NOTES

EPIGRAPH

1. Alan Greenspan, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (New York: Penguin Press, 2007), p. 95.

CHAPTER 1: “EQUAL CHANCES” FALLACIES

1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, translated by Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin Books, 1984), p. 57.

2. Sam McCaig, “Where in the World Do NHL Players Come From?” Sports Illustrated (online), October 14, 2018; Helene Elliott, “California Hockey Has Come So Far,” Los Angeles Times, September 6, 2020, p. D6; The Economist, Pocket World in Figures: 2022 Edition (London: Profile Books, 2021), pp. 14, 214; Shawn Hubler, “California’s Population Dips During Tumultuous 2020,” New York Times, May 8, 2021, p. A17.

3. Charles Issawi, “The Transformation of the Economic Position of the Millets in the Nineteenth Century,” Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, Vol. I: The Central Lands, edited by Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982), pp. 262–263.

4. Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Chinese Dimension (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980), p. 51.

5. Jean Roche, La Colonisation Allemande et le Rio Grande do Sul (Paris: Institut Des Hautes Études de L’Amérique Latine, 1959), pp. 388–389.

6. R. Bayly Winder, “The Lebanese in West Africa,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. IV, Issue 3 (April 1962), p. 309.

7. Jonathan I. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism 1550–1750 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 139.

8. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (New York: Arno Press, 1969), pp. 254–259, 261.

9. Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya, Indians in Africa: A Socio-Economic Study (Calcutta: Bookland Private Limited, 1970), p. 394.

10. Andrew Gibb, Glasgow: The Making of a City (London: Croom Helm, 1983), p. 116; Bruce Lenman, An Economic History of Modern Scotland, 1660–1976 (London: B.T. Batsford, 1977), p. 180.

11. Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (New York: Doubleday, 2003), p. 108.

12. Myron Weiner, Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 102–104.

13. See, for example, Andrew D. Mellinger, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and John L. Gallup, “Climate, Coastal Proximity, and Development,” The Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, and Meric S. Gertler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911); Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), 3–5, 8–10, 13–83.

14. Caryn E. Neumann, “Beer,” Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, edited by Thomas Adam (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2005), Volume I, pp. 130–133.

15. Jim Mann, “Tsingtao Beer: Bottling Profits for China,” Los Angeles Times, October 12, 1986, pp. F1, F7.

16. Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times, p. 261.

17. “Brazilian Beverage Market Is Evolving,” Brazilian Bulletin, January 1975, p. 6.

18. Jürgen Tampke, The Germans in Australia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 101.

19. Marc Helmond, Total Revenue Management (TRM): Case Studies, Best Practices and Industry Insights (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2020), p. 167.

20. Horst Dornbusch, “Bavaria,” The Oxford Companion to Beer, edited by Garrett Oliver (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 104.

21. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, The Slave Economy of the Old South: Selected Essays in Economic and Social History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), p. 269.

22. See, for example, Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996), pp. 2, 150, 153, 158, 164, 166, 176, 192, 207, 211, 218–219, 284–285, 289–290, 307, 312, 345, 353, 367.

23. For documented examples, see Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 396–402.

24. “Degrees Conferred, by Level, Discipline, and Gender, 2018–19,” Chronicle of Higher Education (Almanac 2021–2022), August 20, 2021, p. 43.

25. Ibid.

26. See Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Women’s Figures: An Illustrated Guide to the Economic Progress of Women In America, 2012 edition (Washington: AEI Press, 2012). See also Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies, second edition (New York: Basic Books, 2015), Chapter 3 and Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered: Was It Necessary in Academia? (Washington: AEI Press, 1975), pp. 23–27.

27. Jessica Semega, Melissa Kollar, Emily A. Shrider, and John F. Creamer, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2019,” Current Population Reports, P60–270 (RV) (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2020 and 2021), pp. 11, 51.

28. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Who Chooses Part-Time Work and Why?” Monthly Labor Review, March 2018, pp. 5–7. See also Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies, second edition, pp. 61, 69, 72, 74, 82–83, 89 and Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 23, 24. See also Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Women’s Figures, 2012 edition, pp. 17–18.

29. See John Iceland and Ilana Redstone, “The Declining Earnings Gap between Young Women and Men in the United States, 1979–2018,” Social Science Research, Vol. 92 (November 2020), pp. 1–11; Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Women’s Figures, 2012 edition, pp. 14, 15, 16, 19; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 28, 31, 32, 33; Warren Farrell, Why Men Earn More: The Startling Truth Behind the Pay Gap and What Women Can Do About It (New York: Amacom, 2005), p. xxiii; Anita U. Hattiangadi and Amy M. Habib, A Closer Look at Comparable Worth, second edition (Washington: Employment Policy Foundation, 2000), p. 43; Thomas Sowell, Education: Assumptions versus History (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), pp. 95, 97; Laurence C. Baker, “Differences in Earnings Between Male and Female Physicians,” The New England Journal of Medicine, April 11, 1996, p. 960; Marianne Bertrand and Kevin Hallock, “The Gender Gap in Top Corporate Jobs,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, October 2001, p. 17.

30. “The Economic Role of Women,” The Economic Report of the President, 1973 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 105.

31. Sam Dean and Johana Bhuiyan, “Why are Black and Latino people still kept out of tech industry?” San Francisco Chronicle, July 7, 2020, p. C1.

32. U.S. Department of Education, Digest of Education Statistics 2019, 55th edition (Washington: National Center of Education Statistics, 2021), p. 345.

33. Ibid., p. 351.

34. Mohamed Suffian bin Hashim, “Problems and Issues of Higher Education Development in Malaysia,” Development of Higher Education in Southeast Asia: Problems and Issues, edited by Yip Yat Hoong (Singapore: Regional Institute of Higher Education and Development, 1973), Table 8, pp. 70–71.

35. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 677; Myron Weiner, “The Pursuit of Ethnic Equality Through Preferential Policies: A Comparative Public Policy Perspective,” From Independence to Statehood, edited by Robert B. Goldmann and A. Jeyaratnam Wilson (London: Frances Pinter, 1984), p. 64; Cynthia H. Enloe, Police, Military and Ethnicity: Foundations of State Power (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1980), p. 143.

36. Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations, translated by Richard Mayne (New York: The Penguin Press, 1994), p. 17.

37. James Oliphant, “Faith’s Role In Picking a New Justice,” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 2010, p. A11; Peter Baker, “Kagan Is Sworn In as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court,” New York Times, August 8, 2010, pp. 1, 13; Julie Zauzmer, “Back Home, Supreme Court Nominee Is Active in a Liberal Episcopalian Church,” Washington Post, February 4, 2017, p. B2; Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “In Highlight for President, Gorsuch Is Sworn In as Court’s 113th Justice,” New York Times, April 11, 2017, p. A19. This was by no means the only statistical disparity among the Justices. For 11 consecutive years, every Justice of the Supreme Court had a law degree from one of just 3 Ivy League law schools— Harvard, Yale and Columbia. Peter Baker, “Kagan Is Sworn In as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court,” New York Times, August 8, 2010, pp. 1, 13; William Wan, “The High Court’s Ivy League Problem,” Washington Post, July 13, 2018, p. A4; Nicholas Fandos, “Barrett Sworn In to Supreme Court After 52–48 Vote,” New York Times, October 27, 2020, p. A1.

38. Aleksandra Sandstrom, “Faith on the Hill: The Religious Composition of the 116th Congress,” Pew Research Center, January 3, 2019, p. 3.

39. Thomas Sowell, “New Light on Black I.Q.,” New York Times, March 27, 1977, Sunday magazine section, pp. 56–58, 60, 62; Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Society, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2011), Chapter 17.

40. Ana Amélia Freitas-Vilela, et al., “Maternal Dietary Patterns During Pregnancy and Intelligence Quotients in the Offspring at 8 Years of Age: Findings from the ALSPAC Cohort,” Maternal & Child Nutrition, Vol. 14, Issue 1 (January 2018), pp. 1–11; Ingrid B. Helland, et al., “Maternal Supplementation with Very-Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids During Pregnancy and Lactation Augments Children’s IQ at 4 Years of Age,” Pediatrics, Vol. 111, No. 1 (January 2003), pp. e39–e44.

41. See, for example, Helene McNulty, et al., “Effect of Continued Folic Acid Supplementation beyond the First Trimester of Pregnancy on Cognitive Performance in the Child: A Follow-up Study from a Randomized Controlled Trial (FASSTT Offspring Trial),” BMC Medicine, Volume 17 (2019), pp. 1–11; Aoife Caffrey, et al., “Effects of Maternal Folic Acid Supplementation During the Second and Third Trimesters of Pregnancy on Neurocognitive Development in the Child: An 11-Year Follow-up from a Randomised Controlled Trial,” BMC Medicine, Volume 19 (2021), pp. 1–13; Ann P. Streissguth, Helen M. Barr, and Paul D. Sampson, “Moderate Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: Effects on Child IQ and Learning Problems at Age 7 ½ Years,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, Volume 14, No. 5 (September/October 1990), pp. 662–669; Ernest L. Abel and Robert J. Sokol, “Incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Economic Impact of FAS-Related Anomalies,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, Volume 19, Issue 1 (January 1987), pp. 51–70; Johann K. Eberhart and Scott E. Parnell, “The Genetics of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, Volume 40, Issue 6 (June 2016), pp. 1154–1165; Edward P. Riley, M. Alejandra Infante, and Kenneth R. Warren, “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: An Overview,” Neuropsychology Review, Volume 21, Issue 2 (June 2011), pp. 73–80.

42. Julia M. Rohrer, Boris Egloff, and Stefan C. Schmukle, “Examining the Effects of Birth Order on Personality,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 112, No. 46 (November 17, 2015), p. 14225; Lillian Belmont and Francis A. Marolla, “Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence,” Science, Vol. 182, No. 4117 (December 14, 1973), p. 1098; Sandra E. Black, Paul J. Devereux and Kjell G. Salvanes, “Older and Wiser? Birth Order and IQ of Young Men,” CESifo Economic Studies, Vol. 57, 1/2011, pp. 109, 112, 116.

43. Alison L. Booth and Hiau Joo Kee, “Birth Order Matters: The Effect of Family Size and Birth Order on Educational Attainment,” Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 22, No. 2 (April 2009), p. 377.

44. Philip S. Very and Richard W. Prull, “Birth Order, Personality Development, and the Choice of Law as a Profession,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. 116, No. 2 (June 1, 1970), pp. 219–221; Richard L. Zweigenhaft, “Birth Order, Approval-Seeking and Membership in Congress,” Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 2 (November 1975), p. 208; William D. Altus, “Birth Order and Its Sequelae,” Science, Vol. 151 (January 7, 1966), pp. 44–49.

45. William D. Altus, “Birth Order and Its Sequelae,” Science, Vol. 151 (January 7, 1966), p. 45.

46. Jere R. Behrman and Paul Taubman, “Birth Order, Schooling, and Earnings,” Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 4, No. 3, Part 2: The Family and the Distribution of Economic Rewards (July 1986), p. S136; Astronauts and Cosmonauts: Biographical and Statistical Data, Revised August 31, 1993, Report Prepared by the Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Transmitted to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, Second Session, March 1994 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 19; Daniel S.P. Schubert, Mazie E. Wagner, and Herman J.P. Schubert, “Family Constellation and Creativity: Firstborn Predominance Among Classical Music Composers,” The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 95, No. 1 (1977), pp. 147–149; Robert J. Gary-Bobo, Ana Prieto and Natalie Picard, “Birth Order and Sibship Sex Composition as Instruments in the Study of Education and Earnings,” Discussion Paper No. 5514 (February 2006), Centre for Economic Policy Research, London, p. 22.

47. Amy L. Anderson, “Individual and Contextual Influences on Delinquency: The Role of the Single-Parent Family,” Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 30 (2002), pp. 575–587; Kathleen M. Ziol-Guest, Greg J. Duncan, and Ariel Kalil, “One-Parent Students Leave School Earlier,” Education Next, Spring 2015, pp. 37–41; Nick Spencer, “Does Material Disadvantage Explain the Increased Risk of Adverse Health, Educational, and Behavioural Outcomes Among Children in Lone Parent Households in Britain? A Cross Sectional Study,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Volume 59 (2005), pp. 152–157; James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In (London: Politico’s, 2006), revised edition, pp. 275, 276, 278.

48. Maggie Gallagher, “Fatherless Boys Grow Up Into Dangerous Men,” Wall Street Journal, December 1, 1998, p. A22; Dewey G. Cornell, Elissa P. Benedek, and David M. Benedek, “Characteristics of Adolescents Charged with Homicide: Review of 72 Cases,” Behavioral Sciences & the Law, Vol. 5, No. 1 (1987), pp. 13, 14; Stephen Baskerville, “Is There Really a Fatherhood Crisis?” The Independent Review, Volume 8, No. 4 (Spring 2004), pp. 485–486; Delphine Theobald, David P. Farrington, and Alex Piquero, “Childhood Broken Homes and Adult Violence: An Analysis of Moderators and Mediators,” Journal of Criminal Justice, Volume 41 (2013), pp. 44–45, 47–50.

49. Stephen Baskerville, “Is There Really a Fatherhood Crisis?” The Independent Review, Volume 8, No. 4 (Spring 2004), p. 485.

50. “Boys with Absentee Dads Twice as Likely to be Jailed,” Washington Post, August 21, 1998, p. A3.

51. Bruce J. Ellis, John E. Bates, Kenneth A. Dodge, David M. Fergusson, L. John Horwood, Gregory S. Pettit, and Lianne Woodward, “Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy?” Child Development, Vol. 74, No. 3 (May-June 2003), pp. 801–821; Stephen Baskerville, “Is There Really a Fatherhood Crisis?” The Independent Review, Volume 8, No. 4 (Spring 2004), p. 485; James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, revised edition, p. 276.

52. See, for example, Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom: The Worldview That Makes the Underclass (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2001), p. viii; James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, revised edition, pp. 275, 276, 278.

53. See, for example, Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom; James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, revised edition, Chapters 4 and 6.

54. “Choose Your Parents Wisely,” The Economist, July 26, 2014, p. 22; Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1995), pp. 123–124, 125–126, 128, 198–199, 247.

55. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Selected Population Profile in the United States,” 2019 American Community Survey, 1-Year Estimates, Table S0201.

56. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Age— All People (Both Sexes Combined) by Median and Mean Income: 1974 to 2020,” Current Population Survey, 1975–2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table P–10.

57. The Economist, Pocket World in Figures: 2022 Edition, p. 18.

58. Roy E. H. Mellor and E. Alistair Smith, Europe: A Geographical Survey of the Continent (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), p. 3; Antony R. Orme, “Coastal Environments,” The Physical Geography of Africa, edited by William M. Adams, Andrew S. Goudie, and Antony R. Orme (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 238; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, revised and expanded edition (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006), p. 643.

59. Roy E. H. Mellor and E. Alistair Smith, Europe, p. 3.

60. Ibid.

61. Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), pp. 20–21.

62. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1976), p. 337.

63. See, for example, William A. Hance, The Geography of Modern Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), pp. 3–6, 12–19, 32–33; Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations, translated by Richard Mayne, pp. 117–126; David E. Bloom, Jeffrey D. Sachs, Paul Collier, and Christopher Udry, “Geography, Demography, and Economic Growth in Africa,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1998, No. 2 (1998), pp. 207–273. See also Thomas Sowell, Conquests and Cultures: An International History (New York: Basic Books, 1998), pp. 99–109.

64. Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations, translated by Richard Mayne, p. 120.

65. A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284–602: A Social and Administrative Survey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), Volume 2, pp. 841–842.

66. Ellen Churchill Semple, The Geography of the Mediterranean Region: Its Relation to Ancient History (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1931), p. 5.

67. Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, p. 280.

68. Ibid.

69. Andrew D. Mellinger, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and John L. Gallup, “Climate, Coastal Proximity, and Development,” The Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, and Meric S. Gertler, pp. 169, 177–179, 182. Note especially the world map on page 178.

70. See, for example, Frederick R. Troeh and Louis M. Thompson, Soils and Soil Fertility, sixth edition (Ames, Iowa: Blackwell, 2005), p. 330; Xiaobing Liu, et al., “Overview of Mollisols in the World: Distribution, Land Use and Management,” Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 92 (2012), pp. 383–402; Darrell Hess, McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, eleventh edition (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014), pp. 362–363.

71. Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment: The Pursuit of Excellence in the Arts and Sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950 (New York: Harper Collins, 2003), pp. 355–361.

72. Andrew D. Mellinger, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and John L. Gallup, “Climate, Coastal Proximity, and Development,” The Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, and Meric S. Gertler, pp. 169, 180, 181.

73. Ibid., pp. 178, 179, 182, 183.

74. Robert J. Sharer, The Ancient Maya, fifth edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), p. 455.

75. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), p. 352.

76. David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998), pp. 4–5.

77. Ibid., p. 6.

78. See, for example, Paul Robert Magosci, A History of Ukraine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), p. 6; Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), p. 648; Peter Duffy, “75 Years Later, Survivor Helps Commemorate Ukrainian Famine,” New York Times, December 19, 2007, p. B3; Will Horner and Kirk Maltais, “Ukraine Tensions Drive Up Wheat Prices,” Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2022, p. B11.

79. See, for example, Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies, second edition, Chapter 3. See also Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Women’s Figures, 2012 edition.

80. “The World’s Least Honest Cities,” The Telegraph.UK, September 25, 2013.

81. Eric Felten, “Finders Keepers?” Reader’s Digest, April 2001, pp. 102–107.

82. See Raymond Fisman and Edward Miguel, “Cultures of Corruption: Evidence from Diplomatic Parking Tickets,” Working Paper 12312, National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2006, Table 1, pp. 19–22.

83. John Stuart Mill, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Vol. III: Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy, edited by J.M. Robson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965), p. 882.

84. John P. McKay, Pioneers for Profit: Foreign Entrepreneurship and Russian Industrialization 1885–1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 176, 187; Linda M. Randall, Reluctant Capitalists: Russia’s Journey Through Market Transition (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 56–57; Raghuram G. Rajan and Luigi Zingales, Saving Capitalism from the Capitalists (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 57; Bryon MacWilliams, “Reports of Bribe-Taking at Russian Universities Have Increased, Authorities Say,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, April 18, 2002 (online); Transparency International, Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2021 (Berlin: Transparency International Secretariat, 2022), pp. 2–3.

85. Karl Stumpp, The German-Russians: Two Centuries of Pioneering (Bonn: Edition Atlantic-Forum, 1967), p. 68.

86. Gurcharan Das, India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), p. 143. For information on the overseas Chinese merchants, see Clifton A. Barton, “Trust and Credit: Some Observations Regarding Business Strategies of Ethnic Chinese Traders in South Vietnam,” and Janet T. Landa, “The Political Economy of the Ethnically Homogenous Chinese Middleman Group in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Entrepreneurship in a Plural Society,” in The Chinese in Southeast Asia, Volume 1: Ethnicity and Economic Activity, edited by Linda Y.C. Lim and L.A. Peter Gosling (Singapore: Mazuren Asia, 1983), pp. 53, 90.

87. Renée Rose Shield, Diamond Stories: Enduring Change on 47th Street (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2002), Chapter 5.

88. Eric J. Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain: Identity, Industry and Empire, 1780–1914 (New York: Longman, 2011), p. 136.

89. Brian Murdoch, “Introduction,” German Literature of the Early Middle Ages, edited by Brian Murdoch (Rochester, New York: Camden House, 2004), Volume 2, p. 10; Samantha Zacher, “Introduction to Medieval Literature,” A Companion to British Literature, Volume I: Medieval Literature 700–1450, edited by Robert DeMaria, Jr., Heesok Chang, and Samantha Zacher (West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), p. xxxv; Jean W. Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994), pp. 440, 447, 449.

90. Gordon East, “The Concept and Political Status of the Shatter Zone,” Geographical Essays on Eastern Europe, edited by Norman J.G. Pounds (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), p. 14.

91. Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), pp. 85–87.

92. David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, p. 250.

93. Carlo M. Cipolla, Literacy and Development in the West (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969), pp. 16, 17.

94. See, for example, N.J.G. Pounds, An Historical Geography of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment, pp. 295–303.

95. Bernard Nkemdirim, “Social Change and the Genesis of Political Conflict in Nigeria,” Civilisations, Vol. 25, Nos. 1–2 (1975), p. 94.

96. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 100; Amy Chua, World on Fire, pp. 108, 109.

97. Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 65; Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, translated by J.R. Foster (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 69, 138, 140.

98. Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, translated by J.R. Foster, pp. 288, 333–336.

CHAPTER 2: RACIAL FALLACIES

1. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race or the Racial Basis of European History, revised edition (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1918), p. 100.

2. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “The Social and Economic Status of the Black Population in the United States: An Historical View, 1790–1978,” Current Population Reports, Series P–23, No. 80 (Washington: Bureau of the Census, no date), p. 31; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Race and Hispanic Origin of Householder— Families by Median and Mean Income: 1947 to 2021,” Current Population Survey, 1948–2022, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table F–5.

3. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Selected Population Profile in the United States,” 2019 American Community Survey, 1-Year Estimates, Table S0201.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Selected Characteristics of People 15 Years Old and Over by Total Money Income in 2020, Work Experience in 2020, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex,” Current Population Survey, 2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplement (CPS ASEC), Table PINC–01.

8. A study by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis found that 2 percent of black families were millionaires. (Ana Hernández Kent and Lowell R. Ricketts, “Wealth Gaps between White, Black and Hispanic Families in 2019,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, January 5, 2021.) Census data show that there were more than ten million black families. This means that there were thousands of black millionaire families. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Family Groups: 2020,” Current Population Survey, 2020, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, Table FG10.

9. “A League of Their Own,” Forbes, June/July 2022, p. 21; “Forbes 400,” Forbes, October 2020, p. 104.

10. Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273 (Washington: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2021), pp. 57–59.

11. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty Status of Families, by Type of Family, Presence of Related Children, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2020,” Current Population Survey, 1960–2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table 4; Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273, pp. 14, 56.

12. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty Status of Families, by Type of Family, Presence of Related Children, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2020,” Current Population Survey, 1960–2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table 4.

13. Ibid.

14. These data from the New York State Education Department are cited in Thomas Sowell, Charter Schools and Their Enemies (New York: Basic Books, 2020), pp. 49, 140–187. Such data are available on the Internet for anyone who wants to compare charter school results with results in the same communities, whether for research purposes or for making choices of places to send their own children.

15. Data from the New York State Education Department are shown in Thomas Sowell, Charter Schools and Their Enemies, p. 49.

16. E. Franklin Frazier, “The Impact of Urban Civilization Upon Negro Family Life,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 2, No. 5 (October 1937), p. 615.

17. Charles Lanman, Dictionary of the United States Congress (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1864), p. 537; Grady McWhiney, Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988), p. 253.

18. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933), Vol. II, p. 831.

19. Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South: A Study in Regional Resources and Human Adequacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), pp. 167–168, 175.

20. Grady McWhiney, Cracker Culture, p. 196.

21. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), Vol. I, pp. 362–363.

22. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller’s Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States, edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), pp. 12, 64, 65, 87, 90, 147, 327, 391.

23. Robert E. Lee, Lee’s Dispatches: Unpublished Letters of General Robert E. Lee, C.S.A. to Jefferson Davis and the War Department of the Confederate States of America, 1862–65, edited by Douglas Southall Freeman, New Edition (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1957), p. 8.

24. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It, enlarged edition (New York: A. B. Burdick, 1860), pp. 40, 41, 44, 381.

25. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, The Slave Economy of the Old South: Selected Essays in Economic and Social History, edited by Eugene D. Genovese (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), p. 107.

26. Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South, pp. 148, 168, 304.

27. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Total Population,” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B01003; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Median Household Income in the Past 12 Months (In 2015 Inflation-Adjusted Dollars),” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013.

28. Brett Barrouquere and Dylan T. Lovan, “Kentucky County Feels Food Stamp Reductions Sharply,” Washington Post, February 2, 2014, p. A5.

30. Annie Lowrey, “Bluegrass-State Blues,” New York Times Magazine, June 29, 2014, p. 13.

31. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Selected Characteristics of the Total and Native Populations in the United States,” 2010–2014 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table S0601.

32. See the data from the following publications: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Per Capita Income, Median Family Income, and Low Income Status in 1969 for States, Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, and Counties: 1970, pp. 7, 83; U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book, 1972, pp. 19, 186, 189, 198, 201; U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book, 1983, pp. 26, 214, 222, 228, 236; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of Population, Volume 1: General Social and Economic Characteristics, Part 1, United States Summary, PC80–1–C1, p. 1–10t; U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book: 1994, pp. 23, 214, 219, 228, 233; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population: Social and Economic Characteristics, United States, 1990 CP–2–1, p. 48; U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book: 2000, pp. 33, 34, 81, 82, 210, 225, 226; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Money Income in the United States: 1997 (With Separate Data on Valuation of Noncash Benefits),” Current Population Reports, P60–200, p. vii; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2020 Poverty and Median Household Income Estimates— Counties, States, and National, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) Program, Release date: December 2021; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “QuickFacts” for the following counties in Kentucky: Breathitt, Clay, Jackson, Lee, Leslie, and Mogoffin, downloaded on November 15, 2022; Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273, p. 27.

33. Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911), p. 113.

34. Ibid.

35. See, for example, J.R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World: An Environmental History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 27, 44, 46, 104, 110, 142–143; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 521, 522, 530, 531, 599, 600; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Siân Reynolds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Vol. I, pp. 38, 46, 57, 97; Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South, pp. 242, 246–247; Edward C. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (New York: The Free Press, 1958). See also James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How The Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), p. 76. A revealing elaboration of the American hillbilly culture was part of a best-selling book by J.D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016).

36. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004), p. 254.

37. J. Todd Moye, Freedom Flyers: The Tuskegee Airmen of World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), especially p. 13; Martin Weil, “Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., 89, Dies; First Black General in Air Force,” Washington Post, July 6, 2002, p. B7; “Black Colonel Getting General’s Rank,” New York Times, January 26, 1970, p. 13; Nick Thimmesch, “‘Chappie’ James: A Remarkable Human Being,” Human Events, March 18, 1978, p. 218.

38. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, p. 365.

39. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom, edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger, pp. 476n, 614–622.

40. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South, enlarged edition, p. 34.

41. Grady McWhiney, Cracker Culture, Chapters 2 and 3; David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 365–368, 740–743.

42. [Daniel Patrick Moynihan], The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 8. Moynihan was not identified as the author, when this was issued as an anonymous government publication. Only after it became controversial was Moynihan identified as the author.

43. See, for example, the data in Charles Murray, Coming Apart: The State of White America 1960–2010 (New York: Crown Forum, 2012), p. 160.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.; [Daniel Patrick Moynihan], The Negro Family, p. 8.

46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Births: Final Data for 2000,” National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 50, No. 5 (February 12, 2002), Table 19, p. 49.

47. Charles Murray, Coming Apart, p. 161.

48. James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations (Washington: The Cato Institute, 2016), p. 164.

49. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), pp. 230–231.

50. John Dewey, for example, said of people who disagreed with him over whether the disarmament treaties he favored were as effective in deterring war as a military defense build-up would be that they had “the stupidity of habit-bound minds.” John Dewey, “Outlawing Peace by Discussing War,” New Republic, May 16, 1928, p. 370. Another prominent early Progressive, Professor Edward A. Ross, author of 28 books, referred to people with different views as “kept” spokesmen for special interests, a “mercenary corps” as contrasted with “us champions of the social welfare.” Edward Alsworth Ross, Seventy Years of It: An Autobiography (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1936), pp. 97–98. Among later Progressives, Professor Paul Krugman, in his book Arguing with Zombies referred to the “dishonesty,” “bad faith” and “zombie” ideas of conservatives. Paul Krugman, Arguing With Zombies: Economics, Politics and the Fight For a Better Future (New York: W.W. Norton, 2021), pp. 7–8. In a similar vein, Professor Andrew Hacker simply declared that “conservatives don’t really care whether black Americans are happy or unhappy.” Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1992), p. 51.

51. Madison Grant, a central figure among the early Progressives, said: “There exists to-day a widespread and fatuous belief in the power of environment, as well as of education and opportunity to alter heredity, which arises from the dogma of the brotherhood of man, derived in its turn from the loose thinkers of the French Revolution and their American mimics.” Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race or the Racial Basis of European History, revised edition, p. 16. See also Carl Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1923), pp. xx, xxi, 75–78, 143–147, 154, 189, 190–192, 194, 197, 202, 209–210. See also “Foreword,” by Robert M. Yerkes on pages vii–viii; Clarence S. Yoakum and Robert M. Yerkes, Army Mental Tests (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1920), pp. 17, 30; [Robert M. Yerkes,] National Academy of Sciences, Psychological Examining in the United States Army (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1921), Vol. XV, Part III, pp. 553, 742, 785, 789, 791.

52. Otto Klineberg, Race Differences (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1935), p. 182.

53. James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 165, 172–174.

54. Ibid., pp. 206, 367, 371–372; John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era: 1900–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), p. 115. See also pp. 141–148. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), pp. 4, 20–23, 94–102.

55. Jason L. Riley, “Philanthropy and Black Education,” City Journal, Summer 2016, pp. 82, 84, 86.

56. John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, p. 115.

57. Mandel Sherman and Cora B. Key, “The Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” Child Development, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1932), pp. 279, 283. See also Lester R. Wheeler, “A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XXXIII, No. 5 (May 1942), pp. 327–328; L.R. Wheeler, “The Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 23, Issue 5 (May 1932), pp. 361, 363.

58. Philip E. Vernon, Intelligence and Cultural Environment (London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1969), p. 155.

59. Hugh Gordon, Mental and Scholastic Tests Among Retarded Children (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1923), p. 39.

60. Rudolf Pintner, Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1923), p. 352; Rudolph Pintner and Ruth Keller, “Intelligence Tests of Foreign Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 13, No. 4 (1922), pp. 214, 215.

61. Clifford Kirkpatrick, Intelligence and Immigration (Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company, 1926), pp. 24, 31, 34.

62. Otto Klineberg, Race Differences, pp. 182–183.

63. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Total Population,” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B01003; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Median Household Income in the Past 12 Months (In 2015 Inflation-Adjusted Dollars),” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2020 Poverty and Median Household Income Estimates— Counties, States, and National, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) Program, Release date: December 2021; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “QuickFacts” for the following counties in Kentucky: Breathitt, Clay, Jackson, Lee, Leslie, Mogoffin, and Owsley, downloaded on November 15, 2022 and January 12, 2023; Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273, p. 27. See also Brett Barrouquere and Dylan T. Lovan, “Kentucky County Feels Food Stamp Reductions Sharply,” Washington Post, February 2, 2014, p. A5; Annie Lowrey, “Bluegrass-State Blues,” New York Times Magazine, June 29, 2014, p. 13.

64. Mandel Sherman and Cora B. Key, “The Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” Child Development, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1932), pp. 279, 283.

65. Lester R. Wheeler, “A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XXXIII, No. 5 (May 1942), pp. 327, 328. See also L.R. Wheeler, “The Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 23, Issue 5 (May 1932), pp. 360, 363. “A study by Lacy, for example, showed that the average I.Q. of colored children dropped steadily from 99 to 87 in the first four school grades, whereas the White I.Q. remained almost stationary.” Otto Klineberg, “Mental Testing of Racial and National Groups,” Scientific Aspects of the Race Problem, edited by Herbert Spencer Jennings (Washington: Catholic University Press, 1941), p. 280.

66. Lester R. Wheeler, “A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XXXIII, No. 5 (May 1942), p. 322.

67. Ibid., pp. 327, 328.

68. Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, p. 532.

69. See, for example, J.R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World, pp. 27, 44, 46, 104, 110, 142–143; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 521, 522, 530, 531, 599, 600; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Siân Reynolds, Vol. I, pp. 38, 46, 57, 97; Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South, pp. 242, 246–247; Edward C. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society; J.D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy. See also James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora, p. 76.

70. Sandra Scarr and Richard A. Weinberg, “IQ Test Performance of Black Children Adopted by White Families,” American Psychologist (October 1976), pp. 726–739.

71. Linda O. McMurry, George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 8–9, 12, 13–20.

72. Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence, p. 190.

73. H.H. Goddard, “The Binet Tests in Relation to Immigration,” Journal of Psycho-Asthenics, Vol. 18, No. 2 (December 1913), p. 110.

74. Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2009), p. 98.

75. Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 211.

76. Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race, p. 99.

77. Edward Alsworth Ross, The Old World in the New: The Significance of Past and Present Immigration to the American People (New York: The Century Company, 1914), pp. 285–286.

78. Edward Alsworth Ross, “Who Outbreeds Whom?” Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference (Battle Creek, Michigan: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), p. 77.

79. John L. Gillin, “In Memoriam: Edward Alsworth Ross,” The Midwest Sociologist, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Fall 1951), p. 18; Howard W. Odum, “Edward Alsworth Ross: 1866–1951,” Social Forces, Vol. 30, No. 1 (October 1951), p. 126.

80. Edward Alsworth Ross, Sin and Society: An Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1907), pp. ix–xi.

81. Julius Weinberg, Edward Alsworth Ross and the Sociology of Progressivism (Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1972), p. 136.

82. See, for example, Roscoe Pound, “The Theory of Judicial Decision. III. A Theory of Judicial Decision For Today,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 8 (June 1923), pp. 940–959; Roscoe Pound, Law and Morals (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1924); Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice in The American City— A Summary, Part VII (Cleveland Foundation, 1922). See also Julius Weinberg, Edward Alsworth Ross and the Sociology of Progressivism, pp. 136–137. See also Walter K. Olson, Schools for Misrule: Legal Academia and an Overlawyered America (New York: Encounter Books, 2011), pp. 6, 40; Robert Heineman, Authority and the Liberal Tradition: From Hobbes to Rorty (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1994), second edition, pp. 129–131; James Davids, Erik Gustafson, and Sherena Arrington, Clashing Worldviews in the U.S. Supreme Court: Rehnquist vs. Blackmun (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2020), pp. 41–42; David M. Rabban, Law’s History: American Legal Thought and the Transatlantic Turn to History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), pp. 423–471.

83. “Dr. R.T. Ely Dies; Noted Economist,” New York Times, October 5, 1943, p. 25; See Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race (New York: Basic Books, 2013), pp. 31, 33, 34–35.

84. Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 29, 30, 33, 34, 35; Lawrence J. Rhoades, A History of the American Sociological Association: 1905–1980 (Washington: American Sociological Association, 1980), pp. 1, 2, 5; William E. Spellman, “The Economics of Edward Alsworth Ross,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 38, No. 2 (April 1979), pp. 132–133.

85. Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35.

86. Ibid., pp. 29–35.

87. Michael S. Lawlor, The Economics of Keynes in Historical Context: An Intellectual History of the General Theory (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 305n.

88. Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 24–43.

89. Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 43; Richard Overy, The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars (New York: Viking, 2009), pp. 104–105.

90. Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 216.

91. “Obituary: Sir Francis Galton,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 74, No. 3 (February 1911), p. 315; Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1963), p. 11.

92. Richard T. Ely, “The Price of Progress,” Administration, Vol. III, No. 6 (June 1922), p. 662.

93. Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 212.

94. Ibid., p. 213.

95. Ibid., p. 214.

96. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race or the Racial Basis of European History, revised edition, p. xxi.

97. Ibid., p. 49.

98. Matthew Pratt Guterl, The Color of Race in America: 1900–1940 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 67.

99. Sidney Fine, “Richard T. Ely, Forerunner of Progressivism, 1880–1901,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 37, No. 4 (March 1951), pp. 609, 610.

100. Dr. R.T. Ely Dies; Noted Economist,” New York Times, October 5, 1943, p. 25; Sidney Fine, “Richard T. Ely, Forerunner of Progressivism, 1880–1901,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 37, No. 4 (March 1951), pp. 613, 614.

101. Henry C. Taylor, “Richard Theodore Ely: April 13, 1854-October 4, 1943,” The Economic Journal, Vol. 54, No. 213 (April 1944), p. 137.

102. Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 215.

103. Henry C. Taylor, “Richard Theodore Ely: April 13, 1854-October 4, 1943,” The Economic Journal, Vol. 54, No. 213 (April 1944), p. 133.

104. Jonah Goldberg, Liberal Fascism: The Secret History of the American Left from Mussolini to the Politics of Meaning (New York: Doubleday, 2007), p. 83.

105. Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era: 1910–1917 (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1954), pp. 64–66; Tom Lewis, Washington: A History of Our National City (New York: Basic Books, 2015), pp. 272–275.

106. Lloyd E. Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and American Internationalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), p. 80.

107. Larry Walker, “Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn 1989), pp. 512–513; Ronald J. Pestritto, Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), pp. 255, 259, 260; Woodrow Wilson, The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics, revised edition (Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., Publishers, 1898), p. 625; Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom: A Call for the Emancipation of the Generous Energies of a People (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1913, 1918), pp. 20, 284.

108. Woodrow Wilson, Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1885), pp. 8, 242–243; Woodrow Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1908), pp. 157, 158, 159, 160, 167, 168, 169, 192, 193, 194.

109. Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom, pp. 19, 20, 261, 283, 284, 294.

110. See, for example, Angus Deaton, The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 2. See also Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics, and Welfare: Planning and Politico-Economic Systems Resolved into Basic Social Processes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp. 29, 36, 49, 425, 518.

111. Edward Alsworth Ross, Seventy Years of It, pp. 97–98.

112. Roscoe Pound, “The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence,” The Green Bag, October 1907, pp. 614, 615.

113. Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race, pp. 6, 10, 17, 22, 23, 28, 31, 32.

114. Ibid., p. 17.

115. Ibid., p. 250.

116. Eligio R. Padilla and Gail E. Wyatt, “The Effects of Intelligence and Achievement Testing on Minority Group Children,” The Psychosocial Development of Minority Group Children, edited by Gloria Johnson Powell, et al (New York: Brunner/Mazel, Publishers, 1983), p. 418.

117. H.H. Goddard, “The Binet Tests in Relation to Immigration,” Journal of Psycho-Asthenics, Vol. 18, No. 2 (December 1913), p. 110.

118. N.J.G. Pounds, An Historical Geography of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 9.

119. Philip E. Vernon, Intelligence and Cultural Environment, pp. 101, 145, 157–158; Mandel Sherman and Cora B. Key, “The Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” Child Development, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1932), p. 284; [Robert M. Yerkes,] National Academy of Sciences, Psychological Examining in the United States Army, Vol. XV, Part III, p. 705. See also Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 67–68.

120. I.M. Stead, Celtic Art in Britain before the Roman Conquest (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 4.

121. Luigi Barzini, The Europeans (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), p. 47.

122. Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 210–211, 214–218.

123. Andrew Tanzer, “The Bamboo Network,” Forbes, July 8, 1994, p. 139; The Economist, Pocket World in Figures: 1997 Edition (London: Profile Books, 1996), p. 14.

124. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Total Population,” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B01003; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Median Household Income in the Past 12 Months (In 2015 Inflation-Adjusted Dollars),” 2011–2015 American Community Survey, 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2020 Poverty and Median Household Income Estimates— Counties, States, and National, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE) Program, Release date: December 2021; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “QuickFacts” for the following counties in Kentucky: Breathitt, Clay, Jackson, Lee, Leslie, Mogoffin, and Owsley, downloaded on November 15, 2022 and January 12, 2023; Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273, p. 27. See also Brett Barrouquere and Dylan T. Lovan, “Kentucky County Feels Food Stamp Reductions Sharply,” Washington Post, February 2, 2014, p. A5; Annie Lowrey, “Bluegrass-State Blues,” New York Times Magazine, June 29, 2014, p. 13.

125. Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence, p. 29.

126. Ibid., p. xx.

127. Carl C. Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” Psychological Review, Vol. 37, Issue 2 (March 1930), p. 165.

128. Rudolf Pintner, Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results, new edition (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1931), p. 453; Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment: The Pursuit of Excellence in the Arts and Sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950 (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 291, 292; Malcolm Gladwell, “Getting In,” The New Yorker, October 10, 2005, pp. 80–86.

129. Sandra Scarr and Richard A. Weinberg, “IQ Test Performance of Black Children Adopted by White Families,” American Psychologist (October 1976), pp. 726, 732, 736.

130. James R. Flynn, “Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 101, No. 2 (1987), pp. 171–191. See also James R. Flynn, “The Mean IQ of Americans: Massive Gains 1932 to 1978,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 95, No. 1 (1984), pp. 29–51.

131. Since IQ tests were often used to assess the mental level of children— and it would be unrealistic to expect six-year-olds to do as well on these tests as twelve-year-olds, each child’s performance is compared to the average performance of children the same age. To do this, each child’s raw score on an IQ test was called the child’s “mental age.” That mental age is then compared to the same child’s chronological age by creating a fraction, with the child’s mental age divided by that child’s chronological age. The resulting quotient is then multiplied by 100, so that the resulting “intelligence quotient” (IQ) can be read as the percentage of the average performance of children the same age. Thus an IQ of 85 means that the individual correctly answered 85 percent of the questions answered by others in the same age bracket, and an IQ of 115 indicates that the individual correctly answered 15 percent more questions than others in the same age category. For adults, the IQ test score is no longer so directly linked with age but the intelligence quotient of a given individual is compared with that of other adults in general.

132. Lisa H. Trahan, et al., “The Flynn Effect: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 140, No. 5 (2014), pp. 1332–1360; James R. Flynn, “The Mean IQ of Americans: Massive Gains 1932 to 1978,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 95, No. 1 (1984), pp. 29–51.

133. James R. Flynn, Where Have All the Liberals Gone? Race, Class, and Ideals in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 72–74.

134. Charles Murray, Facing Reality: Two Truths About Race in America (New York: Encounter Books, 2021), p. 38.

135. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), p. 99. Belief that innate mental inferiority of black children had been proved was reported as “a common fallacy” by James B. Conant in 1961. James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs: A Commentary on Schools in Metropolitan Areas (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), p. 12.

136. Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), pp. 43–44.

137. James R. Flynn, “The Mean IQ of Americans: Massive Gains 1932 to 1978,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 95, No. 1 (1984), pp. 29–51; James R. Flynn, Where Have All the Liberals Gone?, pp. 72–74; James R. Flynn, “Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 101, No. 2 (1987), pp. 171–191.

138. Rochelle Sharpe, “Losing Ground: In Latest Recession, Only Blacks Suffered Net Employment Loss,” Wall Street Journal, September 14, 1993, pp. A1, A12.

139. Glenn B. Canner, et al., “Home Mortgage Disclosure Act: Expanded Data on Residential Lending,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, November 1991, p. 870; Glenn B. Canner and Dolores S. Smith, “Expanded HMDA Data on Residential Lending: One Year Later,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, November 1992, p. 808.

140. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report to the Congress on Credit Scoring and Its Effects on the Availability and Affordability of Credit, submitted to the Congress pursuant to Section 215 of the Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act of 2003, August 2007, p. 80.

141. Thomas Sowell, The Housing Boom and Bust, revised edition (New York: Basic Books, 2009), pp. 103–104; Alicia H. Munnell, et al., “Mortgage Lending in Boston: Interpreting HMDA Data,” Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Working Paper No. 92–7, October 1992, pp. 2, 25.

142. Thomas Sowell, The Housing Boom and Bust, revised edition, pp. 29, 30, 31, 36–44, 48, 51, 72–74, 77, 81–82, 100, 109.

143. Thomas Sowell, “Froth in Frisco or Another Bubble?” Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2005, p. A13.

144. Thomas Sowell, The Housing Boom and Bust, revised edition, Chapters 3 and 5; Dean Baker, The Housing Bubble and the Great Recession: Ten Years Later, Center for Economic and Policy Research, September 2018; Justin Lahart, “The Great Recession: A Downturn Sized Up,” Wall Street Journal, July 28, 2009, p. A12; “No Place Like Home,” The Economist, January 18, 2020, special report on housing, p. 3.

145. Bob Zelnick, Backfire: A Reporter’s Look at Affirmative Action (Washington: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1996), p. 330.

146. See the “Dear Colleague Letter” issued by the U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Department of Education on January 8, 2014.

147. Abigail Thernstrom and Stephan Thernstrom, No Excuses: Closing the Racial Gap in Learning (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), pp. 138, 139.

148. Ibid., p. 140.

149. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Companion: Quotations from the Speeches, Essays, and Books of Martin Luther King, Jr., selected by Coretta Scott King (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), p. 101.

149

CHAPTER 3: CHESS PIECES FALLACIES

1. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 30–31, 43, 60–61, 302, 325.

2. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1976), pp. 380–381.

3. Edmund Burke, The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, Volume II: Party, Parliament, and the American Crisis 1766–1774, edited by Paul Langford (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 459.

4. “Maryland’s Mobile Millionaires,” Wall Street Journal, March 12, 2010, p. A18.

5. “Ducking Higher Taxes,” Wall Street Journal, December 21, 2010, p. A18.

6. David Walker and Mike Foster, “New U.K. Tax Sends Hedge Funds Fleeing,” Wall Street Journal, August 25, 2009, p. C2.

7. “Iceland’s Laffer Curve,” Wall Street Journal, March 12, 2007, p. A14.

8. Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation: The People’s Business (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1924), p. 74; Robert A. Wilson, “Personal Exemptions and Individual Income Tax Rates, 1913–2002,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2002, p. 219.

9. Robert A. Wilson, “Personal Exemptions and Individual Income Tax Rates, 1913–2002,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2002, p. 219; Gene Smiley and Richard H. Keehn, “Federal Personal Income Tax Policy in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (June 1995), pp. 286, 295; United States Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income: 1920 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922), p. 5; United States Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income: 1928 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1930), p. 5.

10. Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation, pp. 13, 79, 80, 94, 127–128, and Chapter VIII.

11. “Text of President’s Speech Elaborating His Views,” Washington Post, February 13, 1924, p. 4; Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation, pp. 17, 20–21, 80, 150–151.

12. Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation, p. 170.

13. Gene Smiley and Richard H. Keehn, “Federal Personal Income Tax Policy in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (June 1995), p. 289. See also Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation, pp. 79–80, 141.

14. See, for example, my monograph, “‘Trickle Down Theory’ and ‘Tax Cuts for the Rich’” (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2012).

15. Robert A. Wilson, “Personal Exemptions and Individual Income Tax Rates, 1913–2002,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2002, p. 219; United States Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income: 1920, p. 5; United States Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income: 1928, p. 5.

16. See, for example, Joseph A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), Part II.

17. Henry Hazlitt, The Wisdom of Henry Hazlitt (Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: The Foundation for Economic Education, 1993), p. 329.

18. Peter Robinson, “A Capital Thinker,” Stanford Magazine, January/February 2007, p. 47.

19. William N. Walker, “Nixon Taught Us How Not to Fight Inflation,” Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2021, p. A13.

20. Michael Wines, “Caps on Prices Only Deepen Zimbabweans’ Misery,” New York Times, August 2, 2007, pp. A1, A8.

21. See, for example, Robert L. Schuettinger and Eamonn F. Butler, Forty Centuries of Wage and Price Controls: How Not to Fight Inflation (Washington: Heritage Foundation, 1979); Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics: A Common Sense Guide to the Economy, fifth edition (New York: Basic Books, 2015), Chapter 3.

22. See Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics, fifth edition, pp. 1, 39–48, 49.

23. Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2019), pp. 52–55, 105–110; Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics, fifth edition, Chapter 11.

24. Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics: How Much Can Be Blamed on Discrimination (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), p. 42.

25. Ibid., pp. 42–43.

26. George J. Stigler, “The Economics of Minimum Wage Legislation,” American Economic Review, Vol. 36, No. 3 (June 1946), p. 358.

27. Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics, pp. 42–43.

28. Alison Stewart, First Class: The Legacy of Dunbar, America’s First Black Public High School (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2013), Chapter 10; Frederick W. Gooding, Jr., American Dream Deferred: Back Federal Workers in Washington, DC, 1941–1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018), pp. 101–105, 107–109, 111, 113–115. See also Thomas Sowell, A Personal Odyssey (New York: The Free Press, 2000), p. 110.

29. Milton & Rose Friedman, Free to Choose: A Personal Statement (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980), p. 238.

30. Gary S. Becker, The Economics of Discrimination, second edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971).

31. See, for example, Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 49–52. The term “Discrimination II,” used in those pages, was defined and illustrated on pages 30–33.

32. Bernard E. Anderson, Negro Employment in Public Utilities: A Study of Racial Policies in the Electric Power, Gas, and Telephone Industries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Venus Green, Race on the Line: Gender, Labor, and Technology in the Bell System, 1880–1980 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), pp. 210–211; Michael R. Winston, “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historical Perspective,” Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 3 (Summer 1971), pp. 695, 705; Milton & Rose Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 91–92, 94–95, 105–106, 153–154; Greg Robinson, “Davis, Allison,” Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, edited by Colin A. Palmer (Detroit: Thomson-Gale, 2006), Volume C–F, p. 583; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81; Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 49–52; Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 182–183.

33. See, for example, Bernard E. Anderson, Negro Employment in Public Utilities, pp. 73, 80, 84–87, 92–95, 114, 139, 150, 152; Venus Green, Race on the Line, pp. 210–211; Michael R. Winston, “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historical Perspective,” Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 3 (Summer 1971), pp. 695, 705; Greg Robinson, “Davis, Allison,” Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, edited by Colin A. Palmer, Volume C–F, p. 583; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81; Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 49–52; Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics, pp. 182–183.

34. Bernard E. Anderson, Negro Employment in Public Utilities; Venus Green, Race on the Line, pp. 210–211; Michael R. Winston, “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historical Perspective,” Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 3 (Summer 1971), pp. 695, 705; Milton & Rose Friedman, Two Lucky People, pp. 91–92, 94–95, 105–106, 153–154; Greg Robinson, “Davis, Allison,” Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, edited by Colin A. Palmer, Volume C–F, p. 583; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81; Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 49–52; Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics, pp. 182–183.

35. “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81; Michael R. Winston, “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historical Perspective,” Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 3 (Summer 1971), p. 705.

36. Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), pp. 23, 27.

37. Raphael Mahler, “Jews in Public Service and the Liberal Professions in Poland, 1918–1939,” Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 6, No. 4 (October 1944), pp. 298, 299.

38. Walter E. Williams, South Africa’s War Against Capitalism (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1989), pp. 78, 101–105.

39. Ibid., p. 81.

40. “Class and the American Dream,” New York Times, May 30, 2005, p. A14.

41. Eugene Robinson, “Tattered Dream: Who’ll Tackle the Issue of Upward Mobility?” Washington Post, November 23, 2007, p. A39.

42. E.J. Dionne, Jr., “Political Stupidity, U.S. Style,” Washington Post, July 29, 2010, p. A23. This column also appeared in Investor’s Business Daily, under the title “Overtaxed Rich Is a Fairy Tale of Supply Side.”

43. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Barack Obama: 2013 (Washington: United States Government Publishing Office, 2018), Book II, p. 1331.

44. Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide: Unequal Societies and What We Can Do About Them (New York: W.W. Norton, 2015), p. 88.

45. Ibid., p. 90.

46. Ibid., p. xv.

47. U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, p. 7.

48. See, for example, W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm, “By Our Own Bootstraps: Economic Opportunity & the Dynamics of Income Distribution,” Annual Report, 1995, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, p. 8; Mark Robert Rank, Thomas A. Hirschl and Kirk A. Foster, Chasing the American Dream: Understanding What Shapes Our Fortunes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 105; Thomas A. Hirschl and Mark R. Rank, “The Life Course Dynamics of Affluence,” PLoS ONE, January 28, 2015, p. 5.

49. Thomas A. Hirschl and Mark R. Rank, “The Life Course Dynamics of Affluence,” PLoS ONE, January 28, 2015, p. 5.

50. W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm, “By Our Own Bootstraps: Economic Opportunity & the Dynamics of Income Distribution,” Annual Report, 1995, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, p. 8.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid.

53. U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, p. 10. See also “Movin’ On Up,” Wall Street Journal, November 13, 2007, p. A24.

54. Niels Veldhuis, et al., “The ‘Poor’ Are Getting Richer,” Fraser Forum, January/February 2013, p. 25.

55. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Consumer Expenditures Report,” Report 1090, December 2020, Table 1, p. 12.

56. Ibid.

57. John McNeil, “Changes in Median Household Income: 1969 to 1996,” Current Population Reports, P23–196 (Washington: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998), p. 1.

58. Herman P. Miller, Income Distribution in the United States (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 7.

59. Louis Uchitelle, “Stagnant Pay: A Delayed Impact,” New York Times, June 18, 1991, p. D2.

60. Barbara Vobejda, “Elderly Lead All in Financial Improvement,” Washington Post, September 1, 1998, p. A3.

61. Amy Kaslow, “Growing American Economy Leaves Middle Class Behind,” Christian Science Monitor, November 1, 1994, p. 2.

62. Compare Tom Wicker, “L.B.J.’s Great Society,” New York Times, May 7, 1990, p. A15; Tom Wicker, “Let ’Em Eat Swiss Cheese,” New York Times, September 2, 1988, p. A27.

63. Paul Krugman, “Rich Man’s Recovery,” New York Times, September 13, 2013, p. A25.

64. U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, p. 4.

65. Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income Division, “The 400 Individual Income Tax Returns Reporting the Largest Adjusted Gross Incomes Each Year, 1992–2014,” December 2016, Table 4, p. 17.

66. Emily A. Shrider, Melissa Kollar, Frances Chen and Jessica Semega, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020,” Current Population Reports, P60–273 (Washington: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2021), p. 9.

67. Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide, p. xv.

68. Alan Reynolds, Income and Wealth (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006), p. 67.

69. Robert Rector and Rachel Sheffield, “Air Conditioning, Cable TV, and an Xbox: What Is Poverty in the United States Today?” Backgrounder, No. 2575, Heritage Foundation, July 18, 2011, p. 10.

70. Thomas A. Hirschl and Mark R. Rank, “The Life Course Dynamics of Affluence,” PLoS ONE, January 28, 2015, p. 5.

71. W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm, “By Our Own Bootstraps: Economic Opportunity & the Dynamics of Income Distribution,” Annual Report, 1995, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, p. 16; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Age— All People (Both Sexes Combined) by Median and Mean Income: 1974 to 2020,” Current Population Survey, 1975–2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table P–10.

72. Alan Reynolds, Income and Wealth, p. 22.

CHAPTER 4: KNOWLEDGE FALLACIES

1. See, for example, Thomas Sowell, A Conflict of Visions: Ideological Origins of Political Struggles (New York: Basic Books, 2002), Chapter 3.

2. Joses C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850–1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), pp. 119, 145–146. Similarly, most of the Italian immigrants to Australia, between 1881 and 1899, came from places containing only 10 percent of the population of Italy. Helen Ware, A Profile of the Italian Community in Australia (Melbourne: Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs and Co.As.It. Italian Assistance Association, 1981), p. 12.

3. Helen Ware, A Profile of the Italian Community in Australia, p. 12.

4. G. Cresciani, “Italian Immigrants 1920–1945,” The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins, edited by James Jupp (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 501.

5. Walter D. Kamphoefner, “The German Agricultural Frontier: Crucible or Cocoon,” Ethnic Forum, Volume 4, Nos. 1–2 (Spring 1984), pp. 24–25.

6. Theodore Huebener, The Germans in America (Philadelphia: Chilton Company, 1962), p. 84; Hildegard Binder Johnson, “The Location of German Immigrants in the Middle West,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, edited by Henry Madison Kendall, Volume XLI (1951), pp. 24–25.

7. Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 18.

8. Louise L’Estrange Fawcett, “Lebanese, Palestinians and Syrians in Colombia,” The Lebanese in the World: A Century of Emigration, edited by Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi (London: The Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1992), p. 368.

9. Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York’s Jews 1870–1914 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 76, 78.

10. Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), p. 185.

11. Charles A. Price, The Methods and Statistics of ‘Southern Europeans in Australia’ (Canberra: The Australian National University, 1963), p. 45.

12. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 30–31, 43, 60–61, 302, 325.

13. Frederick Jackson Turner, “Pioneer Ideals and the State University,” Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” and Other Essays, edited by John Mack Faragher (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), p. 116.

14. F.A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), p. 26.

15. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, pp. 30–31, 43, 60–61, 302, 325.

16. Ibid.

17. See John Dewey, “Can Education Share in Social Reconstruction?” John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 9: 1933–1934, edited by Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), pp. 205–209.

18. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston (New York: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 69.

19. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness (London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson, 1793). The word “Political” in the title was used in the sense common at the time, referring to organized society— the polity— much as the expression “political economy” in that same era referred to the economics of the society or polity, as distinguished from the economics of a household or a business. In short, Godwin wrote on social justice, as that term is used today.

20. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on Morals and Happiness, edited by F.E.L. Priestley (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1946), Vol. I, p. 104.

21. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, edited by W.J. Ashley (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1909), p. 947.

22. John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Vol. XVIII: Essays on Politics and Society, edited by J.M. Robson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), p. 269.

23. John Stuart Mill, “Civilization,” Ibid., p. 139.

24. Ibid., p. 121.

25. John Stuart Mill, “De Tocqueville on Democracy in America [I],” Ibid., p. 86.

26. John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” Ibid., p. 222.

27. Ibid. p. 267.

28. John Stuart Mill, “Civilization,” Ibid., p. 128.

29. Randall E. Stross, The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World (New York: Crown, 2007), p. 4; Ford Richardson Bryan, Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford, revised edition (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997), p. 175.

30. Peter L. Jakab, Visions of a Flying Machine: The Wright Brothers and the Process of Invention (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), pp. 2–3, 7.

31. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, translated by Maurice Cranston, p. 115.

32. Ibid., p. 89.

33. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on Morals and Happiness, edited by F.E.L. Priestley, Vol. I, p. 446; Antoine-Nicolas de Condorcet, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, translated by June Barraclough (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1955), p. 114.

34. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence: 1846–1895 (New York: International Publishers, 1942), p. 190.

35. Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (London: Constable and Company, 1928), p. 456.

36. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 239.

37. Mona Charen, Do-Gooders: How Liberals Hurt Those They Claim to Help— and the Rest of Us (New York: Sentinel, 2004), p. 124.

38. Ralph Nader, “The Safe Car You Can’t Buy,” The Nation, April 11, 1959, p. 312.

39. Milton & Rose Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 454.

40. George J. Stigler, Memoirs of an Unregulated Economist (New York: Basic Books, 1988), p. 89.

41. Ibid., p. 178.

42. Milton & Rose Friedman, Two Lucky People, pp. 370–371.

43. John Maynard Keynes, Two Memoirs: Dr. Melchoir, A Defeated Enemy and My Early Beliefs (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1949), pp. 97–98.

44. Ibid., p. 98.

45. R.F. Harrod, The Life of John Maynard Keynes (London: Macmillan, 1952), p. 468.

46. Walter E. Weyl, The New Democracy: An Essay on Certain Political and Economic Tendencies in the United States (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912), pp. 164, 353.

47. Ibid., p. 164.

48. Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics: How Much Can Be Blamed on Discrimination (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), pp. 42–43.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid., p. 43.

51. Nicholas Kristof, “Is a Hard Life Inherited?” New York Times, August 10, 2014, Sunday Review section, p. 1.

52. See, for examples, Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics: A Common Sense Guide to the Economy, fifth edition (New York: Basic Books, 2015), Chapter 11; Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2019), pp. 52–55, 105–110; P.T. Bauer, “Regulated Wages in Under-developed Countries,” The Public Stake in Union Power, edited by Philip D. Bradley (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1959), pp. 324–349; Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics, pp. 32–38, 46–48, 51–53.

53. “Economic and Financial Indicators,” The Economist, March 15, 2003, p. 100.

54. “Economic and Financial Indicators,” The Economist, September 7, 2013, p. 92.

55. “Hong Kong’s Jobless Rate Falls,” Wall Street Journal, January 16, 1991, p. C16.

56. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), Part 1, p. 126.

57. Charles H. Young and Helen R. Y. Reid, The Japanese Canadians (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1938), pp. 47–50; Tomoko Makabe, “The Theory of the Split Labor Market: A Comparison of the Japanese Experience in Brazil and Canada,” Social Forces, March 1981, pp. 795, 796.

58. Walter E. Williams, South Africa’s War Against Capitalism (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1989), pp. 70–74; Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics, pp. 46–48; Walter E. Williams, The State Against Blacks (New York: New Press, 1982), pp. 39–40.

59. P.T. Bauer, “Regulated Wages in Under-developed Countries,” The Public Stake in Union Power, edited by Philip D. Bradley, pp. 324–349; Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics, pp. 32–38. For a more general discussion of minimum wage laws and their effects on unemployment, see Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics, fifth edition, pp. 213–215, 220–233; Thomas Sowell, Discrimination and Disparities, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 52–55, 105–110.

60. Yuka Hayashi and Lalita Clozel, “CFPB Reveals Its Plan to Overhaul Payday-Lending Regulation,” Wall Street Journal, February 7, 2019, p. B11.

61. For examples, see the following editorials from the New York Times: “391 Percent Payday Loan,” April 13, 2009, p. A20, “Pay Pals,” June 10, 2009, p. A28, and “Borrowers Bled Dry,” July 13, 2009, p. A18.

62. See, for example, “Payday Parasites,” Washington Post, February 14, 2008, p. A24; Bethany McLean, “Loan Shark Inc.,” The Atlantic Monthly, May 2016, pp. 64–69; “A Crackdown on Predatory Payday Loans,” Los Angeles Times, October 9, 2017, p. A13; “Payday Lenders, Unleashed,” Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2019, p. A10.

63. Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers: The Journey of the East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 148.

64. Simon Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews to the United States: Background and Structure,” Perspectives in American History, edited by Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Charles Warren Center for Studies in American History, Harvard University, 1975), Vol. IX, p. 113.

65. Oliver MacDonagh, “The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, edited by Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Charles Warren Center for Studies in American History, Harvard University, 1976), Vol. X, pp. 394–395.

66. Walter E. Weyl, The New Democracy, p. 164.

67. United States Senate, Eighty-Ninth Congress, Second Session, Family Planning Program: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Employment, Manpower and Poverty of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 84.

68. The New York Times editorially rejected “emotions and unexamined tradition” in this area, and its education editor declared: “To fear that sex education will become synonymous with greater sexual permissiveness is to misunderstand the fundamental purpose of the entire enterprise.” Fred M. Hechinger, “Introduction,” Sex Education and the Schools, edited by Virginia Hilu (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), p. xiv. See also “Three’s a Crowd,” New York Times, March 17, 1972, p. 40.

69. The American Social Health Association, Today’s VD Control Problem (New York: American Social Health Association, 1966), Table 1, p. 20.

70. Jacqueline R. Kasun, The War Against Population: The Economics and Ideology of World Population Control (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988), p. 142.

71. Hearings Before the Select Committee on Population, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, Fertility and Contraception in America: Adolescent and Pre-Adolescent Pregnancy (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), Volume II, p. 253.

72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019 (April 2021), p. 33.

73. Jacqueline R. Kasun, The War Against Population, pp. 142, 144.

74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Births to Teenagers in the United States, 1940–2000,” National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 49, No. 10 (September 25, 2001), Table 1, p. 10.

75. Ibid. See also graphs on page 2.

76. Marvin Zelnik and John F. Kantner, “Sexual and Contraceptive Experience of Young Unmarried Women in the United States, 1976 and 1971,” Family Planning Perspectives, Vol. 9, No. 2 (March-April 1977), p. 56.

77. Suzanne Fields, “‘War’ Pits Parents vs. Public Policy,” Chicago Sun-Times, October 17, 1992, p. 19.

78. Ibid.

79. James Hottois and Neal A. Milner, The Sex Education Controversy: A Study of Politics, Education, and Morality (Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1975), p. 6.

80. See, for example, Hearings Before the Select Committee on Population, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, Fertility and Contraception in America, Volume II, pp. 1, 2; Paul A. Reichelt and Harriet H. Werley, “Contraception, Abortion and Venereal Disease: Teenagers’ Knowledge and the Effect of Education,” Family Planning Perspectives, Vol. 7, No. 2 (March-April 1975), pp. 83–88; Les Picker, “Human Sexuality Education: Implications for Biology Teaching,” The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 46, No. 2 (February 1984), pp. 92–98.

81. Hearings Before the Select Committee on Population, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, Fertility and Contraception in America, Volume II, p. 625.

82. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on Morals and Happiness, edited by F.E.L. Priestley, Vol. I, p. 47.

83. William Godwin, The Enquirer: Reflections on Education, Manners, and Literature (London: G. G. and J. Robinson, 1797), p. 70.

84. Woodrow Wilson, “What is Progress?” American Progressivism: A Reader, edited by Ronald J. Pestritto and William J. Atto (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2008), p. 48.

85. John Dewey, Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916), p. 92.

86. John Dewey and Evelyn Dewey, Schools of To-Morrow (New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1915), p. 304.

87. John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 24.

88. See, for example, Robert B. Westbrook, “Schools for Industrial Democrats: The Social Origins of John Dewey’s Philosophy of Education,” American Journal of Education, Vol. 100, No. 4 (August 1992), pp. 401–419.

89. Woodrow Wilson, “The Study of Administration,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 2 (June 1887), p. 207.

90. Ibid., p. 208.

91. Ibid., p. 214.

92. Ronald J. Pestritto and William J. Atto, “Introduction to American Progressivism,” American Progressivism, edited by Ronald J. Pestritto and William J. Atto, pp. 23–25.

93. Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom: A Call for the Emancipation of the Generous Energies of a People (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1918, 1913), pp. vii–viii, 294. See also pages 19–20, 261, 283–284.

94. Ibid., p. v.

95. Ramsey Clark, Crime in America: Observations On Its Nature, Causes, Prevention and Control (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), p. 60.

96. Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics, and Welfare: Planning and Politico-Economic Systems Resolved into Basic Social Processes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 36.

97. Ibid., p. 29.

98. Angus Deaton, The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 2.

99. John Dewey, “Freedom and Culture,” John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 13: 1938–1939, edited by Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988), p. 65.

100. Ibid.

101. Ibid., p. 66.

102. John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1920), p. 145.

103. John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 92.

104. Ibid., p. 369.

105. John Dewey, “Liberalism and Social Action,” John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 11: 1935–1937, edited by Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987), p. 53.

106. John Dewey and Evelyn Dewey, Schools of To-Morrow, p. 109.

107. Roscoe Pound, “The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence,” The Green Bag, October 1907, pp. 614, 615.

108. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice in the American City: A Summary (The Cleveland Foundation, 1922), Part VII, pp. 4, 13, 14, 29, 30, 31; Roscoe Pound, Law and Morals (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1924), pp. ii, iii, 6, 33, 44, 59.

109. Roscoe Pound, Law and Morals, pp. 13, 14.

110. Roscoe Pound, The Ideal Element in Law (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2002), pp. 19, 45, 104, 108, 110, 207, 258–259, 313.

111. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice in the American City, Part VII, pp. 5, 51; Roscoe Pound, “The Theory of Judicial Decision. III. A Theory of Judicial Decision for Today,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 8 (June 1923), pp. 954, 955, 956, 957, 958.

112. Roscoe Pound, “The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence,” The Green Bag, October 1907, pp. 612, 613.

113. Barry Cushman, “Federalism,” The Cambridge Companion to the United States Constitution, edited by Karen Orren and John W. Compton (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), p. 216.

114. Herbert Croly, a leading Progressive author and the first editor of The New Republic magazine, deplored what he called “the practical immutability of the Constitution.” Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912, 1909), p. 200.

115. Roscoe Pound, “The Theory of Judicial Decision. III. A Theory of Judicial Decision for Today,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 8 (June 1923), p. 946.

116. Roscoe Pound, “Mechanical Jurisprudence,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 8 (December 1908), p. 615.

117. Ibid., pp. 605, 609, 612.

118. Roscoe Pound, Law and Morals, pp. 55–56, 58; Roscoe Pound, “The Theory of Judicial Decision. III. A Theory of Judicial Decision for Today,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 8 (June 1923), pp. 950, 953.

119. Roscoe Pound, “Mechanical Jurisprudence,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 8 (December 1908), pp. 612, 614.

120. Godwin, Condorcet and some latter-day believers in that approach are quoted in Thomas Sowell, A Conflict of Visions, pp. 157–161, 197.

121. Louis D. Brandeis, “The Living Law,” Illinois Law Review, Vol. 10, No. 7 (February 1916), p. 462; John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1922), pp. 18–19, 46; Roscoe Pound, “Review: The Principles of Anthropology and Sociology in Their Relation to Criminal Procedure by Maurice Parmelee,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 3, No. 2 (May 1909), pp. 283–284.

122. See Fred P. Graham, “High Court Puts New Curb on Powers of the Police to Interrogate Suspects,” New York Times, June 14, 1966, pp. 1, 25.

123. Sidney E. Zion, “Attack on Court Heard by Warren,” New York Times, September 10, 1965, pp. 1, 38.

124. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Part 1, p. 414.

125. Ibid.; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1980 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1980), p. 186.

126. See U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1982–83 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 178.

127. Chief Justice Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1977), p. 317. Such a reaction was not peculiar to Chief Justice Earl Warren. As far back as the eighteenth century, Edmund Burke saw a similar pattern among some of his contemporaries: “They never had any kind of system right or wrong, but only invented occasionally some miserable tale for the day, in order meanly to sneak out of difficulties into which they had proudly strutted.” Edmund Burke, Speeches and Letters on American Affairs (London: J.M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1961), p. 8.

128. F.A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty, p. 30.

128

CHAPTER 5: WORDS, DEEDS AND DANGERS

1. Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1953), pp. 214–215.

2. Milton and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose: A Personal Statement (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980), p. 146.

3. Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy, Vol. II: The Mirage of Social Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 64.

4. Ibid., p. 95; See also pp. 64, 75, 79; Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy, Vol. I: Rules and Order (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), p. 27.

5. Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty, Vol. II: TheMirage of Social Justice, p. 64.

6. Robert C. Nichols, “Heredity, Environment, and School Achievement,” Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Summer 1968), p. 126.

7. Alan Reynolds, Income and Wealth (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006), p. 67.

8. “Choose Your Parents Wisely,” The Economist, July 26, 2014, pp. 21–22, 25.

9. Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty, Vol. I: Rules and Order, Chapter 2.

10. See, for example, Thomas Sowell, The Quest for Cosmic Justice (New York: The Free Press, 1999).

11. Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty, Vol. II: The Mirage of Social Justice, p. 68.

12. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice in the American City: A Summary (The Cleveland Foundation, 1922), Part VII, pp. 28–29, 87–88; Roscoe Pound, “The Theory of Judicial Decision. III. A Theory of Judicial Decision for Today,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 8 (June 1923), pp. 944, 945, 957; John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct: An Introduction to Social Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1922), p. 46.

13. Edmund Burke, Speeches and Letters on American Affairs (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1961), p. 198.

14. Milton and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose, p. 148.

15. Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty, Vol. II: The Mirage of Social Justice, p. 67.

16. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on Morals and Happiness, edited by F.E.L. Priestley (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1946), Vol. II, p. 419.

17. Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (London: Constable and Company, 1928), p. 254.

18. Ibid., p. 169.

19. Ken Murray, “Genetics, Athletics Mesh for Mannings,” Baltimore Sun, December 12, 2004, p. 1D.

20. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Barack Obama: 2013 (Washington: United States Government Publishing Office, 2018), Book II, p. 1331.

21. Herman Kahn, World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1979), pp. 60–61.

22. “Operation Wealth Speed,” Forbes, April/May 2021, p. 72.

23. Jonathan I. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism: 1550–1750 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), pp. 5–23.

24. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, second edition (London: Oxford University Pres, 1965), pp. 404n, 472–476, 478, 526–527; Lennox A. Mills, Southeast Asia: Illusion and Reality in Politics and Economics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1964), p. 123; J.A.C. Mackie, “Anti-Chinese Outbreaks in Indonesia, 1959–68,” The Chinese in Indonesia, edited by J.A.C. Mackie (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1976), pp. 82, 83, 92.

25. “Is Africa Ready for Amin?” Newsweek, August 4, 1975, pp. 36, 41; Roger Mann, “Amin Buys Loyalty of Soldiers,” Washington Post, April 6, 1977, p. A13; Steven Strasser, Helen Gibson, and Ron Moreau, “The Fall of Idi Amin,” Newsweek, April 23, 1979, pp. 41–42; Pranay B. Gupte, “Picking Up the Pieces in Uganda Is Not Easy,” New York Times, June 1, 1980, p. E2.

26. Sean Turnell, Fiery Dragons: Banks, Moneylenders and Microfinance in Burma (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2008), pp. 13–14, 49; Ian Brown, Burma’s Economy in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), pp. 96–97.

27. “Is Africa Ready for Amin?” Newsweek, August 4, 1975, pp. 36, 41; Roger Mann, “Amin Buys Loyalty of Soldiers,” Washington Post, April 6, 1977, p. A13; Steven Strasser, Helen Gibson, and Ron Moreau, “The Fall of Idi Amin,” Newsweek, April 23, 1979, pp. 41–42; Pranay B. Gupte, “Picking Up the Pieces in Uganda Is Not Easy,” New York Times, June 1, 1980, p. E2.

28. Sean Turnell, Fiery Dragons, p. 193. See also Usha Mahajani, The Role of Indian Minorities in Burma and Malaya (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1973), p. 20.

29. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, second edition, pp. 513, 514n, 515.

30. Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews: From the Babylonian Exile to the End of World War II (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1947), pp. 387–394; Esther Benbassa, The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present, translated by M.B. DeBevoise (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 15, 16, 20–21; H.H. Ben-Sasson, “The Collapse of Old Settlements and the Establishment of New Ones, 1348–1517,” A History of the Jewish People, edited by H.H. Ben-Sasson (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976), pp. 561–565.

31. Roger P. Bartlett, Human Capital: The Settlement of Foreigners in Russia, 1762–1804 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 35, 86–87, 88.

32. Ibid., p. 87.

33. John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, Vol. XVIII: Essays on Politics and Society, edited by J.M. Robson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), p. 245.

34. See Rob Arnott and Casey B. Mulligan, “How Deadly Were the Covid Lockdowns?” Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2023, p. A15; Casey B. Mulligan and Robert D. Arnott, “The Young Were Not Spared: What Death Certificates Reveal about Non-Covid Excess Deaths,” Inquiry, Vol. 59 (2022), pp. 1–9; Jiaquan Xu, et al., “Mortality in the United States, 2021,” NCHS Data Brief, No. 456, December 2022, Figure 4, p. 4.

35. Edmund Burke, Speeches and Letters on American Affairs, p. 198.

36. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty Status of Families, by Type of Family, Presence of Related Children, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2020,” Current Population Survey, 1960–2021, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (CPS ASEC), Table 4.

37. Terry M. Moe, Special Interest: Teachers Unions and America’s Public Schools (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2011), p. 280.

38. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 233.

39. Ibid.

40. Hugh Davis Graham, “The Origins of Affirmative Action: Civil Rights and the Regulatory State,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 523 (September 1992), pp. 53, 54.

41. See, for example, Shelby Steele, The Content of Our Character: A New Vison of Race in America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990); Shelby Steele, White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era (New York: HarperCollins, 2006).

42. Shelby Steele, White Guilt, p. 123.

43. Ibid., p. 124.

44. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White, pp. 158–161.

45. James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings: A Survey and New Evidence (Santa Monica, California: The Rand Corporation, 1978), pp. 15, 19. See also p. 14.

46. “Civil Rights Act,” New York Times, July 5, 1964, p. E1.

47. Daniel P. Moynihan, “Employment, Income, and the Ordeal of the Negro Family,” Daedalus, Vol. 94, No. 4 (Fall 1965), p. 752.

48. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White, p. 150; Congressional Record: Senate, June 19, 1964, p. 14511; E.W. Kenworthy, “Action by Senate: Revised Measure Now Goes Back to House for Concurrence,” New York Times, June 20, 1964, p. 1; Congressional Record: House, July 2, 1964, p. 15897; “House Civil Rights Vote,” New York Times, July 3, 1964, p. 9; E.W. Kenworthy, “President Signs Civil Rights Bill,” New York Times, July 3, 1964, pp. 1, 9; Statistics of the Congressional Election of November 6, 1962 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1963), p. 46; William Anderson, “Predicts G.O.P. Will Capture House in 1964,” Chicago Daily Tribune, November 20, 1962, p. 8.

49. For documented examples, see Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), pp. 11, 13, 26–27, 30–32, 33, 34, 61, 62–63, 69, 120–122.

50. Ibid., p. 32.

51. Ibid., pp. 12–13, 30, 33, 34, 121–122.

52. Ibid., pp. 12, 13, 120, 121.

53. John H. Bunzel, “Affirmative-Action Admissions: How It “Works” at UC Berkeley,” The Public Interest, Fall 1988, p. 124; National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education: 1996 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996,) p. 86.

54. John H. Bunzel, “Affirmative-Action Admissions: How It “Works” at UC Berkeley,” The Public Interest, Fall 1988, p. 125.

55. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch: How Affirmative Action Hurts Students It’s Intended to Help, and Why Universities Won’t Admit It (New York: Basic Books, 2012), pp. 138, 153, 154.

56. Ibid., p. 154.

57. Ibid.

58. Arthur Hu, “Minorities Need More Support,” The Tech (M.I.T.), March 17, 1987, pp. 4, 6.

59. Robert Lerner and Althea K. Nagai, Racial and Ethnic Preferences in Admissions at Five Public Medical Schools (Washington: Center for Equal Opportunity, 2001), pp. 12, 34–36, 51–52, 71–73, 81–83.

60. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, p. 231.

61. Ibid., pp. 237–244; Gail Heriot, “A Dubious Expediency,” A Dubious Expediency: How Race Preferences Damage Higher Education, edited by Gail Heriot and Maimon Schwarzschild (New York: Encounter Books, 2021), pp. 73–74, 75.

62. See, for example, Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, “Reflections on The Shape of the River,” UCLA Law Review, Vol. 46, No. 5 (June 1999), pp. 1588–1590.

63. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, pp. 106, 236.

64. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, “Reflections on The Shape of the River,” UCLA Law Review, Vol. 46, No. 5 (June 1999), pp. 1583–1631; Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, pp. 106–107, 236–237; Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), pp. 200–203.

65. Merrill Sheils, et al., “Minority Report Card,” Newsweek, July 12, 1976, pp. 74–75; Bernard D. Davis, “Academic Standards in Medical Schools,” New England Journal of Medicine, May 13, 1976, pp. 1118–1119; J.W. Foster, “Race and Truth at Harvard,” The New Republic, July 17, 1976, pp. 16–20. An example of what Professor Davis warned against was Dr. Patrick Chavis, who had been admitted under a minority preference program to the medical school at the University of California at Davis. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, p. 195.

66. Thomas Sowell, A Man of Letters (New York: Encounter Books, 2007), p. 118.

67. Ibid., p. 107; Thomas Sowell, A Personal Odyssey (New York: The Free Press, 2000), pp. 202–203.

68. Gail Heriot, “A Dubious Expediency,” A Dubious Expediency, edited by Gail Heriot and Maimon Schwarzschild, pp. 46–50, 274–275; Robin Wilson, “Article Critical of Black Students’ Qualifications Roils Georgetown U. Law Center,” Chronicle of Higher Education, April 24, 1991, pp. A33, A35.

69. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, pp. 158–162.

70. Eric Kelderman, “College Presidents Created a Money Monster. Now Will They Tame It?” Chronicle of Higher Education, Volume 68, Issue 12 (February 18, 2022), p. 7; Bill Saporito, “The NCAA Keeps Running Plays Against Pay for Student-Athletes,” Washington Post, May 25, 2023, p. A19.

71. According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, “about half of the athletes in those Division I sports are Black.” At colleges where 2.4 percent of the undergraduate student population were black males, they were “55 percent of their football teams and 56 percent of their men’s basketball teams.” Victoria Jackson, “The NCAA’s Farcical Anti-Athlete Argument: The Real ‘March Madness’ Is the Organization’s Work to Deprive Athletes of More Educational Resources,” Chronicle of Higher Education, Volume 67, Issue 16 (April 16, 2021).

72. Some of the incentives, constraints and patterns in academic institutions are addressed in Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies, second edition (New York: Basic Books, 2011), Chapter 4. Brad Wolverton, “NCAA Considers Easing Demands on Athletes’ Time,” Chronicle of Higher Education, Volume 62, Issue 18 (January 15, 2016); Marc Tracy, “N.C.A.A. Declines to Punish North Carolina for Academic Fraud,” New York Times, October 14, 2017, p. D1. An older account suggests that this sort of thing has been going on for generations. Thomas Sowell, Inside American Education: The Decline, the Deception, the Dogmas (New York: Free Press, 1993), Chapter 9.

73. Richard H. Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch, pp. 220–230.

74. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States, 2006 (Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics, 2007), Table 45, p. 228; Barry Latzer, The Rise and Fall of Violent Crime in America (New York: Encounter Books, 2016), p. 93.

75. [Daniel Patrick Moynihan], The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 8; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Births: Final Data for 2000,” National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 50, No. 5 (February 12, 2002), Table 19, p. 49.

76. Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Around the World, pp. 12–13, 30, 33, 34, 61, 62–63, 69.

77. Ibid., pp. 13, 120–122.

78. Reginald G. Damerell, Education’s Smoking Gun: How Teachers Colleges Have Destroyed Education in America (New York: Freundlich Books, 1985), p. 164.

79. Leonard Buder, “Board Asks Defeat of a Bill Retaining 4 Specialized Schools’ Entrance Tests,” New York Times, May 17, 1971, p. 26.

80. Maria Newman, “Cortines Has Plan to Coach Minorities into Top Schools,” New York Times, March 18, 1995, p. 1.

81. Fernanda Santos, “Black at Stuy,” New York Times, February 26, 2012, Metropolitan Desk, p. 6.

82. Donald Harman Akenson, “Diaspora, the Irish and Irish Nationalism,” The Call of the Homeland: Diaspora Nationalisms, Past and Present, edited by Allon Gal, et al (Leiden: Brill, 2010), pp. 190–191; Michael Ornstein, Ethno-Racial Inequality in the City of Toronto: An Analysis of the 1996 Census (Toronto: Access and Equity Unit, City of Toronto, 2000), p. ii.

83. Milton Friedman, “Asian Values: Right…” National Review, December 31, 1997, pp. 36–37; Alex Singleton, “Creating a Showplace of Free Markets: Sir John Cowperthwaite,” Fraser Forum, October 2006, pp. 23–24; William McGurn, “Yes, Minister,” Far Eastern Economic Review, March 31, 1994, p. 29.

84. “Relax, Mr. Lee,” The Economist, January 16, 1988, p. 20; “The Wise Man of the East,” The Economist, March 28, 2015, p. 18; Chun Han Wong and P.R. Venkat, “Singapore’s Lee Set Model for Emerging Economies,” Wall Street Journal, March 23, 2015, p. A1; Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy (New York: Touchstone, 2002), pp. 164–168, 183–184.

85. Ethan Epstein, “Democracy, Gangnam-Style,” The Weekly Standard, December 17, 2012, pp. 23–26; David Ekbladh, “How to Build a Nation,” The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Winter 2004), pp. 19–20; Norman Pearsltine, “How South Korea Surprised the World,” Forbes, April 30, 1979, pp. 53 ff.

86. Gurcharan Das, “India Unbound,” The American Spectator, Summer Reading Issue 2001, pp. 36–38; Rakesh Mohan, “India at the Crossroads,” Far Eastern Economic Review, March 2, 2000, p. 34.

87. “Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics,” The Economist, November 28, 1992, special survey on China, pp. 6–8; “Enter the Dragon,” The Economist, March 10, 2001, pp. 23–25; “The Fruits of Growth,” The Economist, January 2, 2021, pp. 28–29.

88. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), p. 293.

89. Paul Johnson, The Quotable Paul Johnson: A Topical Compilation of His Wit, Wisdom and Satire, edited by George J. Marlin, et al (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), p. 138.