminary dating of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Eruption at the time of Late Devonian extinction events? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 300:239–245.
Courtillot, V. E., and P. R. Renne. 2003. On the ages of flood basalt events. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 335:113–140.
Croswell, K. 2003. Magnificent Mars. New York: Free Press.
Daeschler, E. B., J. A. Clack, and N. H. Shubin. 2009. Late Devonian tetrapod remains from Red Hill, Pennsylvania, USA: How much diversity? Acta Zoologica 90(Supplement 1):306–317.
D’Arrigo, R., R. Seager, J. E. Smerdon, A. N. LeGrande, and E. R. Cook. 2011. The anomalous winter of 1783–1784: Was the Laki eruption or an analog of the 2009–2010 winter to blame? Geophysical Research Letters 38. doi:10.1029/2011GL046696.
DeConto, R. M., and D. Pollard. 2003. Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2. Nature 421:245–249.
Demko, T. M., R. F. Dubiel, and J. T. Parrish. 1998. Plant taphonomy in incised valleys: Implications for interpreting paleoclimate from fossil plants. Geology 26:1119–1122.
Dennison, R. 1978. Placodermi. In Handbook of paleoichthyology, ed. H. P. Schultze, 2:1–128. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
Dennison, R. 1979. Acanthodii. In Handbook of paleoichthyology, ed. H. P. Schultze, 5:1–62. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
Dickens, G. R. 2001. Modeling the global carbon cycle with a gas hydrate capacitor across the latest Paleocene thermal maximum. In Natural gas hydrates: Occurrence, distribution and detection, ed. C. K. Paull and W. P. Dillon. American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monographs 124:19–38. New York: Wiley.
Dickens, G. R., J. R. O’Neil, D. K. Rea, and R. M. Owen. 1995. Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene. Paleoceanography 10:965–971.
DiMichele, W. A., and R. W. Hook. 1992. Paleozoic terrestrial ecosystems. In Terrestrial ecosystems through time, ed. A. K. Behrensmeyer, J. D. Damuth, W. A. DiMichele, R. Potts, H.-D. Sues, and S. L. Wing, pp. 205–325. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
DiMichele, W. A., I. P. Montañez, C. J. Poulsen, and N. J. Tabor. 2009. Climate and vegetational regime shifts in the late Paleozoic ice age earth. Geobiology 7:200–226.
DiMichele, W. A., H. W. Pfefferkorn, and R. A. Gastaldo. 2001. Response of Late Carboniferous and Early Permian plant communities to climatic change. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29:461–487.
DiMichele, W. A., and T. L. Phillips. 1996. Climate change, plant extinctions and vegetational recovery during the middle-late Pennsylvanian transition: The case of tropical peat-forming environments in North America. In Biotic recoveries from mass extinctions (Special Publication 102), ed. M. B. Hart, 210–221. London: Geological Society of London.
DiMichele, W. A., T. L. Phillips, and R. A. Peppers. 1985. The influence of climate and depositional environment on the distribution and evolution of Pennsylvanian coal swamp plants. In Geological factors in the evolution of plants, ed. B. Tiffney, 223–256. New Haven: Yale University Press.
DiMichele, W. A., N. J. Tabor, D. S. Chaney, and W. J. Nelson. 2006. From wetlands to wet spots: Environmental tracking and the fate of Carboniferous elements in Early Permian tropical floras. In Wetlands through time (Special Paper 399), eds. S. F. Greb and W. A. DiMichele, 223–248. Boulder, Colo: Geological Society of America.
Dobretsov, N. L., and V. A. Vernikovsky. 2001. Mantle plumes and their geologic manifestations. International Geological Review 43:771–787.
Donoghue, M. J. 2005. Key innovations, convergence, and success: Macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny. Paleobiology 31(Supplement):77–93.
Dorrington, G. E. 2015. Heavily loaded flight and limits to the maximum size of dragonflies (Anisoptera) and griffenflies (Meganisoptera). Lethaia 49:261–274.
Droser, M. L., D. J. Bottjer, P. M. Sheehan, and G. R. McGhee. 2000. Decoupling of taxonomic and ecologic severity of Phanerozoic marine mass extinctions. Geology 28:675–678.
Dudley, R. 1998. Atmospheric oxygen, giant Paleozoic insects and the evolution of aerial locomotor performance. Journal of Experimental Biology 201:1043–1050.
Ehrmann, W. U., and A. Mackensen. 1992. Sedimentological evidence for the formation of an East Antarctic ice sheet in Eocene/Oligocene time. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 93:85–112.
Elrick, M., and B. Witzke. 2016. Orbital-scale glacio-eustacy in the Middle Devonian detected using oxygen isotopes of condont apatite: Implications for long-term greenhouse-icehouse climatic transitions. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 445:50–59.
Enos, P. 1995. The Permian of China. In The Permian of northern Pangea: Vol. 2. Sedimentary basins and economic resources, ed. P. A. Scholle, T. M. Peryt, and D. S. Ulmer-Scholle, 225–256. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Epshteyn, O. G. 1981a. Middle Carboniferous ice-marine deposits of northeastern U.S.S.R. In Earth’s pre-Pleistocene glacial record, ed. M. J. Hambrey and W. B. Harland, 268–269. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Epshteyn, O. G. 1981b. Late Permian ice-marine deposits of northeastern U.S.S.R. In Earth’s pre-Pleistocene glacial record, ed. M. J. Hambrey and W. B. Harland, 270–273. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Erwin, D. H. 1993. The great Paleozoic crisis: Life and death in the Permian. New York: Columbia University Press.
Erwin, D. H. 2015. Extinction: How life on earth nearly ended 250 million years ago. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Erwin, D. H., M. Laflamme, S. M. Tweedt, E. A. Sperling, D. Pisani, and K. J. Peterson. 2011. The Cambrian conundrum: Early divergence and later ecological success in the early history of animals. Science 334:1091–1097.
Falcon-Lang, H. J. 2004. Pennsylvanian tropical rain forests responded to glacial-interglacial rhythms. Geology 32:689–692.
Falcon-Lang, H. J., and W. A. DiMichele. 2010. What happened to the coal forests during Pennsylvanian glacial periods? Palaios 25:611–617.
Falkowski, P., M. Katz, A. Milligan, K. Fennel, B. Cramer, M. P. Aubry, R. A. Berner, and W. M. Zapol. 2005. The rise of atmospheric oxygen levels over the past 205 million years and the evolution of large placental mammals. Science 309:2202–2204.
Fan, J. S., J. K. Rigby, and J. W. Qi. 1990. The Permian reefs of south China and comparisons with the Permian reef complex of the Guadalupe mountains, west Texas and New Mexico. Brigham Young University Geology Studies 36:15–55.
Farinella, P., L. Foschini, C. Froeschlé, R. Gonczi, T. J. Jopek, G. Longo, and P. Michel. 2001. Probable asteroidal origin of the Tunguska Cosmic Body. Astronomy and Astrophysics 377:1081–1097.
Fielding, C. R., T. D. Frank, L. P. Birgenheier, M. C. Rygel, A. T. Jones, and J. Roberts. 2008. Stratigraphic record and facies associations of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in eastern Australia (New South Wales and Queensland). In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 41–57. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Fielding, C. R., T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell. 2008. The Late Paleozoic Ice Age—a review of current understanding and synthesis of global climate patterns. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 343–354. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Filer, J. K. 2002. Late Frasnian sedimentation cycles in the Appalachian Basin: Possible evidence for high frequency eustatic sea-level changes. Sedimentary Geology 154:31–52.
Finnegan, S., K. Bergmann, J. Eiler, D. Jones, D. Fike, I. Eisenman, N. Hughes, A. Tripati, and W. Fischer. 2011. The magnitude and duration of Late Ordovician–Early Silurian glaciation. Science 331:903–906.
Flanagan, R. 1995. Mass murderers of the Devonian. Earth 4(August): 22.
Flower, B. P., and J. P. Kennett. 1995. Middle Miocene deepwater paleoceanography in the southwest Pacific: Relations with the East Antarctica ice sheet development. Paleoceanography 10:1095–1112.
Flügel, E., and W. Kiessling. 2002. Patterns of Phanerozoic reef crises. In Phanerozoic reef patterns, ed. W. Kiessling, E. Flügel, and J. Golonka. SEPM Special Publications 72:691–733.
Flügel, E., and G. D. Stanley. 1984. Re-organization, development and evolution of post-Permian reefs and reef-organisms. Paleontolographica Americana 54:177–186.
Fois, E., and M. Gaetani. 1984. The recovery of reef-building communities and the role of cnidarians in carbonate sequences of the Middle Triassic (Anisian) in the Italian Dolomites. Paleontolographica Americana 54:191–200.
Frakes, L. A., J. E. Francis, and J. I. Syktus. 1992. Climate modes of the Phanerozoic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Frank, T. D., L. P. Birgenheier, I. P. Montañez, C. R. Fielding, and M. C. Rygel. 2008. Late Paleozoic climate dynamics revealed by comparison of ice-proximal stratigraphic and ice-distal isotopic records. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 331–342. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Ganino, C., and N. T. Arndt. 2009. Climate changes caused by degassing of sediments during the emplacement of large igneous provinces. Geology 37:323–326.
Garbelli, C., L. Angiolini, and S.-Z. Shen. 2017. Biomineralization and global change: A new perspective for understanding the end-Permian extinction. Geology 45:19–22.
Gastaldo, R. A., E. Purkyňová, and Z. Šimůnek. 2009. Megafloral perturbation across the Enna marine zone in the Upper Silesian basin attests to Late Mississippian (Serpukhovian) deglaciation and climate change. Palaios 24:351–366.
Gastaldo, R. A., E. Purkyňová, Z. Šimůnek, and M. D. Schmitz. 2009. Ecological persistence in the Late Mississippian (Serpukhovian, Namurian A) megafloral record of the Upper Silesian basin, Czech Republic. Palaios 24:336–350.
Gastaldo, R. A., I. M. Stevanović-Walls, W. N. Ware, and S. F. Greb. 2004. Community heterogeneity of Early Pennsylvanian peat mires. Geology 32:693–696.
Georgiev, S., H. J. Stein, J. L. Hannah, B. Bingen, H. M. Weiss, and S. Piasecki. 2011. Hot acidic Late Permian seas stifle life in record time. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 310: 389–400.
Giles, P. S. 2009. Orbital forcing and Mississippian sea level change: Time series analysis of marine flooding events in the Visean Windsor Group of eastern Canada and implications for Gondwana glaciation. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 57:449–471.
González-Bonorino, G., and N. Eyles. 1995. Inverse relation between ice extent and the late Paleozoic glacial record of Gondwana. Geology 23:1015–1018.
Gradstein, F. M., J. G. Ogg, M. Schmitz, and G. Ogg. 2012. The geologic time scale 2012. Amsterdam: Elsevier B. V.
Gradstein, F. M., J. G. Ogg, and A. G. Smith. 2004. A geologic time scale 2004. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Graham, J. B., N. M. Aguliar, R. Dudley, and C. Gans. 1997. The Late Paleozoic atmosphere and the ecological and evolutionary physiology of tetrapods. In Amniote origins: Completing the transition to land, ed. S. S. Sumida and K. L. M. Martin, 141–167. San Diego: Academic Press.
Graham, J. B., R. Dudley, N. M. Aguliar, and C. Gans. 1995. Implications of the late Palaeozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution. Nature 375:117–120.
Grahn, Y., and F. Paris. 2011. Emergence, biodiversification and extinction of the chitinozoan group. Geological Magazine 148:226–236.
Grasby, S. E., H. Sanei, and B. Beauchamp. 2011. Catastrophic dispersion of coal fly ash into oceans during the latest Permian extinction. Nature Geoscience 4:104–107.
Grasby, S. E., W. Shen, R. Yin, J. D. Gleason, J. B. Blum, R. F. Lepak, J. P. Hurley, and B. Beauchamp. 2017. Isotope signatures of mercury contamination in latest Permian oceans. Geology 45:55–58.
Greb, S. F., W. M. Andrews, C. F. Eble, W. DiMichele, C. B. Cecil, and J. C. Hower. 2003. Desmoinesian coal beds of the Eastern Interior and surrounding basins: The largest tropical peat mires in Earth history. In Extreme depositional environments: Mega end members in geologic time (Special Paper 370), ed. M. A. Chan and A. W. Archer, 127–150. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Grimaldi, D., and M. S. Engel. 2005. Evolution of the insects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gulbranson, E. L., I. P. Montañez, M. D. Schmitz, C. O. Limarino, J. L. Isbel, S.A. Marenssi, and J. L. Crowley. 2010. High-precision U-Pb calibration of Carboniferous glaciation and climate history, Paganzo Group, NW Argentina. Geological Society of America Bulletin 122:1480–1498.
Hallam, A., and P. G. Wignall. 1997. Mass extinctions and their aftermath. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Harris, M. T., and P. M. Sheehan. 1998. Early Silurian stratigraphic sequences of the eastern Great Basin (Utah and Nevada). In Silurian cycles: Linking dynamic stratigraphy with atmospheric and oceanic changes (New York State Museum Bulletin 491), ed. E. Landing and M. E. Johnson, 51–61. Albany: New York State Museum.
Harrison, J. F., A. Kaiser, and J. M. VandenBrooks. 2010. Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size. Proceedings of the Royal Society B277:1937–1946.
Hayward, B. W. 2002. Late Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene extinctions in deep-sea benthic foraminifera (Stilostomella extinction) in the southwest Pacific. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 32:274–307.
Heckel, P. H. 1991. Lost Branch Formation and revision of upper Desmoinesian stratigraphy along midcontinent Pennsylvanian outcrop belt. Kansas Geological Survey Geology Series 4:1–68.
Heckel, P. H. 2008. Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Midcontinent North America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice sheets. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 275–289. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Hillenius, W. J. 1992. The evolution of nasal turbinates and mammalian endothermy. Paleobiology 18:17–29.
Hillenius, W. J. 1994. Turbinates in therapsids: Evidence for late Permian origins of mammalian endothermy. Evolution 48:207–229.
Horton, D. E., C. J. Poulsen, I. P. Montañez, and W. A DiMichele. 2012. Eccentricity-paced late Paleozoic climate change. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 331–332:150–161.
Hoskins, D. M., J. D. Inners, and J. A. Harper. 1983. Fossil collecting in Pennsylvania (General Geology Report G40). 3d ed. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Geological Survey.
House, M. R. 1988. Extinction and survival in the Cephalopoda. Systematics Association Special Volumes 34:139–154.
Irmis, R. B., and J. H. Whiteside 2012. Delayed recovery of non-marine tetrapods after the end-Permian mass extinction tracks global carbon cycle. Proceedings of the Royal Society B279:1310–1318.
Irving, E. 2008. Why Earth became so hot 50 million years ago and why it then cooled. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105:16061–16062.
Isaacson, P. E., E. Diaz-Martinez, G. W. Grader, J. Kalvoda, O. Babek, and F. X. Devuyst. 2008. Late Devonian–earliest Mississippian glaciation in Gondwanaland and its biogeographic consequences. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 268:126–142.
Isbell, J. L., A. S. Biakov, I. L. Vedernikov, V. I. Davydov, E. L. Gulbranson, and N. D. Fedorchuk. 2016. Permian diamictites in northeastern Asia: Their significance concerning the bipolarity of the late Paleozoic ice age. Earth-Science Reviews 154:279–300.
Isbell, J. L., M. F. Miller, K. L. Wolfe, and P. A. Lenaker. 2003. Timing of late Paleozoic glaciation in Gondwana: Was glaciation responsible for the development of northern hemisphere cyclothems? In Extreme depositional environments: Mega end members in geologic time (Special Paper 370), ed. M. A. Chan and A. W. Archer, 5–24. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Isozaki, Y., and D. Aljinovic. 2009. End-Guadalupian extinction of the Permian gigantic bivalve Alatoconchidae: End of gigantism in tropical seas by cooling. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 284:11–21.
Ivany, L. D., S. Van Simaeys, E. W. Domack, and S. D. Samson. 2006. Evidence for an earliest Oligocene ice sheet on the Antarctic Peninsula. Geology 34:377–380.
Jablonski, D. 1986. Background and mass extinctions: The alternation of macroevolutionary regimes. Science 231:129–133.
Jackson, E. L. 1982. The Laki eruption of 1783: Impacts on population and settlement in Iceland. Geography 67:42–50.
Joachimski, M. M., and W. Buggisch. 2002. Conodont apatite δ18O signatures indicate climate cooling as a trigger of the Late Devonian mass extinction. Geology 30:711–714.
Kaiser, S. I., M. Aretz, and R. T. Becker. 2016. The global Hangenberg Crisis (Devonian-Carboniferous transition): Review of a first-order mass extinction. In Devonian climate, sea level and evolutionary events (Special Publications 423), ed. R. T. Becker, P. Königshof, and C. E. Brett, 387–437. London: Geological Society.
Kaiser, S. I., T. Steuber, R. T. Becker, and M. M. Joachimski. 2006. Geochemical evidence for major environmental change at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary in the Carnic Alps and the Rhenish Massif. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240:146–160.
Kalvoda, J. 1990. Late Devonian-Early Carboniferous paleobiogeography of benthic foraminifera and climatic oscillations. In Extinction events in Earth history, ed. E. G. Kauffman and O. H. Walliser, 183–187. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Kammer, T. W., and D. L. Matchen. 2008. Evidence for eustacy at the Kinderhookian–Osagean (Mississippian) boundary in the United States: Response to late Tournaisian glaciation? In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in time and space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 261–274. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Katz, M. E., K. G. Miller, J. D. Wright, B. S. Wade, J. V. Browning, B. S. Cramer, and Y. Rosenthal. 2008. Stepwise transition from the Eocene greenhouse to the Oligocene icehouse. Nature Geoscience 1:329–334.
Kemp, D. B., A. L. Coe, A. S. Cohen, and L. Schwark. 2005. Astronomical pacing of methane release in the Early Jurassic period. Nature 437:396–399.
Kemp, T. S. 2006. The origin and early radiation of the therapsid mammal-like reptiles: A palaeobiological hypothesis. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 19:1231–1247.
Kenrick, P., and P. R. Crane. 1997a. The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Kenrick, P., and P. R. Crane. 1997b. The origin and early evolution of plants on land. Nature 389:33–39.
Kent, D. V., and G. Muttoni. 2008. Equatorial convergence of India and early Cenozoic climate trends. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108:21146–21151.
Kiessling, W., and C. Simpson. 2011. On the potential for ocean acidification to be a general cause of ancient reef crises. Global Change Biology 17:56–67.
Knoll, A. H., R. K. Bambach, D. E. Canfield, and J. P. Grotzinger. 1996. Comparative Earth history and the Late Permian mass extinction. Science 273:452–457.
Knoll, A. H., R. K. Bambach, J. L. Payne, S. Pruss, and W. W. Fischer. 2007. Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 256:295–313.
Kopp, R. E., J. L. Kirschvink, I. A. Hilburn, and C. Z. Nash. 2005. The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102:11131–11136.
Kraus, O., and C. Brauckmann. 2003. Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs: Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Atelocerata, Diplopoda); characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction. Verhandlungen des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg 40:5–50.
Krings, M., H. Kerp, T. N. Taylor, and E. L. Taylor. 2003. How Paleozoic vines and lianas got off the ground: On scrambling and climbing Carboniferous–Early Permian pteridosperms. Botanical Review 69:204–224.
Kukalová-Peck, J. 1985. Ephemeroid wing venation based upon new gigantic Carboniferous mayflies and basic morphology, phylogeny, and metamorphosis of pterygote insects (Insecta, Ephemerida). Canadian Journal of Zoology 63:933–955.
Kukalová-Peck, J. 1987. New Carboniferous Diplura, Monura, and Thysanura, the hexapod ground plan, and the role of thoracic side lobes in the origin of wings (Insecta). Canadian Journal of Zoology 65:2327–2345.
Lanciki, A., J. Cole-Dai, M. H. Thiemens, and J. Savarino. 2012. Sulfur isotope evidence of little or no stratospheric impact by the 1783 Laki volcanic eruption. Geophysical Research Letters 39, L01806, doi:10.1029/2011GL050075.
Lane, N. 2002. Oxygen: The molecule that made the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lecointre, G., and H. Le Guyader. 2006. The tree of life: A phylogenetic classification. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Lenton, T. M., M. Crouch, M. Johnson, N. Pires, and L. Dolan. 2012. First plants cooled the Ordovician. Nature Geoscience 5:86–89.
Leonova, T. 2009. Ammonoid evolution in marine ecosystems prior to the Permian-Triassic crisis. Paleontological Journal 43:858–865.
Levinton, J. S. 1982. Marine ecology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lewis, A. R., D. R. Marchant, A. C. Ashworth, L. Hedenäs, S. R Hemming, J. V. Johnson, M. J. Leng, M. L. Machlus, A. E. Newton, J. I. Raine, J. K. Willenbring, M. Williams, and P. A. Wolfe. 2008. Mid-Miocene cooling and the extinction of tundra in continental Antarctica. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105:10676–10680.
Little, E. L. 1980. The Audubon Society field guide to North American trees. New York: Knopf.
Long, J. A. 1993. Early-Middle Palaeozoic vertebrate extinction events. In Palaeozoic vertebrate biostratigraphy and biogeography, ed. J. A. Long, 54–63. London: Belhaven Press.
Lucas, S. G. 2004. A global hiatus in the Middle Permian tetrapod fossil record. Stratigraphy 1:47–64.
Lucas, S. G., and A. B. Heckert. 2001. Olson’s gap: A global hiatus in the record of Middle Permian tetrapods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21:75A.
Lutz, R. A., and D. C. Rhoads. 1977. Anaerobosis and theory of growth line formation. Science 198:1222–1227.
Marynowski, L., and P. Filipiak. 2007. Water column euxinia and wildfire evidence during the deposition of the Upper Famennian Hangenberg event horizon from the Holy Cross Mountains (central Poland). Geological Magazine 144:569–595.
Marynowski, L., P. Filipiak, and M. Zatoń. 2010. Geochemical and palynological study of the Upper Famennian Dasberg event horizon from the Holy Cross Mountains (central Poland). Geological Magazine 147:527–550.
McClung, W. S., C. A. Cuffey, K. A. Ericksson, and D. O. Terry Jr. 2016. An incised valley fill and lowland wedges in the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin: Implications for Famennian glacioeustacy. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 446: 125–143.
McClung, W. S., K. A. Eriksson, D. O. Terry Jr., and C. A. Cuffey. 2013. Sequence stratigraphic hierarchy of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin, USA: Evidence for transitional greenhouse to icehouse conditions. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 387:104–125.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 1988. The Late Devonian extinction event: Evidence for abrupt ecosystem collapse. Paleobiology 14:250–257.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 1996. The Late Devonian mass extinction. New York: Columbia University Press.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 2001. The ‘multiple impacts hypothesis’ for mass extinction: A comparison of the Late Devonian and the late Eocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 176:47–58.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 2011. Convergent evolution: Limited forms most beautiful. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 2013. When the invasion of land failed: The legacy of the Devonian extinctions. New York: Columbia University Press.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 2014a. The Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian) mass extinction: A proposed test of the glaciation hypothesis. Geological Quarterly 58:263–268.
McGhee, G. R., Jr. 2014b. The search for sedimentary evidence of glaciation during the Frasnian/Famennian (Late Devonian) biodiversity crisis. SEPM The Sedimentary Record 12(June):4–8.
McGhee, G. R., Jr., M. E. Clapham, P. M. Sheehan, D. J. Bottjer, and M. L. Droser. 2013. A new ecological-severity ranking of major Phanerozoic biodiversity crises. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 370:260–270.
McGhee, G. R., Jr., P. M. Sheehan, D. J. Bottjer, and M. L. Droser. 2004. Ecological ranking of Phanerozoic biodiversity crises: Ecological and taxonomic severities are decoupled. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211:289–297.
McGhee, G. R., Jr., P. M. Sheehan, D. J. Bottjer, and M. L. Droser. 2012. Ecological ranking of Phanerozoic biodiversity crises: The Serpukhovian (Early Carboniferous) crisis had a greater ecological impact than the end-Ordovician. Geology 40:147–150.
McKinney, M. L. 1990. Trends in body-size evolution. In Evolutionary trends, ed. K. J. McNamara, 75–118. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Meave, J., and M. Kellman. 1994. Maintenance of rain forest diversity in riparian forests of tropical savannas: Implications for species conservation during Pleistocene drought. Journal of Biogeography 21:121–135.
Melezhik, V. A. 2006. Multiple causes of Earth’s earliest global glaciation. Terra Nova 18:130–137.
Metcalfe, I., J. L. Crowley, R. S. Nicoll, and M. Schmitz. 2015. High-precision U-Pb CA-TIMS calibration of Middle Permian to Lower Triassic sequences, mass extinction and extreme climate-change in eastern Australian Gondwana. Gondwana Research 28:61–81.
Mii, H.-S., E. L. Grossman, T. E. Yancey, B. Chuvashov, and A. Egorov. 2001. Isotopic records of brachiopod shells from the Russian Platform—evidence for the onset of mid-Carboniferous glaciation. Chemical Geology 175:133–147.
Milne, L., and M. Milne. 1980. The Audubon Society field guide to North American insects and spiders. New York: Knopf.
Misof, B., L. Shanlin, K. Meusemann, R. S. Peters, A. Donath, C. Mayer, P. B. Frandsen, J. Ware, T. Flouri, R. G. Beutel, and 91 other authors. 2014. Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution. Science 346:763–767.
Montañez, I. P., and P. E. Isaacson. 2013. A ‘sedimentary record’ of opportunities. SEPM The Sedimentary Record 11(January):4–9.
Montañez, I. P., and C. J. Poulsen. 2013. The Late Paleozoic Ice Age: An evolving paradigm. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 41:629–656.
Moore, R. C., C. G. Lalicker, and A. G. Fischer. 1952. Invertebrate fossils. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Morzadec, P. 1992. Evolution des Asteropyginae (Trilobita) et variations eustatiques au Dévonien. Lethaia 25:85–96.
Moy-Thomas, J. A., and R. S. Miles. 1971. Palaeozoic fishes. 2d ed. London: Chapman and Hall.
Moysiuk, J., M. R. Smith, and J.-B. Caron. 2017. Hyoliths are Palaeozoic lophophorates. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature20804.
Mundil, R., K. R. Ludwig, I. Metcalfe, and P. R. Renne. 2004. Age and timing of the Permian mass extinction: U/Pb dating of closed-system zircons. Science 305:1760–1763.
Neale, G. 2010. How an Icelandic volcano helped spark the French Revolution. Guardian, 15 April 2010.
Nel, A., G. Fleck, R. Garrouste, G. Gand, J. Lapeyrie, S. M. Bybee, and J. Prokop. 2009. Revision of Permo-Carboniferous griffenflies (Insecta: Odonatoptera: Meganisoptera) based upon new species and redescription of selected poorly known taxa from Eurasia. Palaeontographica Abteilung A 289:89–121.
Nelsen, M. P., W. A. DiMichele, S. E. Peters, and C. K. Boyce. 2016. Delayed fungal evolution did not cause the Paleozoic peak in coal production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 113:2442–2447.
Newell, N. D. 1949. Phyletic size increase, an important trend illustrated by fossil invertebrates. Evolution 3:103–124.
Niklas, K. J. 1997. The evolutionary biology of plants. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nutman, A. P., V. C. Bennett, C. R. L. Friend, M. J. Van Kranendonk, and A. R. Chivas. 2016. Rapid emergence of life shown by discovery of 3,700-million-year-old microbial structures. Nature 537:535–538.
Oliver, W. A., Jr., and A. E. H. Pedder. 1994. Crises in the Devonian history of the rugose corals. Paleobiology 20:178–190.
Palmer, D., M. Brasier, D. Burnie, C. Cleal, P. Crane, B. A. Thomas, C. Buttler, J. W. C. Cope, R. M. Owens, J. Anderson, R. Benson, S. Brusatte, J. Clack, K. Bennis-Bryan, C. Duffin, D. Hone, Z. Johanson, A. Milner, D. Naish, K. Parsons, D. Prothero, and X. Xing. 2012. Prehistoric Life. New York: Dorling Kindersley.
Paris, F., C. Girard, C. Feist, and T. Winchester-Seeto. 1996. Chitinozoan bio-event in the Frasnian/Famennian boundary beds at La Serre (Montagne Noire, Southern France). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 121:131–145.
Payne, J. L., and M. E. Clapham. 2012. End-Permian mass extinction in the oceans: An ancient analog for the twenty-first century? Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 40:89–111.
Payne, J. L., A. V. Turchyn, A. Paytan, D. J. DePaola, D. J. Lehrmann, M. Yu, and J. Wei. 2010. Calcium isotope constraints on the end-Permian mass extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107:8543–8548.
Pfefferkorn, H. W. 2004. The complexity of mass extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101:12779–12780.
Pfefferkorn, H. W., R. A. Gastaldo, W. A. DiMichele, and T. L. Phillips. 2008. Pennsylvanian tropical floras from the United States as a record of changing climate. In Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space (Special Paper 441), ed. C. R. Fielding, T. D. Frank, and J. L. Isbell, 305–316. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.
Phillips, T. L., and W. A. DiMichele. 1992. Comparative ecology and life-history biology of arborescent lycopsids in Late Carboniferous swamps of North America. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 79:560–588.
Phillips, T. L., and R. A. Peppers. 1984. Changing patterns of Pennsylvanian coal-swamp vegetation and implications of climatic control on coal occurrence. International Journal of Coal Geology 3:205–255.
Polozov, A. G., H. H. Svensen, S. Planke, S. N. Grishina, K. E. Fristad, and D. A. Jerram. 2016. The basalt pipes of the Tunguska Basin (Siberia, Russia): High temperature processes and volatile degassing into the end-Permian atmosphere. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 441:51–64.
Powell, M. G. 2005. Climatic basis for sluggish macroevolution during the late Paleozoic ice age. Geology 33:381–384.
Powell, M. G. 2008. Timing and selectivity of the Late Mississippian mass extinction of brachiopod genera from the central Appalachian basin. Palaios 23:525–534.
Prokop, J., A. Nel, and I. Hoch. 2005. Discovery of the oldest known Pterygota in the Lower Carboniferous of the Upper Silesian Basin in the Czech Republic (Insecta: Archaeorthoptera). Geobios 38:383–387.
Prothero, D. R. 1994. The Eocene-Oligocene Transition: Paradise Lost. New York: Columbia University Press.
Prothero, D. R., L. C. Ivany, and E. A. Nesbitt. 2003. From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Marine Eocene-Oligocene Transition. New York: Columbia University Press.
Pu, J. P., S. A. Bowring, J. Ramezani, P. Myrow, T. D. Raub, E. Landing, A. Mills, E. Hodgin, and F. A. Macdonald. 2016. Dodging snowballs: Geochronology of the Gaskiers glaciation and the first appearance of the Ediacaran biota. Geology 44:955–958.
Pusz, A. E., R. C. Thunell, and K. G. Miller. 2011. Deep water temperature, carbonate ion, and ice volume changes across the Eocene-Oligocene climatic transition. Paleoceanography 26, PA2205, doi:10.1029/2010PA001950.
Qiao, L., and S.-Z. Shen. 2015. A global review of the Late Mississippian (Carboniferous) Gigantoproductus (Brachiopoda) faunas and their paleogeographical, paleoecological, and paleoclimatic implications. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 420:128–137.
Racki, G. 1998. Frasnian-Famennian biotic crisis: Undervalued tectonic control? Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 141:177–198.
Racki, G., and P. W. Wignall. 2005. Late Permian double-phased mass extinction and volcanism: An oceanographic perspective. In Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events, ed. D. J. Over, J. R. Morrow, and P. B. Wignall, 263–297. Amsterdam: Elsevier B. V.
Raup, D. M., and J. J. Sepkoski Jr. 1982. Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record. Science 215:1501–1503.
Raymo, M. E., and W. F. Ruddiman. 1992. Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate. Nature 359:117–122.
Raymond, A., and C. Metz. 1995. Laurussian land-plant diversity during the Silurian and Devonian: mass extinction, sampling bias, or both? Paleobiology 21:74–91.
Raymond, A., and C. Metz. 2004. Ice and its consequences: Glaciation in the Late Ordovician, Late Devonian, Pennsylvanian-Permian, and Cenozoic compared. Journal of Geology 112:655–670.
Reichow, M. K., M. S. Pringle, A. I. Al’Mukhamedov, M. B. Allen, V. L. Andreichev, M. M. Buslov, C. E. Davies, G. S. Fedoseev, J. G. Fitton, S. Inger, A. Ya. Medvedev, C. Mitchell, V. N. Puchkov, I. Yu. Safonova, R. A. Scott, and A. D. Saunders. 2009. The timing and extent of the eruption of the Siberian Traps large igneous province: Implications for the end-Permian environmental crisis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 277:9–20.
Retallack, G. J. 1999. Postapocalyptic greenhouse paleoclimate revealed by earliest Triassic paleosols in the Sydney Basin, Australia. Geological Society of America Bulletin 111:52–70.
Retallack, G. J., and A. H. Jahren. 2008. Methane release from igneous intrusion of coal during Late Permian extinction events. Journal of Geology 116:1–20.
Retallack, G. J., and E. S. Krull. 2006. Carbon isotope evidence for terminal-Permian methane outbursts and their role in extinctions of animals, plants, coral reefs, and peat swamps. In Wetlands through Time (Special Paper 399), ed. S. F. Greb and W. A. DiMichele, 249–268. Boulder, Colo: Geological Society of America.
Retallack, G. J., C. A. Metzger, T. Greaver, A. H. Jahren, R. M. H. Smith, and N. D. Sheldon. 2006. Middle-Late Permian mass extinction on land. Geological Society of America Bulletin 118:1398–1411.
Retallack, G. J., J. J. Veevers, and R. Morante. 1996. Global coal gap between Premian-Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants. Geological Society of America Bulletin 108:195–207.
Rey, K., R. Amiot, F. Fourel, T. Rigaudier, F. Abdala, M. O. Day, V. Fernandez, F. Fluteau, C. France-Lanord, B. S. Rubidge, R. M. Smith, P. A. Vigliette, B. Zipfel, and C. Lécuyer. 2016. Global climate perturbations during the Permo-Triassic mass extinctions recorded by continental tetrapods from South Africa. Gondwana Research 37:384–396.
Ridgwell, A. 2005. A Mid-Mesozoic Revolution in the regulation of ocean chemistry. Marine Geology 217:339–357.
Robinson, J. M. 1990. Lignin, land plants and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance. Geology 15:607–610.
Ross, C. A. 1972. Paleobiological analysis of fusulinacean (Foraminiferida) shell morphology. Journal of Paleontology 46:719–728.
Rößler, R., Z. Feng, and R. Noll. 2012. The largest calamite and its growth architecture—Arthropitys bistriata from the Early Permian petrified forest of Chemnitz. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 185:64–78.
Rubinstein, C. V., P. Gerriene, G. S. de la Puente, R. A. Astini, and P. Steemans. 2010. Early Middle Ordovician evidence for land plants in Argentina (eastern Gondwana). New Phytologist 188:365–369.
Ruse, M. 2013. The Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sage, R. F. 1999. Why C4 photosynthesis? In C4 Plant Biology. ed. R. F. Sage and R. K. Monson. San Diego, Cal.: Academic Press, pp. 3–16.
Sahney, S. and M. J. Benton. 2008. Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time. Proceedings of the Royal Society B275:759–765.
Sahney, S., M. J. Benton, and H. J. Falcon-Lang. 2010. Rainforest collapse triggered Carboniferous tetrapod diversification in Euramerica. Geology 38:1079–1082.
Sallan, L. C., and M. I. Coates. 2010. End-Devonian extinction and a bottleneck in the early evolution of modern jawed vertebrates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107:10131–10135.
Saltzman, M. R., L. A. González, and K. C. Lohman. 2000. Earliest Carboniferous cooling triggered by the Antler orogeny? Geology 28:347–350.
Sandberg, C. A., F. G. Poole, and J. G. Johnson. 1988. Upper Devonian of Western United States. In Devonian of the World. eds. N. J. McMillan, A. F. Embry, and D. J. Glass. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geology Memoir 14, volume I:184–220.
Saunders, A. D. 2005. Large igneous provinces: Origin and environmental consequences. Elements 1:259–263.
Saunders, W. B., and W. H. C. Ramsbottom. 1986. The mid-Carboniferous eustatic event. Geology 14:208–212.
Schmidt, A., B. Ostro, K. S. Carslaw, M. Wilson, T. Thordarson, G. W. Mann, and A. J. Simmons. 2011. Excess mortality in Europe following a future Laki-style Icelandic eruption. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108:15710–15715.
Schmidt, A., T. Thordarson, L. D. Oman, A. Robock, and S. Self. 2012. Climatic impact of the long-lasting 1783 Laki eruption: Inapplicability of mass-independent sulfur isotopic composition measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research 117, D23116, doi:10.1029/2012JD018414.
Schwarzacker, W. 1989. Milankovitch type cycles in the Lower Carboniferous of NW Ireland. Terra Nova 1:468–473.
Scott, A. C. and I. J. Glasspool. 2006. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103:10861–10865.
Self, S., T. Thordarson, and M. Widdowson. 2005. Gas fluxes from flood basalt eruptions. Elements 1:283–287.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. 1981. A factor analytic description of the Phanerozoic marine fossil record. Paleobiology 7:36–53.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. 1984. A kinematic model of Phanerozoic taxonomic diversity: III. Post-Paleozoic families and mass extinctions. Paleobiology 10:246–267.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. 1990. Evolutionary faunas. In Palaeobiology: A Synthesis. ed. D. E. G. Briggs and P. R. Crowther. Oxford, England: Blackwell Scientific, pp. 37–41.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. 1996. Patterns of Phanerozoic extinction: A perspective from global data bases. In Global Events and Event Stratigraphy. ed. O. H. Walliser. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, pp. 35–51.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr. 1998. Rates of speciation in the fossil record. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B353:315–326.
Sepkoski, J. J., Jr., and A. I. Miller. 1985. Evolutionary faunas and the distribution of Paleozoic marine communities in space and time. In Phanerozoic Diversity Patterns. ed. J. W. Valentine. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 153–190.
Servais, T., A. W. Owen, D. A. T. Harper, B. Kröger, and A. Munnecke. 2010. The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE): The palaeoecological dimension. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 294:99–119.
Shaw, S. R. 2014. Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects. Chicago, Illinois: niversity of Chicago Press.
Shear, W. A., and J. Kukalová-Peck. 1990. The ecology of Paleozoic terrestrial arthropods: The fossil evidence. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68:1807–1834.
Sheehan, P. M. 1996. A new look at Ecologic Evolutionary Units (EEUs). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 127:21–32.
Sheehan, P. M. 2001. The Late Ordovician mass extinction. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29:331–364.
Shellnutt, J. G. 2013. The Emeishan large igneous province: A synthesis. Geoscience Frontiers (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2013.07.003.
Shen, S.-Z., J. L. Crowley, Y. Wang, S. A. Bowring, and D. H. Erwin. 2011. Calibrating the end-Permian mass extinction. Science 334:1367–1372.
Shevenell, A. E., J. P. Kennett, and D. W. Lea. 2004. Middle Miocene Southern Ocean cooling and Antarctic cryosphere expansion. Science 305:1766–1770.
Smith, L. B. and J. F. Read. 2000. Rapid onset of late Paleozoic glaciation on Gondwana: Evidence from Upper Mississippian strata of the Midcontinent, United States. Geology 28:279–282.
Smithson, T. R., S. P. Wood, J. E. A. Marshall, and J. A. Clack. 2012. Earliest Carboniferous tetrapod and arthropod faunas from Scotland populate Romer’s Gap. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109:4532–4537.
Sobolev, S. V., A. V. Sobolev, D. V. Kuzmin, N. A. Krivolutskaya, A. G. Petrunin, N. T. Arndt, V. A. Radko, and Y. R. Vasiliev. 2011. Linking mantle plumes, large igneous provinces and environmental catastrophes. Nature 477:312–316.
Stanley, S. M. 2007. An analysis of the history of marine animal diversity. Paleobiology Memoirs 4:1–55.
Stanley, S. M., and M. G. Powell. 2003. Depressed rates of origination and extinction during the late Paleozoic ice age: A new state for the global marine ecosystem. Geology 31:877–880.
Stearn, C. W. 1987. Effect of the Frasnian-Famennian extinction event on the stromatoporoids. Geology 15:677–679.
Stein, W. E., C. M. Berry, L. VanA. Hernick, and F. Mannolini. 2012. Surprisingly complex community discovered in the mid-Devonian fossil forest at Gilboa. Nature 483:78–81.
Stein, W. E., F. Mannolini, L. V. Hernick, E. Landing, and C. M. Berry. 2007. Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the Earth’s earliest forest stumps at Gilboa. Nature 446:904–907.
Stewart, W. N. 1983. Paleobotany and the evolution of plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Steyer, S. 2012. Earth Before the Dinosaurs. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Stone, R. 2004. Iceland’s doomsday scenario? Science 306:1278–1281.
Strand, K., S. Passchier, and J. Näsi. 2003. Implications of quartz grain microtextures for onset Eocene/Oligocene glaciation in Prydz Bay, ODP Site 1166, Antarctica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 198:101–111.
Streel, M., M. V. Caputo, S. Loboziak, and J. H. G. Melo. 2000. Late Frasnian-Famennian climates based on palynomorph analyses and the question of the Late Devonian glaciations. Earth-Science Reviews 52:121–173.
Streel, M., M. Vanguestaine, A. Pardo-Trujillo, and E. Thomalla. 2000. The Frasnian-Famennian boundary sections at Hony and Sinsin (Ardenne, Belgium): New interpretation based on quantitative analysis of palynomorphs, sequence stratigraphy and climatic interpretations. Geologica Belgica 3:271–283.
Sun, Y., M. M. Joachimski, P. B. Wignall, C. Yan, Y. Chen, H. Jiang, L. Wang, and X. Lai. 2012. Lethally hot temperatures during the Early Triassic greenhouse. Science 338:366–370.
Svensen, H., S. Planke, A. G. Polozov, N. Schmidbauer, F. Corfu, Y. Y. Podladchikov, and B. Jamtveit. 2009. Siberian gas venting and the end-Permian environmental crisis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 277:490–500.
Tasch, P. 1973. Paleobiology of the Invertebrates. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Taylor, T. N., and E. L. Taylor. 1993. The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Thordarson, T., and G. Larsen. 2007. Volcanism in Iceland in historical time: Volcano types, eruption styles and eruptive history. Journal of Geodynamics 43:118–152.
Thordarson, T., and S. Self. 2003. Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784 Laki eruption: A review and reassessment. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, D14011, doi:10.1029/2001JD002042.
Thordarson, T., S. Self, N. Óskarsson, and T. Hulsebosch. 1996. Sulfur, chlorine, and flourine degassing and atmospheric loading by the 1783–1784 AD Laki (Skaftár Fires) eruption in Iceland. Bulletin of Volcanology 58:205–225.
Twitchett, R. J. 2007. The Lilliput effect in the aftermath of the end-Permian extinction event. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252:132–144.
Ukstins-Peate, I., and S. E. Bryan. 2008. Re-evaluating plume-induced uplift in the Emeishan large igneous province. Nature Geoscience 1:625–629.
Ustritsky, V. I. 1973. Permian climate. In The Permian and Triassic Systems and Their Mutual Boundary (Memoir 2), ed. A. Logan and L. V. Hill, 733–744. Calgary: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists.
Vachard, D., L. Pille, and J. Gaillot. 2010. Palaeozoic foraminifera: Systematics, Palaeoecology, and responses to global changes. Revue de Micropaleontologie 53:209–254.
Van Valen, L. M. 1984. A resetting of Phanerozoic community evolution. Nature 307:50–52.
Visscher, H., C. V. Looy, M. E. Collinson, H. Brinkhuis, J. H. A. van Konijnenburg-van Cittert, W. M. Kürschner, and M. A. Sephton. 2004. Environmental mutagenesis during the end-Permian ecological crisis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101:12952–12956.
Voigt, S., and M. Ganzelewski. 2010. Toward the origin of amniotes: Diadectomorph and synapsid footprints from the early Late Carboniferous of Germany. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 55:57–72.
Wade, B. S., A. J. P. Houben, W. Qualijtaal, S. Schouter, Y. Rosenthal, K. G. Miller, M. E. Katz, J. D. Wright, and H. Brinkhuis. 2012. Multiproxy record of abrupt sea-surface cooling across the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the Gulf of Mexico. Geology 40:159–162.
Wade, N. 2006. Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors. New York: Penguin Press.
Walker, J. D., and J. W. Geissman. 2009. Geologic Time Scale. Geological Society of America, doi: 10.1130/2009.CTS004R2C.
Wang, Z., and A. Chen. 2001. Traces of arborescent lycopsids and dieback of the forest vegetation in relation to the terminal Permian mass extinction in North China. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 117:217–243.
Wang, X.-D., X.-J. Wang, F. Zhang, and H. Zhang. 2006. Diversity patterns of Carboniferous and Permian rugose corals in South China. Geological Journal 41:329–343.
Wang, Y., P. M. Sadler, S.-Z. Shen, D. H. Erwin, Y.-C. Zhang, X.-D. Wang, W. Wang, J. L. Crowley, and C. M. Henderson. 2014. Quantifying the process and abruptness of the end-Permian mass extinction. Paleobiology 40:113–129
Ward, P. D. 2006. Out of Thin Air: Dinosaurs, Birds, and Earth’s Ancient Atmosphere. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry.
Ward, P. D., D. R. Montgomery, and R. Smith. 2000. Altered river morphology in South Africa related to the Permian–Triassic extinction. Science 289:226–229.
Webby, B. D., F. Paris, M. L. Droser, and I. G. Percival. 2004. The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. New York: Columbia University Press.
Weems, R. E. 1992. The ‘terminal Triassic catastrophic event’ in perspective: A review of Carboniferous through Early Jurassic vertebrate extinction patterns. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 94:1–29.
Wei, F., Y. Gong, and H. Yang. 2012. Biogeography, ecology and extinction of Silurian and Devonian tentaculitoids. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 358–360:40–50.
Weidlich, O., 2002. Permian reefs re-examined: Extrinsic control mechanisms of gradual and abrupt changes during 40 my of reef evolution. Geobios 35(Supplement 1):287–294.
Wellman, C. H. 2010. The invasion of the land by plants: When and where? New Phytologist 188:306–309.
Wellman, C. H., P. L. Osterloff, and U. Mohiuddin. 2003. Fragments of the earliest land plants. Nature 425:282–285.
Westerhold, T., T. Bickert, and U. Röhl. 2005. Middle to late Miocene oxygen isotope stratigraphy of ODP site 1085 (SE Atlantic): New constraints on Miocene climate variability and sea-level fluctuations. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 217:205–222.
Wignall, P. B. 2001. Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions. Earth-Science Reviews 53:1–33.
Wignall, P., Y. Sun, D. Bond, G. Izon, R. Newton, S. Védrine, M. Widdowson, J. Ali, X. Lai, H. Jiang, H. Cope, and S. Bottrell. 2009. Volcanism, mass extinction, and carbon isotope fluctuations in the Middle Permian of China. Science 324:1179–1182.
Wignall, P. B., and R. J. Twitchett. 2002. Extent, duration, and nature of the Permian–Triassic superanoxic event. Geological Society of America Special Paper 356:395–413.
Wilson, D. S., and B. P. Luyendyk. 2009. West Antarctic paleotopography estimated at the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition. Geophysical Research Letters 36, L16302, doi:10.1029/2009GL039297.
Wooton, R. J., J. Kukalová-Peck, D. J. S. Newman, and J. Muzón. 1998. Smart engineering in the Mid-Carboniferous: How well could Palaeozoic dragonflies fly? Science 282:749–751.
Wright, V. P., and S. D. Vanstone. 2001. Onset of late Palaeozoic glacio-eustacy and the evolving climates of low latitude areas: A synthesis of current understanding. Journal of the Geological Society, London 158:579–582.
Young, G. C. 2010. Placoderms (armored fish): Dominant vertebrates of the Devonian Period. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 38:523–550.
Zachos, J. C., J. R. Breza, and S. W. Wise. 1992. Early Oligocene ice-sheet expansion on Antarctica: Stable isotope and sedimentological evidence from Kerguelen Plateau, southern Indian Ocean. Geology 20:569–573.
Zachos, J. C., M. Pagani, L. Sloan, E. Thomas, and K. Billups. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations across the Eocene-Oligocene transition in central North America. Nature 445:639–642.
Zhou, M.-F., J. Malpas, X.-Y. Song, P. T. Robinson, M. Sun, A. K. Kennedy, C. M. Lesher, and R. R. Keays. 2002. A temporal link between the Emeishan large igneous province (SW China) and the end-Guadalupian mass extinction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 196:113–122.
Ziegler, W., and H. R. Lane. 1987. Cycles in conodont evolution from Devonian to mid-Carboniferous. In Palaeobiology of Conodonts, ed. R. J. Aldridge, 147–163. Chichester: Horwood Press.