TAKEDA NOBUSHIGE, OPINIONS IN NINETY-NINE ARTICLES
One day, if you have studied really well, practised the martial arts assiduously, shown leadership qualities on your estates and obeyed your betters in accordance with the tenets of filial piety, you will be given the military command of others. Some of them will be samurai like you, so it is vital that you learn how to command an army, and how to earn respect both on the battlefield and off it.
Raising an Army in Three Easy Steps
In the olden days, your first duty as commander would have been to raise an army. This is less important nowadays because we are all basking in the martial virtue of His Most Excellent Highness, and our armies of professional samurai are effectively in a state of permanent readiness. There may be occasions, however, when further troops have to be assembled from among one’s followers. The following section describes the traditional method by which this is done.
Step One
The most important point is that you should know long before you begin raising an army exactly what is required from you and from your men in terms of numbers and equipment. As to the size of your contingent, this will be on a sliding scale dependent upon your personal wealth as measured by the yield of your rice fields in koku (which, you will recall from an earlier section is the amount of rice considered necessary to feed one man for one year). Today, of course, you are more likely to receive a monetary stipend of equivalent value from the lord, who receives the tax rice from the farmers and stores it, but the principle is the same. By and large you will be required to supply one mounted and twenty unmounted samurai and ashigaru (foot soldiers) for every hundred koku of your assessed income. If you are a samurai of modest means, then the horseman will probably be you. Your followers will consist of half a dozen fully armoured samurai with swords and spears, and three or four ashigaru in personal attendance upon you as bodyguards (a groom, a spear-carrier and the like); the balance of your manpower requirements will most likely be made up of ashigaru armed with arquebuses, spears or bows. When you present your contingent to your lord it will probably be the case that these latter ashigaru will be taken and allocated to the large weapon squads under the command of another. Depending on your rank you may have command of men such as these. Otherwise you may fight in a samurai unit, or even have higher responsibilities of command and organization.
Step Two
If you have taken the sensible precaution of ascertaining who your troops are, you will be better prepared when the call to arms arrives. The muster may have originated in an outpost located on the borders of the province, with a series of fire beacons communicating to your castle-town that there is an emergency. Perhaps your province is about to be raided by a hostile neighbour? Or could it be that His Most Excellent Highness requires urgent reinforcements for a campaign? If your province lies on the island of Kyushu the warning could even herald an invasion from China. Whatever the nature of the alarm, you must always be ready to respond.
Step Three
On the battlefield, a unit of samurai are identified by the sashimono (back flags) that they wear in common. High-ranking samurai are allowed to wear individual sashimono bearing their own mon (badges) or even their names.
In the olden days, getting your army together could be an exciting and nerve-wracking process. Many of the men would have been part-time farmer-samurai, and it was said of the Chosokabe family of Shikoku Island that they were so ready to fight, that they tended to their rice crop with their spears stuck into the field boundaries and a spare pair of sandals tied to their weapon. The question of muster and march has recently become much more straightforward, because most of the samurai under your command will already be stationed in the castle. Many foot soldiers will also be there, so only a minority will need to be summoned from the fields. Send out runners to fetch them and order someone to beat the drum in the castle tower. Word will soon get around. When everyone is assembled, fully kitted out and inspected, you and your men are ready to march off in the service of your lord.
The Command of Armies – Who Does What?
In the bygone days it was always the lord himself who led his army into battle. During the time of the great civil wars, when battles sometimes occurred simultaneously, the lord usually delegated command of his army to his most loyal general, but the ultimate burden of responsibility always fell upon one man. One day it could be you – but don’t worry, because you will be assisted and indeed protected by the tightly knit group who stand beside the commander-in-chief. They are called the hatamoto (under the standard).
Control of troops on a battlefield is exercised either by the daimyo (lord) himself or by the trusted and experienced samurai general he has appointed to be his commander-in-chief.
The majority of a lord’s hatamoto act as a personal escort, forming his elite Horse Guards and Foot Guards. Men from these units are always superbly attired in gorgeous armour, splendid flags and tend to wear a horo (a large, balloon-like cloak that you may have seen being worn by the highest-ranking samurai). The horo denotes a superlative warrior and is often also worn by the Courier Guards, who take messages from the commander to different units of the army. These brave men have to be easily recognizable, so a brilliantly and distinctively coloured horo is a splendid uniform for them to wear as they gallop to and fro across the battlefield.
One day you may be invited to join the select group of the hatamoto. If it happens that you are closely related to the lord then you will surely already be among them, and if you are the son of one of his most loyal retainers and have acted as your lord’s page then you will also probably ‘stand under the flag’ as a matter of course. Otherwise it is only through the performance of great deeds on the battlefield, coupled with rigorous adherence to the doctrines of filial piety, that you will enter the ranks of the greatest fighters to have embraced the Way of the Warrior.
Please, do not make the assumption that being a hatamoto samurai is solely about fighting. Much organization goes on behind the scenes, and this is the responsibility of certain illustrious warriors within the hatamoto who have taken on comparatively mundane – but no less honourable – tasks. These men are the bugyo, to whom your lord has delegated responsibilities such as being in charge of the supply of armour and weapons; overseeing river transport; the recording of honourable deeds; and discipline within the army, as well as more obviously military roles, for example tactical planning. Certain skilled and experienced bugyo will be your lord’s strategic advisers. The famous Yamamoto Kansuke, who was killed in 1561 at the fourth battle of Kawanakajima, was Takeda Shingen’s leading strategist. Others have a gift for organizing things and keeping records, and all this is very honourable.
Apart from the bugyo, the other samurai who have clearly defined leadership roles are the taisho – generals who will command different units on the battlefield. If, as I envisage, you are one day serving in a unit of mounted samurai, then a taisho will be your commander. It is he who will watch for the lowering of the lord’s war fan, and then order you forwards in an exciting charge with spears readied. Your taisho will be a very brave man, for it is he who will lead that surge into battle and disappear within the smoke to take many heads.
Some junior samurai will act as the personal attendants to his lordship. They groom his horse, carry his weapons and see to his personal needs. The bravest of these men are the helmet bearer and standard bearers. These simple fellows will carry the banners and other devices that proclaim to an enemy that the lord is present, thus acting almost as an invitation to the enemy to open fire. Most of these men are eventually promoted to high samurai rank, if they live long enough.
The Successful Deployment of Vulgar Persons
Not every taisho will command other samurai, because the majority of fighting men in your army will be ashigaru, all of whom (apart from the personal attendants previously noted) will be organized into weapon squads. Years ago there were many samurai who turned their noses up at the idea of having command over lower-class fighting men. They thought it was beneath their dignity. Well, they had a point, and I am suffciently old-fashioned to appreciate this opinion – but we must all move with the times. I would be the first to acknowledge that the era of peace we now enjoy (thanks to the martial virtues of Their Most Illustrious and Excellent Highnesses, the shogun and his father) could not have been achieved without the command exercised by the noble samurai who swallowed their pride and accepted humbly their duty to direct vulgar persons. Among the ranks of the hatamoto, therefore, are some very noble samurai who have the title ‘General of Ashigaru’. They are certainly not ashamed of it, and neither should you be.
Your average ashigaru in the weapon squads is a rough chap, but he will fight well under the right leader. Indeed, this is the key to success: leadership and strict discipline are the factors that have transformed the ashigaru units from a casually recruited rabble (motivated largely by loot and readily absconding) into what one must now recognize as being the lower ranks of the samurai class. To a very great extent this is due to the foresight of Oda Nobunaga, Lord of Owari, the ally and friend of His Most Illustrious Highness until his tragic death in 1582.
I have had command of ashigaru, and have found them to be jolly good fellows, not to be despised. Why, even Lord Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who re-unified Japan, started out as an ashigaru before becoming one of the most brilliant generals Japan has ever produced. He was skilled in administration, a fine master of tea ceremonies and a superlative leader of men – what’s more, his generals would have followed him into hell itself.
How to Fire an Arquebus
The ashigaru are organized according to the weapon groups of arquebuses, bows and spears. The first two groups may be taken together, as they are both missile weapons. Ashigaru archers are likely to be as skilled as samurai archers, if not more so, because the practice of archery has declined somewhat among the better classes over the years. The ashigaru bowmen, however, operate their weapons from foot, not on horseback, and will most frequently be required to loose arrows in volleys, instead of selecting an honourable target. Alas, such is the impersonal state of war today! Some ashigaru may be selected as sharpshooters, and go on to practise their archery in a manner that is more distinguished.
Unlike the archers, whose expertise requires skill and constant practice, the men with arquebuses need only drill and discipline, and as the firearms squads will be the largest of the three groups it is vital you know how one of these fiendish devices works. I am not, of course, suggesting that you will be required to fire an arquebus on the battlefield – that would be well below your exalted status – but there may well be instances when you are placed in command of vulgar persons, who will look to you for example, inspiration and leadership in the confusion of battle. It is therefore vitally important that you are aware of the steps that must be drilled into the foot soldiers, so they know exactly what they are doing in the heat of conflict.
The introduction of firearms from Europe in 1543 transformed Japanese warfare. This weapon is a matchlock musket, which are best fired in volleys. Strict discipline is needed to ensure this works effectively.
The arquebus (a weapon introduced by the Portuguese) is a complex device, made dangerous for the operator because of the lighted match that is ever present, ready to ignite the charge. The first rule is that the match must always be kept away from the pan until the command has been given to fire.
Step One
Begin by lining up your ashigaru and commanding them to kneel. At this stage the match may be ignited using tinder and allowed to smoulder. The best way of keeping it well clear of the arquebus, but still close enough to be reached, is to loop it through the hole conveniently located in the weapon’s stock.
Step Two
The powder flask is now taken up, and a small quantity of gunpowder is tipped into the muzzle. The ramrod is applied and the charge driven home. The bullet may now be introduced. It too is carefully rammed down the barrel.
Step Three
The pan cover may now be slid to one side, and more powder inserted into the holder. Close the cover. This is MOST important, because now the lighted and smouldering end of the match will be inserted into the serpentine (cock) that has been pulled back.
Step Four
Having inserted the match and cocked the serpentine, the end of the match is blown upon to bring it most fully to life. The gun is then lifted to the horizontal position so that aiming may be carried out. Only now is the pan cover reopened.
Step Five
The order ‘Fire’ will be given, at which the trigger is pulled, the powder ignited and the bullet sent forcefully on its way. If you are using an ozutsu (the very heavy calibre version of the arquebus) the recoil will be so great that an inexperienced gunner will probably fall flat on his back, to the amusement of all.
This picture shows the larger version of the arquebus, known as the ozutsu (hand cannon). The recoil from one of these weapons is tremendous. They are customarily fired at quite high elevations to reach the rear ranks of an enemy army.
The Spearmen – Every General’s Nightmare
Ask any general which weapon group gives him the most headaches and he will reply ‘The spearmen’. This is not because they are exceptionally wilful or cowardly, but because (unlike the missile squads, which discharge their weapons and then retire) the spearmen must take a stand and unflinchingly endure all the bullets and arrows that the enemy may fire at them. In battle the spearmen may be required to form an impenetrable hedge; or execute a slow but steady advance while keeping order in their ranks. When you remember that some of these spears can be as long as the combined height of four men, you will appreciate how difficult it is to carry out, let along orchestrate, such manoeuvres. In Europe, I believe, they have similar soldiers called ‘pikemen’ – and also very similar problems.
The spearmen squads in asamurai army are a vital tool, but very difficult to control. Drill is essential if these unwieldy blocks of men are to be made to move in unison.
The greatest challenge concerning the spearmen is the difficulty involved in getting them to move in unison. If you are not careful then gaps will appear in their ranks, and a vigilant enemy may take advantage of the disorder to cause utter havoc with a cavalry charge. One final point: when your spearmen are on the march, do make sure that they all slip scabbards over their spear blades, otherwise severe accidents might result.
Using Warriors from Outside – Quantity or Quality?
In this section I pose the perfectly serious question: can you have too many fighting men? A large army may impress and intimidate your enemy, but of what does it consist? Is your army made up of samurai and ashigaru who display loyalty in accordance with the tenets of filial piety, or have they been casually recruited like the ashigaru of a century ago, simply to make up the numbers?
A Bearers, Porters and Coolies in General
Amazing as it may seem, up to six out of every ten men in your army, marching off to war, may not actually be fighting troops. A modern army requires a great deal of equipment, so recruiting people to carry it is unavoidable. If a relationship of trust is developed over a period of time then these men may be given a simple uniform jacket and a basic helmet to wear, though very often it is a case of grabbing whoever is available when the call to arms arrives. There may be discipline problems with them, but a good thrashing always works wonders.
B Recruiting Ronin – Some Useful Advice
It is often tempting to increase the size of your army by recruiting ronin (men of the waves). These are samurai who have lost their masters, and therefore have no one to fight for. There is no reason why they should not be integrated into your army and provide loyal service, but do take care. Some may just be rascals who have assumed the identities of dead samurai; what’s more their ranks can conceal criminals or absconders hiding past misdemeanours. These vagabonds can appear very plausible, because all ronin are desperate for employment in an established army as a lord’s samurai. Men of the waves can make very good fighters, but be sure to run thorough background checks before taking them on.
C Ninja: A Value-for-Money Guide
At this stage I feel compelled to deal with the sordid subject of hiring ninja. Ninja are assassins, spies and subversives trained in ninjutsu – the art of stealth and invisibility. Their trade is underhand; their cover is darkness and disguise. A ninja’s loyalty is not to a lord, but to the money that he receives for killing noble samurai like you; warriors of the sort they would never dare to meet face to face in a proper fight. Their weapon is the knife in the dark, the slow-acting poison, the deadly magic curse or the sudden strangulation on a castle wall. This is so different from the way we operate. For example, is there a samurai anywhere in Japan who does not desire above all things to be the first into a battle? Yet how dismayed would you be to discover that a ninja had already entered the enemy position, assassinated their commander and caused the army to surrender before you could even draw your own noble sword. How mortifying! How vulgar! So let us have nothing to do with ninja. If we are to achieve victory, let it be nobly won – while taking precautions so that you do not yourself become a victim of their despicable craft. Remember always that the way of the ninja is not the same as the Way of the Warrior. Take heed!
The secret assassins known as ninja are an ever-present danger, but if a lord takes sensible precautions he has very little to fear from them.
D Warrior Monks – Who Exactly Are They?
Every now and then you will cut off an enemy samurai’s head, from which all the hair has been shaved. Your companions will be likely to say, ‘That’s a warrior monk,’ but what does this expression actually mean? The simplest explanation is that the samurai you have killed is indeed a monk, or more likely a priest, but has carried on being a samurai at the same time. In other words, he has been ordained as a member of the Buddhist clergy, but has neither entered a monastery nor given up fighting to run a temple. Take for example my personal situation: I am a priest of the Pure Land sect, and so have a shaven head, though I wouldn’t go so far as to call myself a warrior monk.
This picture shows the original sohei (warrior monks). These men were recruited to defend the temples of Nara and Mount Hiei during the 10th century. Many were armed with naginata.
Many centuries ago there were entire armies of real warrior monks that were fielded by the great Temples of Mount Hiei (near Kyoto) and Nara. Until only a few years ago the Negorodera Temple in Kii province maintained its own army before being crushed by Lord Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1585. ‘But what of the Ikko-ikki?’ I hear you ask, ‘Their armies consist of fanatical Buddhists, so are they warrior monks?’ Certainly not! The Ikko-ikki are a peasant rabble of religious extremists, who have dared to question the all-encompassing wisdom and martial virtue of the samurai class in general, and certain noble lords in particular. They are even worse than Christians, being motivated by a very misguided attachment to the True Pure Land sect (a heretical offshoot of my own Pure Land sect). A few decades ago they presumed to rebel against His Most Illustrious Highness in Mikawa province and were utterly chastised. Other armies of these sordid and despicable characters then defied Lord Oda Nobunaga, who crushed them utterly in 1580. If peasant revolts (religious or otherwise) occur in your domain then you must do likewise.