1. Norman E. Himes, Medical History of Contraception (1936; New York: Schocken Books, 1970), xii.
2. Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and “the Problems of Sex” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 8.
3. See, for example, Loretta J. Ross and Rickie Solinger, Reproductive Justice: An Introduction (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017).
4. Linda L. Layne, “Introduction,” in Feminist Technology, ed. Linda L. Layne, Sharra L. Vostral, and Kate Boyer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 29.
5. For examples of this type of behavior and thinking, see Susanne M. Klausen, Race, Maternity, and the Politics of Birth Control in South Africa, 1910–1939 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 98, 121–122; Teresa Huhle, Bevölkerung, Fertilität und Familienplanung in Kolumbien: Eine transnationale Wissensgeschichte im Kalten Krieg (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2017), 231, 260, 307.
6. Donna J. Drucker, “Astrological Birth Control: Fertility Awareness and the Politics of Non-Hormonal Contraception,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://notchesblog.com/2015/06/11/astrological-birth-control-fertility-awareness-and-the-politics-of-non-hormonal-contraception; Natural Cycles, “Quality Assured & Recognised,” accessed April 7, 2019; https://www.naturalcycles.com/en/science/certifications; United States Food and Drug Administration, “FDA Allows Marketing of First Direct-to-Consumer App for Contraceptive Use to Prevent Pregnancy,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm616511.htm.
7. Rachel Maines, “Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator,” IEEE Technology and Society Magazine 8 (June 1989): 3–11.
8. William Green, Contraceptive Risk: The FDA, Depo-Provera, and the Politics of Experimental Medicine (New York: New York University Press, 2017).
9. World Health Organization, “Ensuring Human Rights in the Provision of Contraceptive Information and Services: Guidance and Recommendations,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/102539/9789241506748_eng.pdf.
1. Norman E. Himes, Medical History of Contraception (1936; New York: Schocken Books, 1970), 20, 107.
2. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 318–321, 187.
3. James Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 1871–1933 (London: Routledge, 1988), 40.
4. Janet Farrell Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (1994; Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 217; Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 321.
5. Andrea Tone, Devices and Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 120–121; Peter C. Engelman, A History of the Birth Control Movement in America (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011), 47, 82. Sanger’s shifting motivations for contraceptive advocacy over her fifty-year career in the movement are traced in Ellen Chesler, Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America (1992; New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007).
6. Tone, Devices and Desires, 126–127; James Reed, The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue (1978; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 114. On the history of birth control clinics in the United States, see Engelman, History of the Birth Control Movement in America; Jimmy Elaine Wilkinson Meyer, Any Friend of the Movement: Networking for Birth Control, 1920–1940 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2004); Cathy Moran Hajo, Birth Control on Main Street: Organizing Clinics in the United States, 1919–1939 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010); and Rose Holz, The Birth Control Clinic in a Marketplace World (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2014).
7. Tone, Devices and Desires, 127; Marie Carmichael Stopes, Contraception (Birth Control): Its Theory, History, and Practice; A Manual for the Medical and Legal Professions (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielsson, Ltd., 1924), 140–143; Marie Stopes, The First Five Thousand, Being the First Report of the First Birth Control Clinic in the British Empire (London: John Bale, Sons and Danielsson, Ltd. 1925), 3–5, 27; Marie Stopes, Preliminary Notes on Various Technical Aspects of the Control of Contraception (London: Mothers’ Clinic for Constructive Birth Control, 1930), 12–13; Clare Debenham, Marie Stopes’ Sexual Revolution and the Birth Control Movement (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 93; Diana Wyndham, Norman Haire and the Study of Sex (Sydney: University of Sydney Press, 2012), chaps. 4 and 6, Kindle.
8. Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920–1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 28; Kirsten Leng, Sexual Politics and Feminist Science: Women Sexologists in Germany, 1900–1933 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2018), 134–135; Sabine Frühstück, Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 116; Susanne M. Klausen, Race, Maternity, and the Politics of Birth Control in South Africa, 1910–1939 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 14, 123–125.
9. Sarah Hodges, Contraception, Colonialism and Commerce: Birth Control in South India, 1920–1940 (2008; Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2016), 122–123; Sanjam Ahluwalia, Reproductive Restraints: Birth Control in India, 1877–1947 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 70.
10. Robert L. Dickinson, Control of Contraception: A Clinical Medical Manual, 2nd ed. (1931; Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1938), 191–197.
11. Klausen, Race, Maternity, and the Politics of Birth Control, 97; Nicole C. Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean: Reproductive Politics and Practice on Four Islands, 1930–1970 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 151; Ahluwalia, Reproductive Restraints, 151; Darshi Thoradeniya, “Birth Control Pill Trials in Sri Lanka: The History and Politics of Women’s Reproductive Health (1950–1980),” Social History of Medicine, published online first on October 26, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/hky076, pp. 9–10.
12. United States v. One Package, 86 F.2d 737 (1936); Hannah M. Stone, “Birth Control Wins,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.thenation.com/article/birth-control-wins/.
13. Mary McCarthy, The Group (1954; New York: Signet, 1963), 72–73. McCarthy called Dottie’s diaphragm a “pessary,” which is an umbrella term for both contraceptive and noncontraceptive devices used for uterine support.
14. June Levine, Sisters: The Personal Story of an Irish Feminist (1982; Cork, Ireland: Attic Press, 2009), chap. 2, Kindle.
15. Charles Knowlton, Fruits of Philosophy: A Treatise on the Population Question (1832; Auckland: Floating Press, 2013), chap. 3, Kindle.
16. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 238–245, esp. 243.
17. Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 149; Rachel Lynn Palmer and Sarah K. Greenberg, Facts and Frauds in Woman’s Hygiene: A Medical Guide against Misleading Claims and Dangerous Products (New York: Vanguard Press, 1936), 256.
18. Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America, 72, 74; Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 152, 155, 168; Palmer and Greenberg, Facts and Frauds in Woman’s Hygiene, 132–137, 143, 152–153.
19. Margaret Sanger, Family Limitation (n.p., 1914), p. 16, folder 6, box 85, The Margaret Sanger Papers (microfilmed), Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts; Angus McLaren, A History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 237, 249 n. 84.
20. Hodges, Contraception, Colonialism and Commerce, 124–125.
21. Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 132; Ahluwalia, Reproductive Restraints, 68–69.
22. McLaren, History of Contraception, 237; Tone, Devices and Desires, 157–172; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 43–45; Hannah M. Stone, Maternal Health and Contraception: A Study of the Medical Data of Two Thousand Patients from the Maternal Health Center, Newark, NJ (New York: A. R. Elliott, 1933), 8.
23. Ilana Löwy, “‘Sexual Chemistry’ before the Pill: Science, Industry and Chemical Contraceptives, 1920–1960,” British Journal for the History of Science 44 (June 2011): 269, 272; Ettie Rout, Practical Birth Control: Being a Revised Version of Safe Marriage (1922; London: William Heinemann (Medical Books) Ltd., 1940), 70.
24. Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 149–150; Ahluwalia, Reproductive Restraints, 67–68; Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 49, 132; Peeter Tammeveski, “Repression and Incitement: A Critical Demographic, Feminist, and Transnational Analysis of Birth Control in Estonia, 1920–1939,” The History of the Family 16, no. 1 (2011): 19; Ilana Löwy, “Defusing the Population Bomb in the 1950s: Foam Tablets in India,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43 (September 2012): 583–593.
25. Cecil I. B. Voge, The Chemistry and Physics of Contraceptives (London: Jonathan Cape, 1933), 178, 197; Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 147, Tone, Devices and Desires, 129; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 115–116.
26. Aquiles J. Sobrero, “Spermicidal Agents: Effectiveness, Use, and Testing,” in Vaginal Contraception: New Developments, ed. Gerald I. Zatuchni et al. (Hagerstown, MD: Harper & Row, 1979), 48–65; John J. Sciarra, “Vaginal Contraception: Historical Perspective,” in Vaginal Contraception, 2–12.
27. Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 151, 211; Palmer and Greenberg, Facts and Frauds in Woman’s Hygiene, 244, 249, 256; Thoradeniya, “Birth Control Pill Trials in Sri Lanka,” 10.
28. Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America, 207–209; Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 194.
29. Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 38; Klausen, Race, Maternity, and the Politics of Birth Control in South Africa, 121; Raúl Necochea López, A History of Family Planning in Twentieth-Century Peru (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 83.
30. Tone, Devices and Desires, 51, 185–186.
31. Grossmann, Reforming Sex, 8, 15; Götz Aly and Michael Sontheimer, Fromms: How Julius Fromm’s Condom Empire Fell to the Nazis, trans. Shelley Frisch (2007; New York: Other Press, 2009), chap. 3, Kindle; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 113.
32. Jessica Borge, “‘Wanting It Both Ways’: The London Rubber Company, the Condom, and the Pill, 1915–1970” (PhD diss., Birkbeck College, University of London, 2017), 71–72, 108, 147–149.
33. Kate Fisher, “Uncertain Aims and Tacit Negotiation: Birth Control Practices in Britain, 1925–1950,” Population and Development Review 26 (June 2000): 309; Clare Debenham, Birth Control and the Rights of Women: Post-Suffrage Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century (London: Tauris, 2014), 72; Claire L. Jones, “Under the Covers? Commerce, Contraceptives, and Consumers in England and Wales, 1880–1960,” Social History of Medicine 29 (November 2016): 734–756.
34. Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 38; Frühstück, Colonizing Sex, 40–41; Aly and Sontheimer, Fromms, chap. 6.
35. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 202–206; Tone, Devices and Desires, 106, 193–194, 198–199.
36. Joshua Gamson, “Rubber Wars: Struggles over the Condom in the United States,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 1 (October 1990): 263.
37. Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America, 344 n. 82; Tone, Devices and Desires, 31.
38. Ann Dugdale, “Devices and Desires: Constructing the Intrauterine Device, 1908–1988” (PhD diss., University of Wollongong, 1995), 70; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 114.
39. Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 241.
40. Caroline Rusterholz, “Testing the Gräfenberg Ring in Interwar Britain: Norman Haire, Helena Wright, and the Debate over Statistical Evidence, Side Effects, and Intra-uterine Contraception,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 72 (October 2017): 463. The rubber made insertion of the IUD smoother but also increased chances of expulsion.
41. Dugdale, “Devices and Desires,” 76; Wyndham, Norman Haire and the Study of Sex, chap. 7.
42. Rout, Practical Birth Control, 58; Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 228–229, 240.
43. Frühstück, Colonizing Sex, 109, 146–147.
44. Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America, 43; Janet Farrell Brodie, “Menstrual Intervention in the Nineteenth-Century United States,” in Regulating Menstruation: Beliefs, Practices, and Interpretations, ed. Etienne van de Walle and Elisha P. Renne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 39, 49–50; Palmer and Greenberg, Facts and Frauds in Woman’s Hygiene, 166–168; Cara Delay, “Pills, Potions, and Purgatives: Women and Abortion Methods in Ireland, 1900–1950,” Women’s History Review 29, no. 3 (2019): 479–499.
45. Felix Freiherr von Oefele, “Anticonceptionelle Arzneistoffe: Ein Beitrag zur Frage des Malthunianismus in alter und neuer Zeit,” Die Heilkunde 2 (1898): 19 (author’s translation).
46. Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 16–18; Rebecca Hodes, “The Culture of Illegal Abortion in South Africa,” Journal of Southern African Studies 42, no. 1 (2016): 81; Kate Fisher, Birth Control, Sex, and Marriage in Britain, 1918–1960 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), 32, 55, 63, 119, 161; Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 140.
47. Sarah Orne Jewett, The Country of Pointed Firs (1896; N.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013), chap. 10, Kindle.
48. Kaye Wierzbicki, “A Cup of Pennyroyal Tea,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://the-toast.net/2015/05/27/a-cup-of-pennyroyal-tea.
49. Complete Catalogue of the Products of the Laboratories of Parke, Davis & Co., Manufacturing Chemists, Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. (Detroit: n.p., 1898), Trade Literature Collection, Smithsonian National Museum of American History, Washington, DC; Complete Catalog of the Products of the Laboratories of Parke, Davis & Co. (Detroit: Press of Parke, Davis & Company, 1937), Trade Literature Collection, Smithsonian National Museum of American History, Washington, DC; McLaren, History of Contraception, 191; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 22–23.
50. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 252 n. 46.
51. Stopes, Contraception (Birth Control), 64, Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 91; Sølvi Sogner, “Abortion, Birth Control, and Contraception: Fertility Decline in Norway,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34 (Autumn 2003): 225.
52. Frühstück, Colonizing Sex, 144–145.
53. Alice B. Stockham, Tokology: A Book for Every Woman (New York: R. F. Fenno & Co., 1893); Alice B. Stockham, Karezza: Ethics of Marriage (Chicago: Stockham Publishing Co., 1896); Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 11; Tammeveski, “Repression and Incitement,” 25; Stopes, Contraception (Birth Control), 61–62, 56–57; Palmer and Greenberg, Facts and Frauds in Woman’s Hygiene, 239; Hodges, Contraception, Colonialism and Commerce, 125; John Rock and David Loth, Voluntary Parenthood (New York: Random House, 1949), 101–102, 150; Kateřina Lišková, Sexual Liberation, Socialist Style: Communist Czechoslovakia and the Science of Desire, 1945–1989 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 122, 125–126.
54. Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 117; Rout, Practical Birth Control, 55; Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 10.
55. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 183; Sogner, “Abortion, Birth Control, and Contraception,” 225; Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 139; Kate Fisher, “‘She Was Quite Satisfied with the Arrangements I Made’: Gender and Birth Control in Britain, 1920–1950,” Past & Present 169 (November 2000): 169; Fisher, “Uncertain Aims and Tacit Negotiation,” 311.
56. Lynn M. Thomas, Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State of Kenya (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 34; Lišková, Sexual Liberation, Socialist Style, 105; Stopes, Contraception (Birth Control), 72.
57. Lucia Pozzi, “The Problem of Birth Control in the United States under the Papacy of Pius XI,” in Pius XI and America: Proceedings of the Brown University Conference (Providence, February 2010), ed. Charles R. Gallagher, David I. Kertzer, and Alberto Meloni (Zurich: Lit Verlag, 2012), 213.
58. Pius XI, Casti connubii (On Christian Marriage), accessed April 7, 2019, http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19301231_casti-connubii.html; Lucia Pozzi, “The Encyclical Casti connubii (1930): The Origin of the Twentieth Century Discourse of the Catholic Church on Family and Sexuality,” in La Sainte Famille: Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Eglise catholique, ed. Cécile Vanderpelen-Diagre and Caroline Sägesser (Brussels: Editions de l’Université libre de Bruxelles, 2017), 41–54.
59. Kari Pitkänen, “Contraception in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Finland,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34 (Autumn 2003): 187; Sogner, “Abortion, Birth Control, and Contraception,” 225.
60. Ahluwalia, Reproductive Restraints, 46, 71, 78–79; Barbara N. Ramusack, “Embattled Advocates: The Debate over Birth Control in India, 1920–1940,” Journal of Women’s History 1 (Fall 1989): 38, 50, 58.
61. Dickinson, Control of Contraception, 258, 265.
62. Tone, Devices and Desires, 142–144, 325 n. 79; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Vintage, 1998), 66–67; Hajo, Birth Control on Main Street, 70–71, 100; Alexandra Minna Stern, “‘We Cannot Make a Silk Purse Out of a Sow’s Ear’: Eugenics in the Hoosier Heartland,” Indiana Magazine of History 103 (March 2007): 3–38.
63. Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 45–48; Rout, Practical Birth Control, 46; Wyndham, Norman Haire and the Study of Sex, chap. 9, Kindle.
64. Bent Sigurd Hansen, “Something Rotten in the State of Denmark: Eugenics and the Ascent of the Welfare State,” in Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, ed. Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen (1996; East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2005), 38–41.
65. Gunnar Broberg and Mattias Tydén, “Eugenics in Sweden: Efficient Care,” in Eugenics and the Welfare State, 111; Marjatta Hietala, “From Race Hygiene to Sterilization: The Eugenics Movement in Finland,” in Eugenics and the Welfare State, 240.
1. Elaine Tyler May, America and the Pill: A History of Promise, Peril, and Liberation (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 57.
2. See, for example, May, America and the Pill; Elizabeth Siegel Watkins, On the Pill: A Social History of Oral Contraceptives, 1950–1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011); Lara V. Marks, Sexual Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive Pill (2001; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010); and Jonathan Eig, The Birth of the Pill: How Four Pioneers Reinvented Sex and Launched a Revolution (2014; London: Pan Books, 2016).
3. James Reed, The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue (1978; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 337; Peter C. Engelman, A History of the Birth Control Movement in America (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011), 153. I thank Engelman for clarifying this point in personal communication.
4. Andrea Tone, Devices and Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 214; May, America and the Pill, 24.
5. Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 138–139; May, America and the Pill, 27–32.
6. Watkins, On the Pill, 32; May, America and the Pill, 34; Pamela Verma Liao and Janet Dollin, “Half a Century of the Oral Contraceptive Pill: Historical Review and View to the Future,” Canadian Family Physician 58 (December 2012): e757. An alternative perspective centers on the role played by a Belgian Catholic physician in testing the lower-dosage pill, Anovlar. This pill was released by the German pharmaceutical company Schering AG (now Bayer) in Europe and Australia seven months after the FDA approved Enovid. See Karl van den Broeck, Dirk Janssens, and Paul Defoort, “A Forgotten Founding Father of the Pill: Ferdinand Peeters, MD,” European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 17, no. 5 (October 2012): 321–328.
7. Beth Bailey, Sex in the Heartland (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 111.
8. Bailey, Sex in the Heartland, 128–129.
9. Barbara Seaman, The Doctor’s Case against the Pill (New York: Avalon, 1969); May, America and the Pill, 130–131.
10. Watkins, On the Pill, 108–113; May, America and the Pill, 132–133.
11. Sheryl Burt Ruzek, The Women’s Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978); Wendy Kline, Bodies of Knowledge: Sexuality, Reproduction, and Women’s Health in the Second Wave (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); Sandra Morgen, Into Our Own Hands: The Women’s Health Movement in the United States, 1969–1990 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002); Michelle Murphy, Seizing the Means of Reproduction: Entanglements of Feminism, Health, and Technoscience (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012); Jennifer Nelson, More than Medicine: A History of the Feminist Women’s Health Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2015).
12. Rada Drezgić, “Politics and Practices of Fertility Control under the State Socialism,” History of the Family 15, no. 2 (2010): 200.
13. Tomáš Sobotka, “The Stealthy Sexual Revolution? Birth Control, Reproduction, and Family under State Socialism in Central and Eastern Europe,” in “Wenn die Chemie Stimmt”: Geschlechterbeziehungen und Geburtenkontrolle im Zeitalter der “Pille” / Gender Relations and Birth Control in the Age of the “Pill”), ed. Lutz Niethammer and Silke Satjukow (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2016), 140; Agata Ignaciuk, “Reproductive Policies and Women’s Birth Control: Practices in State-Socialist Poland (1960s–1980s),” in “Wenn die Chemie Stimmt,” 311.
14. Boris Denisov and Victoria Sakevich, “Birth Control in Russia: A Swaying Policy,” in “Wenn die Chemie Stimmt,” 254–255.
15. Elise Andaya, Conceiving Cuba: Reproduction, Women, and the State in the Post-Soviet Era (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 84.
16. Kateřina Lišková, Sexual Liberation, Socialist Style: Communist Czechoslovakia and the Science of Desire, 1945–1989 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 124; Drezgić, “Politics and Practices of Fertility Control,” 200.
17. Rada Drezgić, “Fertility Control and Gender (In)equality under Socialism: The Case of Serbia,” in “Wenn die Chemie Stimmt,” 276.
18. Amy Kaler, Running after Pills: Politics, Gender, and Contraception in Colonial Zimbabwe (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003), 160–162, esp. 162.
19. Kaler, Running after Pills, 1.
20. Kaler, Running after Pills, 22.
21. Takudzwa S. Sayi, “Addressing Limited Contraceptive Options and Inconsistent Use in Zimbabwe,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.prb.org/contraceptive-use-zimbabwe.
22. Liao and Dollin, “Half a Century of the Oral Contraceptive Pill,” E758.
23. On Norplant, which was available in the United States from 1990 to 2000, see Anita Hardon, “Norplant: Conflicting Views on Its Safety and Acceptability,” in Issues in Reproductive Technology: An Anthology, ed. Helen Bequaert Holmes (New York: Garland, 1992), 11–30; Tone, Devices and Desires, 288; and Elizabeth Siegel Watkins, “From Breakthrough to Bust: The Brief Life of Norplant, the Contraceptive Implant,” Journal of Women’s History 22 (Fall 2010): 88–111.
24. William Green, Contraceptive Risk: The FDA, Depo-Provera, and the Politics of Experimental Medicine (New York: New York University Press, 2017), chap. 2, Kindle.
25. Kline, Bodies of Knowledge, 97–125, esp. 99, 103; Green, Contraceptive Risk, chap. 1.
26. Green, Contraceptive Risk, chap. 4. For the Indian Health Service’s use of Depo-Provera with Native American women, see Barbara Gurr, Reproductive Justice: The Politics of Health Care for Native American Women (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 126–127.
27. Barbara Klugman, “Balancing Means and Ends: Population Policy in South Africa,” Reproductive Health Matters 1 (May 1993): 44–57, esp. 52–54.
28. Kate Law, “At Your Service: The Role of the Historian in Contemporary Reproductive Rights Debates,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://nursingclio.org/2018/09/13/at-your-service-the-role-of-the-historian-in-contemporary-reproductive-rights-debates; Kate Law, “Fighting Fertility: Depo-Provera, South Africa, and the British Anti-Apartheid Movement,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://perceptionsofpregnancy.com/2016/11/28/fighting-fertility-depo-provera-south-africa-and-the-british-anti-apartheid-movement.
29. Rebecca Hodes, “HIV/AIDS in South Africa,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://africanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-299.
30. Diana Cooper et al., “Coming of Age? Women’s Sexual and Reproductive Health after Twenty-One Years of Democracy in South Africa,” Reproductive Health Matters 24, no. 48 (2016): 80.
31. Cooper et al., “Coming of Age?,” 81.
32. For a systematic review of research on this drug interactivity through September 2015, see Kavita Nanda et al., “Drug Interactions between Hormonal Contraceptives and Antiretrovirals,” AIDS 31, no. 7 (2017): 917–952.
33. L. L. Wynn and Angel M. Foster, “The Birth of a Global Reproductive Health Technology: An Introduction to the Journey of Emergency Contraception,” in Emergency Contraception: The Story of a Global Reproductive Health Technology, ed. Angel M. Foster and L. L. Wynn (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 5.
34. Heather Munro Prescott, The Morning After: A History of Emergency Contraception in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), 71.
35. Prescott, The Morning After, 103–106.
36. Wynn and Foster, “Birth of a Global Reproductive Health Technology,” 17.
37. Prescott, The Morning After, 123.
38. Nelly Oudshoorn, The Male Pill: A Biography of a Technology in the Making (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 34–38; Miriam Klemm, “Overshadowed by the Pill–Die Entwicklung männlicher Langzeitverhütungsmittel,” Sexuologie–Zeitschrift fur Sexualmedizin, Sexualtherapie und Sexualwissenschaft 24, nos. 1–2 (2016): 14.
39. Klemm, “Overshadowed by the Pill,” 14.
40. May, America and the Pill, 50 (emphasis in original).
1. Elise Andaya, Conceiving Cuba: Reproduction, Women, and the State in the Post-Soviet Era (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 42–44.
2. Chikako Takeshita, The Global Biopolitics of the IUD: How Science Constructs Contraceptive Users and Women’s Bodies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 13–15, 129–133; Nicole J. Grant, The Selling of Contraception: The Dalkon Shield Case, Sexuality, and Women’s Autonomy (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1992), 38; Ann Dugdale, “Devices and Desires: Constructing the Intrauterine Device, 1908–1988” (PhD diss., University of Wollongong, 1995), 127.
3. Takeshita, Global Biopolitics of the IUD, 138; Grant, Selling of Contraception, 44; Barbara Seaman, The Doctor’s Case against the Pill (New York: Avalon, 1969), 1–4.
4. Takeshita, Global Biopolitics of the IUD, 166; Grant, Selling of Contraception, 24, 51, 67, 176, 200.
5. Takeshita, Global Biopolitics of the IUD, 206, 222, 228, 242; Grant, Selling of Contraception, 40, 147.
6. Seaman, Doctor’s Case against the Pill, 204–206.
7. Donna J. Drucker, “Astrological Birth Control: Fertility Awareness and the Politics of Non-Hormonal Contraception,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://notchesblog.com/2015/06/11/astrological-birth-control-fertility-awareness-and-the-politics-of-non-hormonal-contraception.
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11. Bikini Condom box, BC: Barrier Methods: Female Condoms pre-1992 folder, box 14, Boston Women’s Health Collective Subject Files, 1980–2000, H MS c261, Harvard Medical Library, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Food & Drug Administration, “21 CFR Part 884: Obstetrical and Gynecological Devices; Reclassification of Single-Use Female Condom, to Be Renamed Single-Use Internal Condom,” Federal Register 83, no. 188 (September 27, 2018): 48, 711–48, 713.
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14. Matsumoto, Koizumi, and Nohara, “Condom Use in Japan,” 252; Tiana Norgren, Abortion before Birth Control: The Politics of Reproduction in Postwar Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 3, 6; Yasuyo Matsumoto and Shingo Yamabe, “After Ten Years: Has Approval of Oral Contraceptives Really Decreased the Rate of Unintended Pregnancy?,” Contraception 81 (May 2010): 389–390; Honami Yoshida et al., “Contraception in Japan: Current Trends,” Contraception 93 (June 2016): 475–477.
15. Emilie Cloatre and Máiréad Enright, “‘On the Perimeter of the Lawful’: Enduring Illegality in the Irish Family Planning Movement, 1972–1985,” Journal of Law and Society 44 (December 2017): 472, 473.
16. June Levine, Sisters: The Personal Story of an Irish Feminist (1982; Cork, Ireland: Attic Press, 2009), chap. 8, Kindle; Cloatre and Enright, “‘On the Perimeter of the Lawful,’” 476.
17. Máiréad Enright and Emilie Cloatre, “Transformative Illegality: How Condoms ‘Became Legal’ in Ireland, 1991–1993,” Feminist Legal Studies 26 (November 2018): 261–84; Cloatre and Enright, “‘On the Perimeter of the Lawful,’” 481, 484, 489.
18. Julia Vorhölter, “Negotiating Social Change: Ugandan Discourses on Westernization and Neo-Colonialism as Forms of Social Critique,” Journal of Modern African Studies 50, no. 2 (2012): 305 n. 1.
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20. Robert Poole et al., “Men’s Attitude to Condoms and Female-Controlled Means of Protection against HIV and STDs in South-Western Uganda,” Culture, Health, and Sexuality 2, no. 2 (2000): 197–211; Graham J. Hart et al., “Women’s Attitudes to Condoms and Female-Controlled Means of Protection against HIV and STDs in South-Western Uganda,” AIDS Care 11, no. 6 (1999): 687–698.
21. Makere University, School of Public Health, “Rapid Assessment of Comprehensive Condom Programming in Uganda: Final Report,” p. 34, accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.samasha.org/download/Comprehensive-Condom-Programming-Assessment-In-Uganda_Final-Report-October-2015.pdf.
22. Aquiles J. Sobrero, “Evaluation of a New Contraceptive,” Fertility and Sterility 11, no. 5 (1960): 518–524; Sherwin A. Kaufman, “Simulated Postcoital Test to Determine Immediate Spermicidal Effect of Jelly or Cream Alone,” Fertility and Sterility 11, no. 2 (1960): 199–209, esp. 204.
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25. Andrea Tone, Devices and Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 285–286.
26. Nelly Oudshoorn, The Male Pill: A Biography of a Technology in the Making (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 40, 43; Harper, Birth Control Technologies, 187–188, 193.
27. Elaine A. Lissner, “Frontiers in Nonhormonal Male Contraceptive Research,” in Issues in Reproductive Technology: An Anthology, ed. Helen Bequaert Holmes (New York: Garland, 1992), 62–64; Derek Robinson and John Rock, “Intrascrotal Hyperthermia Induced by Scrotal Insulation: Effect on Spermatogenesis,” Obstetrics and Gynecology 29, no. 2 (February 1967): 217–223; Roger Mieusset et al., “Inhibiting Effect of Artificial Cryptorchidism on Spermatogenesis,” Fertility and Sterility 43, no. 4 (April 1985): 589–594.
28. Alana Harris, “Introduction: The Summer of ’68—Beyond the Secularization Thesis,” in The Schism of ’68: Catholicism, Contraception, and ‘Humanae Vitae’ in Europe, 1945–1975, ed. Alana Harris (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave MacMillan, 2018), 5; Paul VI, Humane vitae (On Human Life), accessed April 7, 2019, http://w2.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae.html.
29. Raúl Necochea López, A History of Family Planning in Twentieth-Century Peru (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 136, 141, 146; Teresa Huhle, Bevölkerung, Fertilität und Familienplanung in Kolumbien: Eine transnationale Wissensgeschichte im Kalten Krieg (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2017), 246; Lara V. Marks, Sexual Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive Pill (2001; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 231.
30. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, “NFP Methodology,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/marriage-and-family/natural-family-planning/what-is-nfp/methods.cfm; United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Benefits of NFP,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/marriage-and-family/natural-family-planning/what-is-nfp/benefits.cfm. See also J. J. Billings, The Ovulation Method: The Achievement or Avoidance of Pregnancy Which Is Reliable and Universally Acceptable (Melbourne: Advocacy Press, 1983).
31. Toni Weschler, Taking Charge of Your Fertility: The Definitive Guide to Natural Birth Control, Pregnancy Achievement, and Reproductive Health, rev. ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 123; Drucker, “Astrological Birth Control.” See also Louise Lacey, Lunaception: A Feminine Odyssey into Fertility and Contraception (New York: Coward, McCann, and Geoghegan, 1975), and Arthur Rosenblum, The Natural Birth Control Book, 5th ed. (Philadelphia: Aquarian Research Foundation, 1982).
32. Olivia Foster, “Women Are Turning to Birth Control Smartphone Apps for a Reason,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jul/24/women-birth-control-smartphone-apps-contraception-technology; United States Food and Drug Administration, “FDA Allows Marketing of First Direct-to-Consumer App for Contraceptive Use to Prevent Pregnancy,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm616511.htm; Olivia Sudjic, “‘I Felt Colossally Naïve’: The Backlash against the Birth Control App,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jul/21/colossally-naive-backlash-birth-control-app.
33. Thomas Scharping, Birth Control in China, 1949–2000: Population Policy and Demographic Development (London: Routledge, 2003), 108, 115.
34. Barbara Gurr, Reproductive Justice: The Politics of Health Care for Native American Women (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 125, 25; Jennifer Nelson, Women of Color and the Reproductive Rights Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2003), 140–145; Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Vintage, 1998), 90.
35. Rebecca Jane Williams, “Storming the Citadels of Poverty: Family Planning under the Emergency in India, 1975–1977,” Journal of Asian Studies 73 (May 2014): 471–492, esp. 473; Matthew Connelly, “Population Control in India: Prologue to the Emergency Period,” Population and Development Review 32 (December 2006): 629–667; Davidson R. Gwatkin, “Political Will and Family Planning: The Implications of India’s Emergency Experience,” Population and Development Review 5 (March 1979): 29–59, esp. 29, 33, 38, 47.
36. Karen Hardee et al., “Achieving the Goal of the London Summit on Family Planning by Adhering to Voluntary Rights-Based Family Planning: What Can We Learn from Past Experiences with Coercion?,” International Perspective on Sexual and Reproductive Health 40 (December 2014): 206–214; Javier Lizarzaburu, “Forced Sterilization Haunts Peruvian Women Decades On,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-34855804.
37. Loretta J. Ross and Rickie Solinger, Reproductive Justice: An Introduction (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017), 52; Rebecca M. Kluchin, Fit to Be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 22, 54–55, 60, 114–147, esp. 132–137. Hathaway v. Worcester City Hospital, 475 F.2d 701 (1973); Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973); Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179 (1973).
38. Huhle, Bevölkerung, Fertilität und Familienplanung in Kolumbien, 258–260.
39. Rajesh Varma and Janesh K. Gupta, “Failed Sterilization: Evidence-Based Review and Medico-Legal Ramifications,” BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 111, no. 12 (December 2004): 1322–1332.
40. Sanket S. Dhruva, Joseph S. Ross, and Aileen M. Gariepy, “Revisiting Essure: Toward Safe and Effective Sterilization,” New England Journal of Medicine 373, no. 15 (October 8, 2015): e17 (1–3); Essure Permanent Birth Control, “Frequently Asked Questions about Essure,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.essure.com/faq.
1. Loretta J. Ross and Rickie Solinger, Reproductive Justice: An Introduction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), 56.
2. Jael Silliman, Marlene Gerber Fried, Loretta Ross, and Elena R. Gutiérrez, Undivided Rights: Women of Color Organize for Reproductive Justice, 2nd ed. (2004; Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), viii.
3. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 9, 17.
4. Loretta J. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory: A Manifesto for Activism,” in Radical Reproductive Justice: Foundations, Theory, Practice, Critique, ed. Loretta Ross et al. (New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 2017), chap. 10, Kindle.
5. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 68, 69 (emphases in original). See also Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice, “A New Vision for Advancing Our Movement for Reproductive Health, Reproductive Rights, and Reproductive Justice,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://forwardtogether.org/tools/a-new-vision.
6. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory,” in Radical Reproductive Justice, chap. 10; see also Jade S. Sasser, On Infertile Ground: Population Control and Women’s Rights in the Era of Climate Change (New York: New York University Press, 2018), 144.
7. United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights.
8. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 128.
9. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory,” in Radical Reproductive Justice, chap. 10, Kindle.
10. Loretta J. Ross, “Trust Black Women: Reproductive Justice and Eugenics,” in Radical Reproductive Justice, chap. 4.
11. Ross, “Trust Black Women”; Sasser, On Infertile Ground, 143.
12. Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Vintage, 1998), 98–102.
13. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 62.
14. Joyce Wilcox, “The Face of Women’s Health: Helen Rodrigues-Trías,” American Journal of Public Health 92 (April 2002): 566–569, esp. 568.
15. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 42, 43.
16. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 17. Project Prevention continues to pay drug-addicted women, often African American, to be sterilized. See Jacquelyn Monroe and Rudolph Alexander, Jr., “C.R.A.C.K: A Progeny of Eugenics and a Forlorn Representation for African Americans,” Journal of African American Studies 9 (Summer 2005): 19–35.
17. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 85; Body & Soul: The Black Women’s Guide to Physical Health and Emotional Well-Being, ed. Linda Villarosa (New York: Perennial, 1994); National Black Women’s Health Project, Our Bodies, Our Voices, Our Choices: A Black Woman’s Primer on Reproductive Health and Rights (Washington, DC: n.p., 1998).
18. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 51; Roberts, Killing the Black Body, 90; Barbara Gurr, Reproductive Justice: The Politics of Health Care for Native American Women (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 125–126.
19. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 229; Rebecca M. Kluchin, Fit to Be Tied: Sterilization and Reproductive Rights in America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 102–104.
20. Alexandra Minna Stern, “Sterilized in the Name of Public Health: Race, Immigration, and Reproductive Control in Modern California,” American Journal of Public Health 95 (July 2005): 1128–1138.
21. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 16, see also 240.
22. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 39; Committee for Abortion Rights and against Sterilization Abuse, Women under Attack: Abortion, Sterilization Abuse and Reproductive Freedom (New York: The Committee, 1979); Wilcox, “The Face of Women’s Health,” 566–569; Aliya Khan, “Tennessee Judge’s ‘Birth Control Program’ Wasn’t ‘Controversial’: —It Was Coercive,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://rewire.news/article/2017/08/02/tennessee-judges-birth-control-program-wasnt-controversial-coercive.
23. Loretta Ross et al., “Introduction,” in Radical Reproductive Justice.
24. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 79.
25. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory.”
26. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory.”
27. Ross et al., “Introduction.”
28. Ross et al., “Introduction.”
29. Toni M. Bond Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement,” in Radical Reproductive Justice, chap. 2.
30. Silliman et al., Undivided Rights, 48; Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement”; Sasser, On Infertile Ground, 143.
31. United Nations, “The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women—Beijing, China—September 1995; Action for Equality, Development, and Peace,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/health.htm.
32. Women of African Descent for Reproductive Justice, “Black Women on Universal Health Care Reform,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://bwrj.wordpress.com/category/wadrj-on-health-care-reform.
33. Ross, “Conceptualizing Reproductive Justice Theory”; Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement”; Ross et al., “Introduction.” The organization is now called SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Justice Collective.
34. Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement.”
35. Donna J. Drucker, “The Cervical Cap in the Feminist Health Movement, 1976–1988,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://notchesblog.com/2016/03/24/the-cervical-cap-in-the-feminist-womens-health-movement-1976-1988.
36. Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement.”
37. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965). The US Supreme Court did not affirm the right of unmarried Americans to possess contraception until Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972).
38. Ross et al., “Introduction.”
39. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 16, 47.
40. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 102.
41. Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement.”
42. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 152.
43. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 123.
44. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 155.
45. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 156.
46. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 129.
47. Ross et al., “Introduction.”
48. Leonard, “Laying the Foundations for a Reproductive Justice Movement.”
49. Ross and Solinger, Reproductive Justice, 196.
1. Linda Prine and Meera Shah, “Long-Acting Reversible Contraception: Difficult Insertions and Removals,” American Family Physician 98, no. 5 (September 1, 2018): 304–309.
2. Alexis Light, Lin-Fan Wang, Alexander Zeymo, and Veronica Gomez-Lobo, “Family Planning and Contraception Use in Transgender Men,” Contraception 98 (October 2018): 266–269.
3. Peter Dunne, “Transgender Sterilization Requirements in Europe,” Medical Law Review 25 (November 2017): 554–581, esp. 556, 560, and 576; Peter Dunne, “YY v Turkey: Infertility as a Pre-Condition for Gender Confirmation Surgery,” Medical Law Review 23 (December 2015): 646–658.
4. Dunne, “Transgender Sterilization Requirements in Europe,” 557.
5. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, “Calculate Your Body Mass Index,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm.
6. Ana Luiza L. Rocha et al., “Safety of Hormonal Contraception for Obese Women,” Expert Opinion on Drug Safety 16, no. 12 (2017): 1387–1393; Pamela S. Lotke and Bliss Kaneshiro, “Safety and Efficacy of Contraceptive Methods for Obese and Overweight Women,” Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 42 (December 2015): 647–657.
7. Shriya Patel and Lawrence Carey, “Are Hormonal Contraceptives Less Effective in Overweight and Obese Women?,” Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 31 (January 2018): 11–13.
8. Joël Schlatter, “Oral Contraceptives after Bariatric Surgery,” Obesity Facts 10, no. 2 (2017): 118–126.
9. Anna Glasier et al., “Can We Identify Women at Risk of Pregnancy despite Using Emergency Contraception? Data from Randomized Trials of Ulipristal Acetate and Levonorgestrel,” Contraception 84 (October 2011): 363–367.
10. Ronni Hayon, “Gender and Sexual Health: Care of Transgender Patients,” FP Essentials 449 (October 2016): 27–36; Natalie Ingraham, Erin Wingo, and Sarah C. M. Roberts, “Inclusion of LGBT Persons in Research Related to Pregnancy Risk: A Cognitive Interview Study,” BMJ Sexual and Reproductive Health 44 (2018): 292–298.
11. Angeline Faye Schrater, “Contraceptive Vaccines: Promises and Problems,” in Issues in Reproductive Technology: An Anthology, ed. Helen Bequaert Holmes (New York: Garland, 1992), 31–52; Anita Hardon, “Contesting Claims on the Safety and Acceptability of Anti-Fertility Vaccines,” Reproductive Health Matters 10 (November 1997): 68–81.
12. Gursaran P. Talwar et al., “Current Status of a Unique Vaccine Preventing Pregnancy,” Frontiers in Bioscience, Elite 9 (June 2017): 321–332.
13. Angela R. Lemons and Rajesh K. Naz, “Birth Control Vaccine Targeting Leukemia Inhibitory Factor,” Molecular Reproduction and Development 79 (February 2012): 97–106; Angela R. Lemons and Rajesh K. Naz, “Contraceptive Vaccines Targeting Factors Involved in Establishment of Pregnancy,” American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 66 (July 2011): 13–25.
14. Rajesh K. Naz, “Vaccine for Human Contraception Targeting Sperm Izumo Protein and YLP12 Dodecamer Peptide,” Protein Science 23 (July 2014): 857–868; see also Martin M. Matzuk et al., “Small-Molecule Inhibition of BRDT for Male Contraception,” Cell 150 (no. 4, 2012): 673–684; Haruhiko Miyata et al., “Sperm Calcineurin Inhibition Prevents Mouse Fertility with Implications for Male Contraceptive,” Science 350 (October 23, 2015): 442–445.
15. Hermann M. Behre et al., “Efficacy and Safety of an Injectable Combination Hormonal Contraceptive for Men,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 101 (December 2016): 4779–4788.
16. Planned Parenthood, “Birth Control,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/birth-control. The monthly ring was FDA-approved in 2001, and a yearlong ring was approved in 2018. United States Food and Drug Administration, “Approval Package, NuvaRing (Etonogestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Vaginal Ring),” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2001/21-187_NuvaRing.cfm; and United States Food and Drug Administration, “Drug Approval Package: Annovera (segesterone acetate and ethinyl estradiol),” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/209627Orig1s000TOC.cfm.
17. Anna Rhodes, “Yes, Contraceptives Have Side Effects—and It’s Time for Men to Put Up with Them Too,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/male-contraceptive-injection-successful-trial-halted-a7384601.html.
18. Niloufar Ilani et al., “A New Combination of Testosterone and Nestorone Transdermal Gels for Male Hormonal Contraception,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 97, no. 10 (2012): 3476–3486; Michael J. Zitzmann et al., “Impact of Various Progestins with or without Transdermal Testosterone on Gonadotropin Levels for Non-Invasive Hormonal Male Contraception: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” Andrology 5 (May 2017): 516–526.
19. Planned Parenthood, “Abstinence and Outercourse,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/birth-control/abstinence-and-outercourse.
20. Bimek SLV, “Contraception You Don’t Need to Worry About,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.bimek.com/this-is-how-the-bimek-slv-works.
21. Timothy Archibald, Sex Machines: Photographs and Interviews (Carrboro, NC: Daniel 13 / Process, 2005); Hallie Lieberman, Buzz: The Stimulating History of the Sex Toy (New York: Pegasus Books, 2017).
22. Ida Schelenz, “Come on Barbie—Kasteler Bordell testet Sexpuppen,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://sensor-magazin.de/come-on-barbie-kasteler-bordell-testet-sexpuppen; Adrian Terhorst, “In Dortmund gibt es das erste Puppen-Bordell Deutschlands,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://rp-online.de/nrw/panorama/in-dortmund-gibt-es-das-erste-puppen-bordell-deutschlands_aid-16455925.
23. Breena Kerr, “Future of Sex: How Close Are Robotic Love Dolls?,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/future-of-sex-how-close-are-robotic-love-dolls-123749; Allison P. Davis, “Are We Ready for Robot Sex?,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.thecut.com/2018/05/sex-robots-realbotix.html; Friedemann Karig and Joko Winterscheidt, “Joko zu Besuch im ersten Puppen-Bordell Deutschlands,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.stern.de/lifestyle/jwd/jwd--magazin--joko-winterscheidt-im-sexpuppen-bordell-in-dortmund-7897394.html.
24. David Levy, Love and Sex with Robots: The Evolution of Human-Robot Relationships (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007); John Danaher and Neil McArthur, eds., Robot Sex: Social and Ethical Implications (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017).
25. Bayer AG, “World Contraception Day: Support Mission #WCD2018,” accessed April 7, 2019, https://www.your-life.com/en/for-doctors-parents-etc/about-wcd. The figure of 225 million women with unmet contraceptive needs is from World Health Organization, “Quality of Care in Contraceptive Information and Services, Based on Human Rights Standards: A Checklist for Health Care Providers,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254826/9789241512091-eng.pdf.
26. World Health Organization, “Ensuring Human Rights in the Provision of Contraceptive Information and Services: Guidance and Recommendations,” accessed April 7, 2019, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/102539/9789241506748_eng.pdf.
27. For an example of analysis of anti-abortion and anticontraception organizing in the mid-twentieth century United States, see Daniel K. Williams, Defenders of the Unborn: The Pro-Life Movement before Roe v. Wade (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).