KATO KIYOMASA, PRECEPTS
The great day has come – it is your first battle. This is the experience all your study, practice and training have been preparing you for. On the battlefield you will either honour or dishonour your ancestors. Here you will walk away proudly clutching the severed head of a noble enemy – or have your own corpse carried off, having left your noble head behind as a prized trophy. Here will be horrors unmentionable, which Buddhist scholars have likened to the Realm of the Beasts (the level of existence only one layer above Hell itself in the great hierarchy of being through which we pass). Yet here too is glory. Here your destiny will be realized.
Departing for War
Long before the enemy are sighted you will have carried out a great deal of preparation associated with the process of going off to war. This stage must never be neglected, for on it victory will often depend. We have already covered your training, your leadership experience and even your religious beliefs, so we must now turn to the arrangements made immediately prior to departure to avoid bad luck, because it is absolutely vital to ensure that the gods and Buddhas are on your side.
We will assume that before the actual conflict you will have honoured your ancestors, revered the gods of the locality and been well disposed towards your family’s Buddhist temple. But you will still need all the help you can get, because the battlefield is the arena where the gods interact with men like nowhere else. Consider the first shogun, Minamoto Yoritomo. He was a fine samurai indeed, but he was also a very pious man and the gods smiled on him in consequence. Not once did he fail to wear religious amulets about his person, and not once did he fail to have sutras (scriptures) chanted by pious monks. Within his closest entourage were priests whose skills allowed them to divine lucky and unlucky days on which to go to war. On the day identified by the principles of yin and yang as the best for going into battle, Minamoto Yoritomo would enact with minute precision all the necessary rituals that would ensure the gods were fighting for him, and not for his enemies the Taira. The latter had disgraced the gods and Buddhas by their overweening pride and therefore deserved chastisement. Yoritomo’s pious conduct is an example to us all.
The battlefield is one area where the gods interact with men, so it is vital a samurai honours the gods and prays to them for a victory.
Before any samurai leaves for battle he will wish to eat a farewell meal, a repast that could well prove to be the last he will eat before entering the White Jade Pavilion as a Guest. He will be served dried chestnuts, seaweed and abalone, and will drink a farewell cup of sake. I remember many a similar farewell draught being shared by my old comrades before they went into battle at Imafuku during the winter campaign at Osaka, only a few months ago.
Reliable and efficient food supplies are essential if an army is to be kept in fighting trim. Some provisions will be carried; others may have to be foraged for, or even looted.
When all is complete, the departing general will receive a shout from his men and will mount his horse, ready to ride in splendour out of his castle gates with the serried ranks of his samurai behind him. Great banners will be unfurled, the huge battle standards will be lifted high and the host will depart – though it may be at this crucial moment that the gods appear to show their displeasure. This very serious matter can cause a drop in morale; however, there are ways to overcome the problem, and indeed methods of avoiding it in the first place that go far beyond the veneration of the gods and Buddhas. You begin by divining precisely how lucky the day is, while any bad luck can be avoided by taking such simple precautions as avoiding sexual intercourse the night before, wearing the correct clothes according to the season and shunning any impurity such as menstrual blood or pregnant women. Divination according to the yin and the yang of the particular day must be rigorously applied to the strategic process. To give two simple examples: a samurai born in the Year of the Tiger, when that coincides with the Junior Brother of the Fire, should avoid going to war on Water-Positive Dragon days; while a samurai born on a Fire-Positive Dog day will prosper if he goes to war during any year that is Elder Brother of the Earth (unless it is also a Year of the Rat, in which case he will succeed only if a battle is fought during the Month of Nature’s Awakening). It is as straightforward as that.
Indications of divine offence may be shown at the moment of departure by the gods making the lord fall off his horse, drop his bow or some similarly regrettable mishap. Fortunately, at the hands of skilled priests, a divination may be quickly undertaken, revealing that what may appear to ignorant persons as a bad omen is in fact a good omen. So if, for example, the lord’s horse bolts and throws him to the ground, it could be interpreted as the will of the gods that the lord should ride into battle very quickly to chastise his enemies. Once this wise interpretation is explained to the army they will fully understand the true nature of the omen.
On the March
The army will now have a long journey ahead of it. Preceding the main body of men will be the scouts; often these will be the elite Courier Guards in their fine horo cloaks. They will continually leave the army and then return to it, keeping the commander up to date about the territory through which they are marching. The main force will move in manageable units, and the most splendid unit of all will be composed of the lord himself, attended by his Horse Guards, his Foot Guards and the rest of his hatamoto with their own personal attendants. Finely dressed samurai will ride or march along, followed by forbidding-looking squads of gunners and spearmen. It is indeed a magnificent sight, but bringing up the rear of this illustrious host will be the necessary baggage train of packhorses, bearers and even ox-drawn carts. Now I get really annoyed when someone tells me that to be put in charge of the baggage train, or to be given any post concerning mundane matters such as food is demeaning, boring or both. This is not so.
Food supplies have to be organized in two ways: the first concerns the stores that you will take with you; the second concerns what can be obtained along the way. For the former you will have a draft unit consisting of horses and labourers. A ten-day supply of food and fodder is not an unreasonable amount to take, and labourers can carry quite heavy weights if you threaten to flog them. Regarding food found along the way, you will have had to organize a system of foraging and a means of cash payment, both of which are based on good intelligence about what lies on the route you plan to take. Looting is acceptable within only enemy territory, and even then it should be carried out with extreme care, because there is more than a slight possibility that the farmers on your enemy’s land, squeezed by his outrageous rates of tax and downtrodden by his cruelty, will respond to your example of generosity and goodwill by joining your side instead. To alienate them by looting their crops would be a grave error of judgment.
Should looting from the enemy prove necessary then make sure you pillage properly. There is nothing more annoying than samurai who don’t know how to loot effectively, and end up being fooled by enemy farmers who have hidden their supplies in devious ways (such as burying rice bales underground). If you suspect this has happened then seize a peasant, hang him up by his ankles and beat him. In extreme cases, your enemy may have ordered a scorched-earth policy, and there really is nothing to be had. It is therefore wise to keep some provisions in hand. Remember also that water supplies may have been poisoned or simply contaminated with faeces etc. This is an unspeakable crime but it can happen.
I hope this has convinced you that being in charge of the commissariat is an honourable position. Marching at the rear of the column will still give you the chance to earn glory and collect heads. Take, for example, what happened to Uesugi Kenshin in 1561 when his baggage train got cut off from the rest of the army and was then attacked. The general in charge of the stores fought a brave battle, earning himself much honour.
Here we see ashigaru (foot soldiers) carrying bales of rice. Normally this will be done by bearers drafted into an army: a large proportion of an army’s manpower consists of people who are there just to carry things.
The Deployment of Samurai on a Battlefield
The enemy are now not very far away, and at this stage everything changes. It is no easy task to convert a marching column of men into battlefield dispositions, but we are indeed fortunate to have had bequeathed to us a number of recommended battle formations, originating in the teachings of that great Chinese emperor, Taizong of Tang. Because of these set moves it is possible to drill an army to manoeuvre smoothly into position. This can, indeed must, be practised in the courtyard of a castle time and time again. When the movements are firmly embedded in the minds of his soldiers, a commander can order ‘Take up the position of the Lying Dragon!’ or ‘Change to the Flying Geese Formation!’ and it will all happen fluently.
One essential feature of all these formations is the location adopted by the commander-in-chief. He will take up a position within his glorious host at the place where he has the best view of the action. The maku (field curtains) will be erected to the side and behind him, his hatamoto will surround him and then orders will go out telling the generals to deploy their samurai or weapon squads in accordance with his wishes.
Let battle commence!
The commander-in-chief sits on a camp-stool in a position where he has a good view of the action. This general is holding a tasselled signalling fan, called a saihai.
Avoid Those Irksome Communications Problems by Good Signalling
The chain of command, in which you will play a varied but vital part, is completely dependent upon good communications. Let us look at what the communication methods are and how they work, because the meticulous ordering of troops I have just described will avail you nothing if one group cannot communicate with another.
1 Visual Signals
The most immediate form of visual communication from a commander to his generals, and thereby to his troops, is made by the waving of his war fan, which he uses as his baton of command. There are three types: the first is the saihai, which is a bundle of paper tassels hung from a baton; the second is exactly like a typical opening fan, but is made of stout iron spines; and the third is a solid wooden fan. With these a general may even defend himself. This happened during the fourth battle of Kawanakajima in 1561: Takeda Shingen was suddenly attacked within his own field curtains and had nothing but his fan with which to defend himself. Seven sword-blows rained down on him from his assailant, who is believed to have been the great Uesugi Kenshin himself.
The commander’s fan is the first stage in the signalling process. Here a general rises from his camp-stool to indicate an order with his war fan.
The lowering of a war fan can be seen only at close quarters, so for transmitting an order over larger distances a system of signalling flags is used. Hundreds of ashigaru in any army will have charge of these flags, which are raised or lowered in blocks of at least 12 men, so that a clear signal is given. For example, one block lowered and two blocks vertical could mean ‘Advance’. The unit commanders will be looking out for these signals and will respond accordingly.
2 Audible Signals
There are three methods for giving audible signals. The first is to strike the war drums, the deep sounds of which carry far and stir the spirit. There are set drumbeats to indicate advance or retreat, and, unlike any other audible signal, the beat can be increased to enhance the warriors’ speed and fighting spirit. The conch shell trumpet (horagai) is another very useful instrument. Its long, mournful sound carries a great distance and is a particularly useful means of communication in mountainous territory, where its non-military use has long been associated with the wandering yamabushi. These mountain ascetics are the best players of the horagai, so try and recruit one into your army; you will not be disappointed. A gong or bell is difficult to discern over the noise of the battlefield, and so these are best confined to timekeeping and ordering life around a camp.
The horagai (conch shell trumpet) is a very useful means of communication on the battlefield. The yamabushi (mountain ascetics) are particularly good at playing the horagai.
3 Personal Signals
Sometimes one cannot risk communicating a message solely by drums or flags. This is where the Courier Guards are so valuable, because they will gallop between allies or different units of the army, conveying messages that are spoken or occasionally written. Theirs is a perilous profession, because crackshots within the enemy army will seek to shoot dead a Courier Guard to hamper the flow of communication.
How Battles Have Changed in the Past Thousand Years
I am sure you will have carefully prepared for your first battle by reading improving literature (some helpful suggestions appear earlier in this book), but it is also important you appreciate that the nature of Japanese warfare has changed over the past thousand years – many of these transformations coming from advances in military technology. A samurai from the Gempei War (1180–85), adept at kyuba no michi (the Way of Horse and Bow), would be lost when faced with a modern arquebus squad. The spirit of the samurai remains unchanged: it is still noble to charge into battle regardless of the consequences, to seek out a noble opponent and earn great personal glory; but many other elements are very different and you need to know about them.
During the Nara period (710–94) it was expected that ordinary people would be drafted into the imperial army, but with the rise of the samurai everything changed. From that time onwards the emphasis was on noble skills with horse and bow; that is until the Mongols taught us a few lessons three centuries ago. They shot volleys of arrows at us and advanced in dense formations. Fortunately, the numerous Japanese civil wars that followed were fought on a suitably man-to-man basis, but the introduction of firearms has made our warfare regress into something like the Mongol tactical method. This is of course regrettable, but the Way of the Warrior requires us to serve our lords however we can, even if this means some diminution in personal glory. When opportunity arises, reward will follow. At the battle of Shizugatake, for example, Lord Toyotomi Hideyoshi named the samurai who fought most valiantly that day as the ‘Seven Spears’. To be first into battle remains the greatest obsession for many samurai, and no honour is comparable to it. To be recorded as the warrior who took the first head; as the warrior who took the most heads; as the warrior who took the finest head; or even as the warrior who left the finest head behind on his own corpse provides considerable compensation for the increased anonymity of the modern battlefield. There is also the honour attached to being the first to have killed an enemy using a sword; the first to have done so using a spear and so on. Personally, I really look forward to the day when equal honour will be paid to the samurai who has calmly led others into battle, has controlled their movements successfully, and has returned to serve another day.
Eight Great Battles and What We Can Learn From Them
The most valuable lessons of all come from the battles of the past. Let us take a look at eight notable examples:
1 The Battle of Uji, 1180
As I noted in chapter 1, the reprehensible Taira Kiyomori had married his daughter into the imperial family and had come to dominate the government. In 1180 the Minamoto challenged him, with Minamoto Yorimasa raising a revolt within the monastery of Miidera, his meagre force supplemented by warrior monks. When the Taira advanced against them, Yorimasa and his troops withdrew to the south and made a stand at the bridge across the river at Uji. A long section of planking from the bridge was torn up and the Minamoto awaited a dawn attack. Many deeds of heroism were performed on the broken bridge until the Taira succeeded in crossing by swimming their horses over the river. The situation growing more desperate, Yorimasa withdrew to the nearby temple of Byodo-In, where his sons held off the enemy. He then committed seppuku (ritual suicide) after writing a farewell poem on his war fan, an act that may be regarded as an example to us all. This battle shows heroism on both sides, in both a stubborn defence and a brilliant attack.
Here we see a brave samurai swimming his horse across a river. This is how the attack was launched at the battle of Uji in 1180, when the Taira defeated the Minamoto.
2 The Battle of Kawagoe, 1545
In 1545 Ogigayatsu Uesugi together with Ashikaga Haruuji marched against Kawagoe Castle, which was defended by Hojo Ujiyasu’s brother Hojo Tsunanari. Tsunanari’s garrison was only 3,000 strong, but managed to hold out against 85,000 besiegers. Hojo Ujiyasu marched to Kawagoe’s relief with 8,000 samurai, and one brave warrior managed to slip through the Uesugi siege lines to tell Tsunanari that they were on their way. The relief force was another pitifully small army, but intelligence suggested that the besiegers were so confident of victory that their vigilance had slackened. Ujiyasu decided to make a night attack, which was to be coordinated with a sortie from the castle by his brother. Ujiyasu issued orders that his men should not overburden themselves by wearing heavy armour, and should wear white paper jackets to be seen in the dark. He also ordered that they should not waste time by taking heads. It says a lot for the loyalty of the Hojo samurai that they willingly suspended this most basic of samurai privileges for the common good. The plans worked perfectly and, though outnumbered ten to one, the Hojo triumphed. Kawagoe shows us that a night attack can work, but that it has to be coordinated and firmly disciplined.
One of the most celebrated bouts of ju-jutsu in Japanese history is the combat fought by Kato Kiyomasa and Yamajishi Yogen at the battle of Shizugatake in 1583, where both samurai fell off a cliff path.
3 The Battle of Okehazama, 1560
This was the first great victory won by Oda Nobunaga, and though no one would wish to denigrate his achievement in any way, it was the behaviour of his opponent Imagawa Yoshimoto that provides the best example in Japanese history of what not to do. Yoshimoto was the first of the great lords of the Age of Warring States to attempt a march on Kyoto to seize the person of the shogun and bend him to his will. His route, along the Tokaido Road, took him through the province of Owari. At first all went well, largely owing to the bravery of His Most Illustrious Highness, who as a youth was made to fight for Lord Imagawa (then his overlord). Having captured the local castle, Yoshimoto set up camp at Okehazama and began a head-viewing ceremony. So engrossed did he become that he did not notice Oda Nobunaga had circled round behind him. The resulting battle lasted about five minutes. Lord Imagawa lost his head, Nobunaga became very famous, and His Most Illustrious Highness was freed from his obligation to fight for a lord who was clearly stupid. Let this be a lesson to us all. Okehazama shows us that a good general must always maintain vigilance.
A messenger brings the news of Nobunaga’s attack to an astonished Imagawa Yoshimoto as he sits in state to view the heads after his recent victory. Very soon Yoshimoto was to be killed.
4 The Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima, 1561
The fourth battle of Kawanakajima was the largest of the five encounters between Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen. Kenshin established a camp high on the hill of Saijoyama, from where he could observe the Takeda movements around Kaizu Castle. Yamamoto Kansuke, Shingen’s chief strategist, suggested a clever move: under cover of darkness the Takeda should leave their castle and take up a prearranged position across the river. A detachment would then attack Saijoyama to the rear, driving the Uesugi samurai in panic down the hill, across the river and into the waiting guns of the Takeda army. But Uesugi Kenshin anticipated the operation and evacuated Saijoyama without the Takeda realizing. In great secrecy he guided his army over a ford and positioned them across the river to meet the Takeda. As dawn broke he attacked the Takeda from the flank. According to legend, Shingen and Kenshin fought a single combat when Kenshin broke into the Takeda field headquarters. By this time the detached force sent up from Kaizu Castle had discovered that Saijoyama had been abandoned. Highly alarmed, they came hurrying down to the river, where they encountered Kenshin’s rearguard. Fierce fighting continued, and taking full responsibility for the presumed disaster Yamamoto Kansuke committed suicide. But then the Takeda rallied and the Uesugi were driven away. Both sides claimed the victory, which was an expensive one.
This celebrated battle is an object lesson in army control. Both commanders moved huge bodies of troops under cover of darkness and used the set battle formations perfectly. Their samurai then fought to the death.
A unit of samurai spearmen going into battle. Organized groups of samurai armed with spears as a primary weapon are a common sight on battlefields.
5 The Battle of Mikata ga Hara, 1572
It may surprise readers to see that I have introduced here one of the few battles ever lost by His Most Illustrious Highness, but there is a good reason for it. The mighty army of Takeda Shingen advanced out of the mountains and bore down upon Hamamatsu Castle. His Most Illustrious Highness advanced to engage him upon the flat plain of Mikata ga Hara to the north of Hamamatsu, and as the snow started to fall a fierce battle took place. Totally outnumbered, the Tokugawa were made to retreat, but it is how His Most Illustrious Highness then conducted himself that makes the encounter so memorable. First he sent a detachment to harass the pursuing Takeda at Saigadake. Second, he ordered Sakai Tadatsugu to beat the great war drum in the gatehouse of Hamamatsu to guide the soldiers home, and also to leave the gates wide open. When the Takeda arrived and saw the gates open they feared a trap and withdrew. Note how such ingenuity can triumph against over-whelming odds.
This is a splendid illustration of mounted combat between two samurai with long straight spears. Similar contests occurred at the battles of Kawanakajima and Anegawa.
6 The Battle of Nagashino, 1575
This famous battle has frequently been misunderstood. The Takeda army that laid siege to Nagashino Castle were outnumbered by the combined Oda–Tokugawa force of 38,000, who advanced to relieve the siege, setting up positions that looked across the plain of Shidarahara towards the castle. Oda Nobunaga also had the advantage of a unit of 3,000 arquebusiers, but realized that they would need some form of physical protection, so his army built a palisade between the forested edge of the hills and the river. It was a loose fence of stakes, staggered over three alternate layers, and with many gaps to allow a counter-attack. Nobunaga’s plan was for the arquebus unit to fire volleys as the Takeda cavalry approached. This broke the charge, but the battle continued until mid-afternoon, when the Takeda eventually began to retreat and were pursued. Some people say Nagashino was a victory for the guns. It was not. It was a victory for common sense in combining and coordinating your forces. Take heed.
7 The Battle of Hetsugigawa, 1586
Hetsugigawa was such a disaster that every young samurai will profit greatly from learning about it. Hideyoshi’s vanguard divisions for the invasion of Kyushu were under the command of Chosokabe Motochika and Sengoku Hidehisa, who landed on Kyushu with orders to act defensively until further troops were able to join them. Alas! They decided to disobey Hideyoshi’s commands and relieve the castle of Toshimitsu, which was encircled by the Shimazu. The besieging Shimazu army noted their approach and redoubled their efforts to take Toshimitsu, which consequently fell to the rapid and ferocious attack. When the invaders arrived at the Hetsugigawa River, which flowed within sight of the castle, they could see the flags of the Shimazu flying from its towers.
Chosokabe Motochika, the wiser of the leaders, proposed a withdrawal, but his companions insisted on doing battle, so the Shimazu set a trap. Ijuin Hisanori led a decoy force in an attack across the river and then withdrew, which persuaded the left wing of the invading force to follow them. They were met by arrows and arquebus fire, and the main body of the Shimazu then fell upon them. After much fierce fighting the left wing withdrew across the river, causing confusion within the right wing. Chosokabe Motochika was obliged to signal a full retreat, during which his son and heir Nobuchika was killed. This is what happens when you disobey orders!
8 The Battle of Sacheon, 1598
This was one of the last battles of our glorious second expedition to Korea. The castle of Sacheon held a garrison of 8,000 troops under the father-and-son team of Shimazu Yoshihiro and Tadatsune (now Lord Shimazu Iehisa). By the middle of September 1598 the Chinese General Ton Yuan had assembled an army of 34,000 Chinese troops together with 2,000 Koreans, and on 1 October 1598 this allied army arrived at Sacheon – just too late to stop our reinforcements joining Shimazu Yoshihiro in the castle. Both sides used great ingenuity in their attack and defence. The Chinese brought up a combined battering ram and cannon against the main gate; we managed to destroy it, and also launched exploding firebombs by catapult into the midst of the Chinese army, with one shot hitting the Chinese gunpowder store. On the last day of the siege, Shimazu Yoshihiro took the initiative and led his army out to meet the Chinese and Koreans in a field battle. The force of our attack broke the besieging army, who were driven back as far as the river with many casualties. Here we see an example of desperate defence being turned into a successful attack.
Here we see a group of samurai committing suicide on the battlefield. Such an act is an excellent way of retaining one’s honour when defeat is inevitable.
Frequently Asked Questions about Battlefield Etiquette
You are now poised to engage your enemy with your sword drawn, eager to take his head. All you are waiting for is the command to advance. What thoughts are now passing through your mind? Let’s deal with some frequently asked questions concerning this precise scenario and the immediate events that may have preceded it.
QShould I have slaughtered my wife and children before leaving for battle?
AThis is rarely necessary. There have been occasions when a lord, departing for what he believes will be his last battle and fearful of the consequences that will befall his family in the event of his death, decides to kill all of them just to be on the safe side. But this is by no means a universal recommendation.
QShould I have perfumed my hair?
AYes, oh yes. This will make your head so much more attractive when it is cut off.
QShould I play dead and then attempt to murder the victorious enemy general?
AThis was tried by Akechi Mitsuchika, who concealed himself among the dead bodies at Yamazaki in 1582 and then rose up to kill Hideyoshi. It was commendable. You must decide for yourself if it is appropriate under the given circumstances.
QI have heard it said that challenges to individual combat are out of date. Is this in fact the case?
AThroughout samurai history there has never been a more honourable way of fighting than to conduct a single combat with a worthy opponent. There is certainly less opportunity nowadays, largely owing to the vastly increased size of the typical samurai army and the use of mass-infantry tactics. Nevertheless, in the confusion of battle you may well find yourself on your own with a choice of opponent. The family crest on his flag will confirm his allegiance, but there is no way of ascertaining his personal status (and so whether he is a worthy victim) other than by inviting him to declare his pedigree. He may well be willing to do this, but remember that every second this takes provides a further opportunity for you to be shot dead by an ignoble bullet fired by a lewd and sordid person who would never dare challenge you (let alone invite you to recite your family history). Think carefully.
QIs it worth collecting the heads of foot soldiers?
AYes. Many are brave fighters, and the number of heads you collect will be a factor in your eventual reward. Remember, however, the example of the Hojo at Kawagoe; head collecting takes time. Might you be better employed cutting off more heads, rather than collecting the ones you already have?
QMy lord has ordered me to burn down a shrine. I am afraid of causing offence to the gods. Should I obey orders?
AThis is a very tricky question. Of course you should obey orders, but where is the lord who would wish to burn down a shrine? Decades ago this was common practice among the lords who misguidedly accepted as true the lies and deceits of Christianity. They were all chastised for it, and received the punishment of Heaven. I am sure this appalling dilemma will never arise nowadays.
QMy lord has ordered me to perform an act of incredible bravery from which I will not return alive. What should I do?
ADo you really not know the answer to this question?
QI suspect the sentry next to me of being a ninja on account of his unusual behaviour. Should I kill him?
ANo. He may just be having a bad day. Have him arrested and beaten; that way the truth will emerge.
QI have been placed in command of a unit of ronin. The enemy have charged us and the ronin have all run away. Should I join them?
ANo, you are a true samurai; they are not. You must not blame yourself for errors in personnel recruitment that have their origins higher up the chain of command. Stand your ground and die bravely.
QA fellow samurai has offered me a severed head, saying I can claim it as my own trophy if I hand over money to him. Should I accept?
ACertainly not. Such a worthless fellow is the very dregs of the sake barrel of life. He is probably such a rascal that the head will previously have belonged to some poor farmer that he has cut down. How reprehensible!
QI am totally surrounded by enemies. My helmet is off my head, my suit of armour looks like a porcupine due to the number of arrows sticking into it and my sword is broken. What should I do now?
ATurn quickly to the section headed ‘Fourteen Interesting Ways to Commit Suicide’ in chapter 12.
What is Going On Behind the Smoke?
Your unit has been moved into position, has been ordered forwards and subsequently engaged the enemy. You have now reached the most important stage in the development of a battle – contact has been made. This is truly the Realm of the Beasts! All around you are the sounds of swords striking armour, of horses whinnying and guns being discharged, while terrible screams and loud shouts add to the cacophony of noise. War has been much like this for centuries, but because of arquebuses the modern battlefield is an even more noisy and confusing place than it has been at any other time in history. I have outlined above some of what occurs prior to battle, but what actually happens when two armies clash? Communications break down, orders are forgotten and all is confusion – a situation made worse by the smoke produced by thousands of arquebuses. The battle has probably developed into a melee where one samurai hacks at another, oblivious of everything other than what is happening a spear’s length around him. Can you find a worthy opponent to challenge? Can you even see him amid the smoke? Have you been assaulted instead by six ashigaru spearmen who are trying to pin you down with their blades like a trapped animal? First your spear breaks, then your sword is lost; soon your dagger too falls from your grasp. Essentially, you are on your own – exactly the situation that the whole of this book thus far has been preparing you for. You are a true samurai, so may the gods be with you!
Fighting Techniques for the Noble Samurai
Let us assume that you have been taught the bugei (techniques of martial arts) by an accomplished sensei, and have taken every opportunity to practise them. This will have happened within the walls of your castle or on the hunting field. You now have to put these techniques into operation … with one very important difference. Unlike every previous encounter, the man you are fighting wants to kill you.
Archery from Horseback
Let us first deal with fighting while mounted. This will normally take one of two forms: the samurai acting as either a horse archer or a spearman. The former is encountered less often nowadays, and the most important point to be made is that you will not be acting as a light horse archer. These warriors from Mongolia that we sometimes read about can behave almost like acrobats, swinging round in the saddle, discharging arrows as they retreat and so on. You, by contrast, will be wearing a heavier suit of armour, greatly restricting your movements. The most noticeable constraint upon your physical freedom will be the limitation of being able to shoot effectively only to the left. Loosing arrows ahead of you is just about possible, but it will be very difficult indeed to twist your body in the saddle sufficiently to release arrows to the right (assuming you are right handed). Your opponent will be suffering the same limitations. This also means that when firing an arrow at an individual or a group you will be exposing a great deal of yourself as a target. It is here that the techniques of the martial art of yabusame, which allows you to discharge an arrow to your left side with accuracy and at speed, will serve you well. Note also that you will withdraw your arrows from the quiver located on your right side, so practice in smoothly fitting the nock to the string and drawing the bow while you stay in perfect balance is absolutely essential.
Spear-fighting from Horseback
Using a spear successfully from horseback is quite a different matter, and will depend on whether you are acting as an individual warrior or as part of a group. A group will tend to be ordered into a coordinated charge, and in this case it is best for the spear to be held rigidly with the blade pointing forwards so you can skewer your opponent like a wild boar. The forwards movement of the horse will provide an impact that your arms could never supply. When used like this in Europe the spear is, I believe, referred to as a ‘lance’. This technique is much more difficult when used against another mounted opponent, who will be trying to impale you on his own spear at the same time. Try to receive his blow against an area of your armour that has a smooth surface so that it glances off, while directing your spear against a more vulnerable part of his armour.
The close formation demanded by a unit’s charge rules out any freer use of the spear, lest you hurt one of your comrades; however, when you are on your own the spear may be wielded far more liberally. Instead of just thrusting, you can stand in the stirrups holding the spear in both hands, sweeping it to the sides as a slashing and cutting weapon, rather than just a stabbing arm. This is where longer-bladed spears are the best, and kamayari (cross-bladed spears) allow the possibility of pulling a foot soldier off his feet, or dragging a horseman from his saddle. Kato Kiyomasa was famous for his expertise with a long-bladed spear (with one short cross blade), which he employed very effectively. The ultimate slashing weapon to use from the saddle is the naginata with its long curved blade, but as its balance is totally different this must be regarded as a specialist weapon like the heavy and unwieldy nodachi (extra-long sword). Both are best left to experts, as I noted earlier.
Pistol techniques from Horseback
I am given to understand that a whole new set of techniques is being developed for the use of handguns from the saddle. It is envisaged that, in addition to the pistol being used as an individual weapon, organized groups of mounted samurai will gallop up to the enemy lines and discharge their weapons. The resulting casualties among the enemy ranks will disorganize them, at which the attacking force will discard their pistols and draw their swords for a melee, riding into the gaps left in the enemy formation.
Sword-fighting from Horseback
Using swords from horseback will be required if spears or bows have to be discarded, and the fighting techniques used need to be very free and open. To strike downwards from a moving horse adds a tremendous extra force to the power of a sword-cut, so much so that armour plates and helmets are known to have been sliced in two. As the horse gallops forwards, the sword-blade is dragged deeper into the wound, severing limbs and heads with great rapidity. Sword combat between two mounted samurai is an awesome sight: the warriors slash at each other with weapons held in one hand while clutching the reins with the other.
Spear-Fighting Techniques on Foot
It is very unusual for samurai on foot to fight in tightly controlled formations. Instead it has long been recognized that the individual warrior is best employed if he is allowed to make his own decisions about whom he fights. It is quite obvious that he will wish to seek out a noble opponent, but on the modern battlefield this is not always possible: a samurai should never shrink from combat merely because he finds his enemies vulgar. All enemies are potential victims, and all must be overcome if your lord’s will is to prevail. So think of yourself as the individual warrior that you have always wanted to be and take the fight to anyone who presents the opportunity. Depending on your rank you will be attended by one or more followers who will hand weapons to you, warn you of dangers and see to it that any combat in which you are fighting is not interrupted by another. Learn to rely on their judgment and you will not suffer the sad fate of Yubu Oinosuke at the siege of Tanaka Castle in 1587. This gallant warrior ran forwards to engage an enemy, but his attendants realized that it was an ambush and called him back. Poor Yubu was practically deaf, did not hear their warnings, and so perished. Let this not be your fate also.
Spear-fighting on foot involves using the weapon both for attack and defence. A spear’s protective role is best demonstrated when it knocks to one side the attacking blade of an enemy, either with a quick parry or by slowly forcing it down using your own superior strength. You can then follow up with a rapid thrust of your own, which will almost always be more effective than attempting a slashing movement. Aim for the weak points in a suit of armour: the eyes, the throat and the armpits. A thrust delivered directly against the breastplate will probably slide off harmlessly. If, however, your enemy is wearing an old-fashioned suit of armour with close-spaced cord lacing then the blade may catch in and penetrate the cords, but again the plates beneath will probably prevent any injury.
The great advantage of a spear over a sword is that it keeps your opponent at a safe distance. Yes, you can seize the shaft or even cut through it, as Imagawa Yoshimoto did at the battle of Okehazama, but this is difficult to achieve and leaves you open to a quick and opportunistic sword-stroke. Think of a spear as an extension of your arm; the greatest means of defence is maintaining the gap between you and an opponent, and the greatest chance of achieving a kill lies in your ability to fill that gap very quickly.
Sword Combat on Foot
Two samurai face each other on the battlefield with their swords drawn; is this not the ideal to which we all aspire? Indeed it is, but we must recognize that most sword combat on foot takes place within a disorganized melee, where a samurai may have to take on two or three opponents at once, all the while beset by arrows and bullets discharged by distant warriors. This will be a contest marked by near-random hacking against anyone wearing a different flag from that of your own lord. You will cut with your sword as if creating space within a dense bed of reeds. Here only the strongest will prevail, and this involves strength of character as much as physical prowess because the samurai must be alert to any development and must not relax his guard even for one moment. The samurai who pauses in a melee to pick up an attractively helmeted head as a trophy will soon become a trophy himself.
In the happy instances when a samurai can devote himself to just one opponent, the skills of both men may be exercised as if they were in the courtyard of their respective lords’ castles. If the pair are known to be great warriors then those around them will almost certainly allow them the luxury of uninterrupted combat. Their attendants will not fight against one another but will act as seconds: holding their master’s sashimono (as these back flags are an encumbrance in single combat); standing ready with a spare spear or sword; or simply acting as witnesses to the great deed of arms that will be sung about for centuries to come. Unlike encounters within the melee, single combats allow the fighters to take their time and adopt a guard position, because they both know that danger can come from only one direction. So they eye each other up, and when their weapons clash they do so with a force and impact greater even than the fierce blows that they once delivered with their practice wooden swords. The swords are now of steel and the target is a body encased in armour. As blows begin to fall, the cords holding sections of armour together will be the first to perish, so that the two warriors will soon present a sorry appearance – their shoulder plates and skirt sections hanging in tatters, chips cut out of the lacquer on their breastplates. If helmets are lost then the head, with its wild shock of disordered hair, becomes a target. Sooner or later, one will land a blow against a vulnerable section of the armour (such as the groin or the neck) and then the effect of the wounds will begin to tell, until the weaker samurai can defend no more. His opponent will then land the final and merciful blow. As the dead man falls the victor will draw his dagger or short-sword and carefully cut off the defeated’s head.
No one should interfere in a single combat unless absolutely necessary. Even if you have lost sword, spear and dagger, and are now reduced to fighting with bare hands, you must still expect to be solely responsible for the eventual outcome. So grapple with your opponent, try with all your might to force him off balance and throw him to the ground. You can then apply a ju-jutsu hold that will immobilize him – the wrist is a very good target for this. Alternatively you can put him in a hold using the weight of your body on top, or even strangle him. When the man falls silent and goes limp you can cut off his head.