1. Civilisation and Its Discontents is now published as volume XXI of the Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud, edited by James Strachey and Anna Freud, London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1953–74 (this volume was published in 1961). For details of Freud’s operation see Clark, Freud, Op. cit., pages 444–445.
2. Ibid., page 218.
3. Ibid., pages 64ff.
4. C. G. Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1933.
5. Ibid., pages 91ff.
6. Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, translated by L. A. Clare, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1926, chapter II, pages 69ff.
7. Henry Frankfort et al., Before Philosophy, London: Pelican, 1963, especially pages 103ff.
8. J. A. C. Brown, Freud and the Post-Freudians, Op. cit., page 122.
9. Ibid., pages 8, 125 and 128.
10. Karen Horney, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1937. See also: J. A. C. Brown, Op. cit., page 135.
11. Horney, Op. cit., page 77.
12. Brown, Op. cit., page 137.
13. Horney, Op. cit., respectively chapters 8, 9, 10 and 12. Summarised in Brown, Op. cit., pages 138—139.
14. Horney, Op. cit., pages 288ff.
15. Brown, Op. cit., pages 143–144.
16. Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own, London: Hogarth Press, 1929; Penguin paperback, 1993, with an Introduction by Michèle Barrett, page xii.
17. Ibid., page 3.
18. Barrett, Op. cit., page xii.
19. ‘Aurora Leigh’ (a review of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s poem of that name), in Michèle Barrett (editor). Women and Writing, London: Women’s Press, 1988; quoted in Barrett, Op. cit., page xv.
20. Ibid., page xvii.
21. Ibid., page x.
22. Jane Howard, Margaret Mead: A Life, London: Harvill, 1984, pages 53–54. For the latest scholarship, see: Hilary Lapsley, Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: The Kinship of Women, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999. This book includes an assessment of Ruth Benedict by Clifford Geertz, one of the most influential anthropologists of the last quarter of a century (see chapter 38, ‘Local Knowledge’).
23. Margaret Mead, Blackberry Winter: My Early Years, London: Angus & Robertson, 1973, page 139.
24. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education, New York: Appleton, 1905, 2 vols. Quoted in Howard, Op. cit., page 68.
25. Howard, Op. cit., page 68.
26. Mead, Op. cit., page 150.
27. Howard, Op. cit., page 79.
28. Ibid., page 52.
29. Ibid., page 79.
30. Ibid., pages 80–82.
31. Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western Civilisation, New York: William Morrow, 1928.
32. Howard, Op. cit., page 86.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., page 127.
35. Quoted in ibid., page 121.
36. Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa, page 197.
37. Ibid., page 205.
38. Ibid., page 148.
39. Howard, Op. cit., page 162.
40. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934.
41. Ibid., page 59.
42. Ibid., page 69.
43. Ibid., page 131.
44. Judith Modell, Ruth Benedict: Patterns of a Life, London: Chatto & Windus, 1984, page 201.
45. Ibid., page 205.
46. Ibid., pages 206–207.
47. Margaret Caffrey, Ruth Benedict: Stranger in this Land, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989, pages 211ff, for a discussion of Ruth Benedict’s impact on American thought more generally.
48. Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict, New York: Columbia University Press, 1974, which does attempt to recover some of the earlier excitement.
49. Howard, Op cit., page 212.
50. Martin Bulmer, The Chicago School of Sociology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984, paperback edition, 1986, pages 1–2.
51. Ibid., pages 4–8, but see also chapters 4 and 5.
52. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro in American Civilisation, London: Constable, 1931.
53. Bulmer, Op. cit., pages 64–65.
54. Johnson, Op. cit., pages 229ff.
55. Ibid., page 463.
56. Ibid., pages 179ff.
57. Ibid., page 199.
58. Ibid., page 311.
59. Ibid., page 463.
60. Ibid., pages 475ff.
61. David Minter, William Faulkner: His Life and Work, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980, pages 72–73.
62. The demands made on Faulkner himself may be seen from the fact that after he had finished a chapter, he would turn to something quite different for a while – short stories for example. See: Joseph Blotner, Selected Letters of William Faulkner, London: The Scolar Press, 1955, page 92.
63. Ursula Brumm, ‘William Faulkner and the Southern Renaissance,’ in Marcus Cunliffe (editor), The Penguin History of Literature: American Literature since 1900, London: Sphere Books, 1975; Penguin paperback revised edition, 1993, pages 182–183 and 189.
64. Ibid., page 195.
65. Minter, Op. cit., pages 153–160.
66. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991, London: Michael Joseph, 1994, page 192.
67. T. R. Fyvel, George Orwell: A Personal Memoir, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982, page 21.
68. George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier, London: Gollancz, 1937, page 138; New York: Harcourt, 1958. Michael Shelden, Orwell: The Authorised Biography, London: Heinemann, 1991, page 128.
69. Fyvel, Op. cit., page 39.
70. Shelden, Op. cit., page 129.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid., page 132.
73. Ibid., pages 132–133.
74. Ibid., page 134.
75. Fyvel, Op. cit., page 45.
76. Shelden, Op. cit., page 135.
77. Fyvel, Op. cit., page 44.
78. Shelden, Op. cit., pages 173–174.
79. Ibid., page 180.
80. Ibid., page 239.
81. Ibid., page 244.
82. Ibid., page 245.
83. Ibid.
84. Fyvel, Op. cit., page 64.
85. Shelden, Op. cit., page 248.
86. Ibid., page 250.
87. Ibid., page 256.
88. Fyvel, Op. cit., pages 65–66.
89. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilisation, London: George Routledge, 1934.
90. Ibid., pages 107ff.
91. For an introduction, see also the excerpt in Lewis Mumford, My Works and Days: A Personal Chronicle, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. pages 197–199.
92. Mumford, Technics and Civilisation, Op. cit., pages 400ff.
93. Ibid., page 333.
94. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities, London: Martin Secker & Warburg, 1938.
95. Ibid., pages 100ff.
96. Ibid., chapter IV, pages 223ff.
97. Ernest William Barnes, Scientific Theory and Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933.
98. Ibid., lectures XIII (pages 434ff), XIV (pages 459ff) and XV (pages 504ff).
99. Ibid., lecture XX (pages 636ff).
100. William Ralph Inge, God and the Astronomers, London and New York: Longmans Green, 1933.
101. Ibid., pages 19ff.
102. Ibid., page 107.
103. Ibid., pages 140ff.
104. Ibid., pages 254–256.
105. Bertrand Russell, Religion and Science, London: Thornton Butterworth, 1935.
106. Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell, Op. cit., page 244.
107. Ibid., page 245.
108. Russell, Op. cit., chapters IV and VII.
109. Ibid., pages 236ff.
110. Ibid., page 237.
111. Ibid., page 243.
112. José Ortega Y Gasset, ‘The Barbarism of “Specialisation”,’ from The Revolt of the Masses, New York and London: W. W. Norton and George Allen & Unwin, 1932, quoted in John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses, London and Boston: Faber & Faber, 1992, pages 17–18.
113. For their contacts and early years, see: Royden J. Harrison, The Life and Times of Sidney and Beatrice Webb, 1858–1905: The Formative Years, London: Macmillan, 2000.
114. Lisanne Radice, Beatrice and Sidney Webb: Fabian Socialists, London: Macmillan, 1984, page 56.
115. Ibid., page 264.
116. Ibid., page 292.
117. Ibid., pages 292 and 295.
118. Ibid., page 297.
119. Ibid., pages 297 and 298.
120. Ibid., page 303.
121. Ibid., pages 305 and 323.
122. Stephanie Barron (editor), Degenerale Art: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany, Los Angeles: County Museum of Art, and New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1991, pages 12–13.
123. Ibid., page 12.
124. Robert Cecil, The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology, London: Batsford, 1972.
125. Ibid., page 12.
126. Ibid., page 83.
127. Ibid., pages 86–93.
128. Ibid., pages 95–103.
129. Ibid., page 120.
130. Ronald Clark, The Huxleys, London: Heinemann, 1968, page 130.
131. Aldous Huxley: 1894–1963: A Memorial Volume, London: Chatto & Windus, 1965, page 30.
132. For his own feelings about the book, see: Sybille Bedford, Aldous Huxley: A Biography, Volume One: 1894–1939, London: Chatto & Windus/Collins, 1973, pages 245–247.
133. Keith May, Aldous Huxley, London: Paul Elek, 1972, page 100.
134. Ibid.
135. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, London: Chatto & Windus, 1934; New York: Harper, 1934. May, Op. cit., page 103.
136. Clark, The Huxleys, Op. cit., page 236.
1. Henry Grosshans, Hitler and the Artists, New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983, page 72. I have relied heavily on this excellent short book.
2. Hildegard Brenner, ‘Art in the Political Power Struggle of 1933 and 1934,’ in Hajo Holborn (editor), Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution, New York: Pantheon, 1972, page 424. Quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.
3. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.
4. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., page 396.
5. Carl Carls, Ernst Barlach, New York: Praeger, 1969, page 172, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 72.
6. Ibid., page 73.
7. Ibid., page 72.
8. Ibid., page 73.
9. Ibid., page 74.
10. Ibid., page 75.
11. Ibid., page 77.
12. Victor H. Miesel (editor), Voices of German Expressionism, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970, pages 209ff.
13. Barron, Op. cit., page 319.
14. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 79.
15. Ibid., pages 79–80.
16. Ibid., page 81.
17. Berthold Hinz, Art in the Third Reich, New York: Pantheon, 1979, pages 43 ff.
18. White and Gribbin, Einstein, Op. cit., pages 163–164.
19. Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein: A Biography, New York: Viking, 1997, pages 659ff.
20. White and Gribbin, Einstein, Op. cit., page 206.
21. Fölsing, Op. cit., pages 648ff.
22. White and Gribbin, Op. cit., page 200.
23. Fölsing, Op. cit., page 649.
24. Headline quote: Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, March 1933, quoted in White and Gribbin, Op. cit., page 204; American attempts to bar Einstein: Fölsing, Op. cit., page 661.
25. Jarrell Jackman and Carlo M. Borden, The Muses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation, 1930–1945, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1963, page 170.
26. Ute Deichmann, Biologists under Hitler, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996, pages 40–47.
27. Ibid., pages 294ff.
28. Stephanie Barron (editor). Exiles and Emigrés: The Flight of European Artists from Europe, Los Angeles: County Museum of Art, and Harry N. Abrams, 1997, page 212.
29. Peter Hahn, ‘Bauhaus and Exile: Bauhaus Architects and Designers between the Old World and the New’, in Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., page 212.
30. Ibid., page 213.
31. Ibid., page 216.
32. Ibid., page 218.
33. Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination, Op. cit., page 29.
34. Ibid., page 30.
35. Laura Fermi, Illustrious Immigrants: The Intellectual Migration from Europe: 1930–1941, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971, pages 364–368.
36. Ibid., chapter VI, pages 139ff.
37. Clark, Freud, Op. cit., pages 502–504.
38. Ibid., page 507.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid., pages 511 and 513–516.
41. See Paul Ferris, Dr Freud, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1997, page 380, or a summary.
42. Clark, Op. cit., page 524.
43. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982, pages 44ff.
44. Ibid., pages 49ff.
45. Elzbieta Ettinger, Hannah Arendt/Martin Heidegger, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995, pages 24–25.
46. Rüdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998, page 255.
47. Ibid., pages 238ff.
48. Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., pages 102–106.
49. Ibid., pages 138–144.
50. See: Victor Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989, pages 140ff, for Heidegger’s speech on the university in the National Socialist state.
51. Safranski, Op. cit., page 258, says that an acknowledgement was however retained ‘hidden in the footnotes.’
52. Deichmann, Op. cit., page 187.
53. Ibid., page 184.
54. Ibid., pages 188–189.
55. Ibid., page 229.
56. Ibid. See also: Michael H. Kater, Doctors under Hitler, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1989, page 31 for the effect on doctors’ salaries of the purge of jewish physicians, and page 133 for the excesses of younger doctors (who were not völkisch brutes either); and Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988.
57. Deichmann, Op. cit., pages 231ff.
58. Ibid., pages 251 ff.
59. Ibid., page 257.
60. Ibid., page 258.
61. Grosshans, Op. cit., page m.
62. Ibid., page 101.
63. Richard Grunberger, A Social History of the Third Reich, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971, page 427, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., pages 99–100.
64. For Hitler’s speech, Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., pages 17ff (also for photographs of Hitler at the exhibition); for Hitler’s view that art should be ‘founded on peoples’, see: Grosshans, Op. cit., page 103.
65. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 103.
66. Ibid., page 105.
67. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., pages 20 and 25ff.
68. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 105.
69. Barron, Degenerate Art, pages 36–38; Grosshans, Op. cit., page 107.
70. Miesel, Op. cit., page 209, quoted in Grosshans, Op. cit., page 109.
71. Barron, Degenerate Art, Op. cit., page 19.
72. Grosshans, Op. cit., page 116.
73. Erik Levi, Music in the Third Reich, London: Macmillan, 1994, especially chapters 4 and 7. See also: Boris Schwarz, ‘The Music World in Migration’, in Jackman and Borden (editors), Op. cit., pages 135–150.
74. Mary Bosanquet, The Life and Death of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1968, pages 82ff.
75. Eberhard Bethge, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Theologian, Christian, Contemporary, London: Collins, 1970. pages 379ff.
76. Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 82.
77. Ibid., pages 121–124; see also Bethge, Op. cit., page 193.
78. Bosanquet, Op. cit., pages 187ff.
79. See his diary entry for 9 July 1939, quoted in Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 218; see also Bethge, Op. cit., pages 557ff.
80. Bosanquet, Op. cit., page 235.
81. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (edited by Eberhard Bethge), London: SCM Press, 1967.
82. Bosanquet, Op. cit., pages 277–278; see also Bethge, Op. cit., pages 827ff.
83. Vitaly Shentalinsky, The KCB’s Literary Archive, London: The Harvill Press, 1995, paperback 1997. Originally published in French as La parole ressuscitée dans les archives littéraires du KGB, Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1993.
84. Ibid., pages 136–137.
85. Ibid., pages 287–289.
86. See: Loren R. Graham, Science in the Soviet Union, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pages 79ff for the full impact of the revolution on scientists.
87. Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997, pages 20–25. This is the main source for this section.
88. Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991, pages 104ff.
89. Krementsov, Op. cit., pages 24–25.
90. Ibid., pages 29–30.
91. Josephson, Op. cit., pages 152ff.
92. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 35. For Pavlov’s own scepticism toward psychology, and his resistance to Marxism, see Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy and Human Behaviour in the Soviet Union, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987, page 161. This book is an updated version of Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1973.
93. Josephson, Op. cit., page 204.
94. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 40.
95. Ibid., page 43.
96. Ibid., page 47. See Graham, Op. cit., page 117 for talk about social Darwinian engineering and a marriage to Marxism.
97. See Josephson, Op. cit., pages 225ft for an account of the ‘interference’ between Marxist philosophy and theoretical physics.
98. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 56; Graham, Op. cit., page 241.
99. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 57. See also Graham, Op. cit., chapters 4 and 6 for a discussion of the impact of Leninism on quantum mechanics and on relativity physics (chapters 10 and 11).
100. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 59.
101. Graham, Op. cit., page 108.
102. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 60.
103. See Josephson, Op. cit., page 269, for the fight put up by Russian physicists against the materialists, who were accused of playing ‘hide and seek’ with the evidence. See also Graham, Op. cit., page 121.
104. Krementsov, Op. cit., page 60.
105. Josephson, Op. cit., page 308.
106. Graham, Op. cit., page 315.
107. Krementsov, Op. cit., pages 66–67.
108. Ibid., page 73.
109. Ibid., page 82.
110. Graham, Science in the Soviet Union, Op. cit., pages 129–130, for details of Vavilov’s fate.
111. Gleb Struve, Russian Literature under Lenin and Stalin, 1917–1953, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971, pages 59ff.
112. A. Kemp-Welch, Stalin and the Literary Intelligentsia, 1928–1939, London: Macmillan, 1991, page 233.
113. See: Dan Levy, Stormy Petrel: The Life and Work of Maxim Gorky, London: Frederick Muller, 1967, pages 313–318, for details of his relations with Stalin towards the end.
114. Although RAPP itself was bitterly divided. See: Struve, Op. cit., page 232; Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 77.
115. Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 77.
116. Ibid., pages 169–170.
117. See Struve, Op. cit., chapter 20, pages 256ff.
118. Edward J. Brown, The Proletarian Episode in Russian Literature 1928–1932, New York: Columbia University Press, 1953, pages 69–70, 96, 120 and 132.
119. Struve, Op. cit., page 261; Kemp-Welsh, Op. cit., page 175.
120. See Brown, Op. cit., page 182 for what the Politburo said of Shostakovich; Kemp-Welsh, Op. cit., page 178.
121. See Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope Against Hope, London: Collins and Harvill Press, 1971, pages 217–221 for Mandelstam’s relations with Akhmatova.
122. John and Carol Garrard, Inside the Soviet Writers’ Union, London: I. B. Tauris, 1990, pages 58–59.
123. Shentalinsky, Op. cit., page 191.
124. Ibid., page 193.
125. Garrard and Garrard, Op. cit., page 38; see also Shentalinsky, Op. cit., pages 70–71 for Ehrenburg’s attempted defence of Babel.
126. Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 223.
127. Ibid., page 224.
128. I. Ehrenburg, Men, Years-Life, London, 1963, volume 4, The Eve of War, page 96, quoted in: Kemp-Welch, Op. cit., page 198.
1. Lewis Jacobs, The Rise of the American Film, A Critical History, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1939, page 419.
2. Alfred Knight, The Liveliest Art, Op. cit., page 156.
3. Ibid., pages 164–165.
4. Jacobs, Op. cit.: see the ‘still’ between pages 428 and 429.
5. Knight, Op. cit., page 257.
6. Ibid., pages 261–262. See also Jacobs, Op. cit., for a list of some prominent directors of the period.
7. Knight, Op. cit., page 222.
8. Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell, Film History, New York: McGraw Hill, 1994, page 353.
9. Knight, Op. cit., page 225.
10. Ibid., pages 226–227.
11. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 354.
12. W H. Auden, ‘Night Mail’, July, 1935. See Edward Mendelsohn (editor). The English Auden, London and Boston: Faber & Faber, 1977.
13. Knight, Op. cit., page 211.
14. Thomson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 309.
15. Ibid., page 310.
16. Knight, Op. cit., page 212. Riefenstahl later said that she was only ever interested in art and was unaware of the Nazis’ persecutions, a claim that film historians have contested. See Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 320.
17. John Lucas, The Modern Olympic Games, Cranbury, New Jersey: A. S. Barnes, 1980.
18. Allen Guttman, The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992, pages 67ff.
19. Riefenstahl was allowed to pick from other cameramen’s footage. See: Audrey Salkeld, A Portrait of Leni Riefenstahl, London: Jonathan Cape, 1996, page 173.
20. Riefenstahl says in her memoirs that Hitler did not refuse to shake hands with Owen on racial grounds, as was widely reported, but ‘because it was against Olympic protocol.’ See: Leni Riefenstahl, The Sieve of Time: The Memoirs of Leni Riefenstahl, London: Quartet, 1992, page 193.
21. Salkeld, Op. cit., page 186.
22. Knight, Op. cit., page 213.
23. Ibid., page 216.
24. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 294.
25. Knight, Op. cit., page 217.
26. Ibid., page 218.
27. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 298. Knight, Op. cit., page 218.
28. Knight, Op. cit., page 218.
29. See Momme Broderson, Walter Benjamin: A Biography, London: Verso, 1996, pages 184ff for his friendship with Brecht, Kraus and a description of life in Berlin.
30. Bernd Witte, Walter Benjamin: An Intellectual Biography, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991, pages 159–160.
31. Ibid., page 161. In his account of their friendship, Gershom Scholem describes his reactions to this essay, claiming that Benjamin’s use of the concept of ‘aura’ was ‘forced’. Gershom Scholem, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship, London and Boston: Faber & Faber, 1982, page 207.
32. Stanislaus von Moos, Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1979, pages 210–213.
33. Ibid., page 191.
34. Ibid., pages 17, 49–50.
35. Robert Furneaux Jordan, Le Corbusier, London: J. M. Dent, 1972, page 36 and plate 5; see also Von Moos, Op. cit., page 75.
36. Jordan, Op cit., page 33.
37. Ibid., page 36 and plate 5.
38. Von Moos, Op cit., page 154; see also Jordan, Op. cit., pages 56–57.
39. Von Moos, Op. cit., pages 302–303.
40. See Von Moos, Ibid., pages 296–297 for Le Corbusier’s thinking on colour and how it changed over time. In Jordan, Op. cit., page 45, Le Corbusier describes the process in the following way: ‘One must take every advantage of modern science.’
41. Humphrey Carpenter, W. H. Auden: A Biography, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981, pages 12–13. See the discussion of ‘Audenesque’ in Bernard Bergonzi, Reading the Thirties, London: Macmillan, 1978, pages 40–41.
42. Grevel Lindop, ‘Poetry in the 1930s and 1940s,’ in Martin Dodsworth (editor), The Twentieth Century; volume 7 of The Penguin History of Literature, London, 1994, page 268.
43. Ian Hamilton (editor), The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, Op. cit., page 21.
44. ‘VII’, July 1932, from ‘Poems 1931–1936’, in Edward Mendelsohn (editor). Op. cit., page 120.
45. ‘VII’, August 1932, in ibid., page 120.
46. G. Rostrevor Hamilton, The Tell-Tale Article, quoted in Bergonzi, Op. cit, page 43.
47. Ibid., page 52.
48. Poem XXIX, in Mendelsohn (editor), Op. cit.
49. Bergonzi, Op. cit., page 51. See also Carpenter, Op. cit., for the writing of ‘Spain’ and Auden’s direction of the royalties. Lindop, Op. cit., page 273.
50. Quoted in Frederick R. Benson, Writers in Arms: The Literary Impact of the Spanish Civil War, London: University of London Press; New York: New York University Press, 1968, page 33.
51. Carpenter, Op. cit., page 219. See also: Bernard Crick, George Orwell: A Life, London: Secker & Warburg, 1980, chapter 10, ‘Spain and “necessary murder”,’ pages 207ff
52. Benson, Op. cit., pages xxii and 88ff.
53. Ibid., pages xxii and 27.
54. André Malraux, L’Espoir, Paris: Gallimard, 1937.
55. Curtis Cate, André Malraux: A Biography, London: Hutchinson, 1995, pages 259ff.
56. Benson, Op. cit., pages 240 and 295. At times Hemingway’s book was sold under the counter in Spain. See José Luis Castillo-Duche, Hemingway in Spain, London: New England Library, 1975, page 96.
57. John Berger, The Success and Failure of Picasso, Op. cit., page 164.
58. Arianna Stassinopoulos, Op. cit., page 231.
59. Berger, Op. cit., page 102.
60. Stassinopoulos, Op. cit., page 232.
61. Herbert Read, ‘Picasso’s Guernica’, London Bulletin, No. 6, October 1938, page 6.
62. Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New, Op. cit., page 110.
63. Ibid., pages 110–111.
64. Stassinopoulos, Op. cit., page 256.
65. Herbert Rutledge Southworth, Guernica! Guernica!, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977, pages 277–279, shows how many Spaniards took a long time to forgive Picasso. See also Benson, Op. cit., page 64 for Orwell’s reactions to the war.
66. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia, London: Martin Secker & Warburg, 1938.
67. J. E. Morpurgo, Allen Lane: King Penguin, London: Hutchinson, 1979, page 80.
68. Ibid., pages 81–84.
69. Ibid., pages 92–93.
70. W. A. Williams, Allen Lane, A Personal Portrait, London: The Bodley Head, 1973, page 45.
71. J. B. Priestley, English Journey, London: Heinemann, 1934; Penguin, 1977.
72. F. R. Leavis, Mass Civilisation and Minority Culture, London: Minority Press, 1930. (Actually issued by Gordon Fraser.)
73. Ian MacKillop, F. R. Leavis: A Life in Criticism, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, 1995, pages 74–75. I. A. Richards, whose 1929 Practical Criticism embodied this view, and became very influential, later moved to Harvard, where this approach became known as the ‘new criticism.’
74. Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, London: Chatto & Windus, 1932; Re-issued: Bellew, 1990.
75. Ibid., pages 199–200.
76. Williams, Op. cit., 52ff compares them with the BBC’s Third Programme. He says it was the most decisive event of the company, linking it also with the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, the forerunner of Britain’s Arts Council.
77. Morpurgo, Op. cit., pages 114–116.
78. Ibid., page 116.
79. Williams, Op. cit., page 54.
80. Morpurgo, Op. cit., page 131.
81. Ibid., page 135.
82. J. K. Galbraith, The Age of Uncertainty, London: BBC/André Deutsch, 1977, page 203.
83. Ibid., page 204.
84. Ibid., page 211.
85. Robert Lekachman, The Age of Keynes, London: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, 1967; Pelican Books, 1969, page 72.
86. Ibid., pages 80–84.
87. The phrase is Robert Skidelsky’s in his biography of Keynes: Skidelsky, Op. cit., volume 2, chapter 13, page 431.
88. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 214.
89. According to Skidelsky, publication of The General Theory was followed by ‘a war of opinion’ among economists. Skidelsky, Op. cit., page 572.
90. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 218.
91. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 120.
92. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 221.
93. Bergonzi, Op. cit., pages 112–114, and 126–127.
94. Bergonzi, Op. cit., pages 61 and 112.
95. Cole Porter, ‘You’re the Tops’, 1934. This was ‘quasi-Marxist’ on Porter’s part, according to Bergonzi, Op. cit., page 127.
96. See John Gloag, Plastic and Industrial Design, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1945, page 86, for a basic introduction; also polythene.
97. Stephen Fenichell, Plastic, Op. cit., page 106.
98. Burr W. Leyson, Plastics in the World of Tomorrow, London: Elek, 1946, page 17, underlines how rapid the acceptance of cellophane was.
99. Farben also produced a synthetic emerald in 1934. See: David Fishlock, The New Materials, London: John Murray, 1967, page 49.
100. Fenichell, Op. cit., pages 152–153.
101. Ibid., page 161.
102. Ibid., pages 150–151.
103. Paul Johnson, A History of the Modern World, Op. cit., page 247.
104. Michael Mannheim (editor), The Cambridge Companion to Eugene O’Neill, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 1.
105. Louis Shaeffer, O’Neill: Son and Playwright, London: J. M. Dent, 1969, pages 69–70.
106. Stephen Black, ‘Cell of Loss’, in Mannheim (editor), Op. cit., pages 4–12. Shaeffer, Op. cit., page 174.
107. Normand Berlin, ‘The Late Plays’, in Mannheim (editor), Op. cit., pages 82ff.
108. O’Neill said Hope’s was based on three places ‘I actually lived in.’ See: Arthur and Barbara Gelb, O’Neill, London: Jonathan Cape, 1962, page 296.
109. This is a post-Darwinian vision but O’Neill also admitted to being influenced by Jung. See: Egil Törnqvist, ‘O’Neill’s philosophical and literary paragons,’ in Mannheim (editor), Op. cit., page 22.
110. Shaeffer, Op. cit., page 514. See Mannheim, Op. cit., page 85, for the point about ‘waiting for Hickey.’
111. David Morse, ‘American Theatre: The Age of O’Neill,’ in Marcus Cunliffe (editor), American Literature since 1900, London: Sphere, 1975; Penguin edition 1993, page 77.
112. Berlin, Op. cit., page 90.
113. According to Shaeffer, Op. cit., page 510 ff, this is the least autobiographical part of the play. O’Neill made the Tyrone setting far more claustrophobic than was the case with the O’Neills themselves, who went out for meals.
114. See Arthur and Barbara Gelb, O’Neill, Op. cit., page 93. Berlin, Op. cit., page 91.
115. Berlin, Op. cit., page 89.
116. Alfred Kazin, On Native Grounds, Op. cit., page 485.
117. Ibid., page 295 for the reference to Van Wyck Brooks, 352 for Dos Passos and 442 for the ‘tragicomic climax’.
118. Ibid., page 404.
119. Ibid., page 488.
120. Simon Callow, Orson Welles: The Road to Xanadu, London: Jonathan Cape, 1995, page xi.
121. Ibid., page 521.
122. Frank Brady, Citizen Welles, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1990, pages 309–310.
123. Callow, Op. cit., page 570.
1. Stephanie Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., pages 136–137.
2. Ibid., pages 16–18.
3. Ibid., page 14.
4. Laura Fermi, Ilustrious Immigrants, Op. cit., pages 66–68.
5. Jarrel C. Jackman and Carla M. Borden, The Muses Flee Hitler, Op. cit., page 218.
6. Ibid., page 219.
7. Ibid., pages 206–207.
8. Ibid., pages 208–226.
9. Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., page 19. See also Lewis A. Coser, Refugee Scholars in America: Their Impact and Their Experiences, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1984, has entire chapters on, among others: Kurt Lewin, Erik Erikson, Wilhelm Reich, Bruno Bettelheim, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Paul Lazarsfeld, Ludwig von Mieses, Karl Polanyi, Hannah Arendt, Thomas Mann, Vladimir Nabokov, Roman Jakobson, Erwin Panofsky, Hajo Holborn, Rudolf Carnap and Paul Tillich.
10. Elisabeth Kessin Berman, ‘Moral Triage or Cultural Salvage? The Agendas of Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee,’ in Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., pages 99–112.
11. Varian Fry, Surrender on Demand, New York: Random House, 1945, page 157. Jackman and Borden, Op. cit., page 89.
12. Fry, Op. cit., pages 189–191.
13. Martica Swain, Surrealism in Exile and the Beginnings of the New York School, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995, pages 124–126.
14. Jackman and Borden, Op. cit., page 90.
15. Coser, Op. cit., ‘The New School for Social Research: A Collective Portrait,’ pages 102–109.
16. Ian Hamilton (editor), The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, Op. cit., pages 51–52.
17. Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., page 187.
18. Ibid., pages 190ff.
19. Jackman and Borden, Op. cit., pages 140–141.
20. Ibid., pages 142–143.
21. Ehrhard Bahr, Literary Weimar in Exile: German Literature in Los Angeles, 1940–1958, in Ehrhard Bahr and Carolyn See, Literary Exiles and Refugees in Los Angeles, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California at Los Angeles, 1988. Bahr argues that the German writers never fully assimilated in L.A., always keeping their eyes on Germany.
22. Barron, Exiles and Emigrés, Op. cit., pages 358— 359.
23. Ibid., page 341.
24. Bernard Taper, Balanchine, New York: Times Books, 1984, pages 147ff.
25. Ibid., page 148.
26. Richard Buckle, George Balanchine: Ballet Master: A Biography, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1988, pages 61ff.
27. Taper, Op. cit., page 149.
28. Lincoln Kirstein, Mosaic: Memoirs, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1994, page 23.
29. Taper, Op. cit., page 151.
30. Buckle, Op. cit., page 66, says the first meeting was at the Savoy, the second at the Chelsea home of Kirk Askew.
31. Kirstein, Op. cit., pages 247–249.
32. Taper, Op. cit., page 151.
33. Ibid., page 153.
34. Ibid., page 154.
35. Buckle, Op. cit., page 88.
36. Taper, Op. cit., page 156.
37. Ibid., page 157.
38. Ibid.
39. Buckle, Op. cit., page 88.
40. Taper, Op. cit., page 160.
41. Various authors, The Cultural Migration: The European Scholar in America, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1953. Tillich reference: page 155.
1. Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma, London: Burnett Books, in association with Hutchinson, 1983, Vintage paperback, 1992, pages 160ff.
2. I. J. Good, ‘Pioneering work on computers at Bletchley,’ in N. Metropolis, J. Howlett and Giancarlo Rota (editors), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, New York and London: Academic Press, 1980, page 33 for others who arrived at Bletchley at much the same time.
3. Hodges, Op. cit., page 160.
4. Paul Strathern, Turing and the Computer, London: Arrow, 1997, page 59.
5. Good, Op. cit., pages 35 and 36 for excellent photographs of Enigma. For the latest account of the way the Enigma codes were broken, and the vital contribution of Harry Hinsley, using recently declassified documents, see: Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, Enigma: The Battle for the Code, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000.
6. Hodges, Op. cit., page 86.
7. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 46–47.
8. Hodges, Op. cit., pages 96–101 for the link between rational and computable numbers. See also: Strathern, Op. cit., page 48.
9. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 49–50.
10. S. M. Ulam, ‘Von Neumann: The Interreaction of Mathematics and Computers,’ in Metropolis et al. (editors), Op. cit., pages 95ff.
11. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 51–52.
12. Ibid., pages 55–56.
13. Ibid., pages 57–59.
14. Turing also knew who to take advice from. See: Wladyslaw Kozoczuh, Enigma, London: Arms & Armour Press, 1984, page 96 on the role of the Poles.
15. At times the messages were not in real German. This was an early problem solved. See: R. V. Jones, Most Secret War, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978, page 63.
16. Good, Op. cit., pages 40–41.
17. Hodges, Op. cit., page 277.
18. B. Randall, ‘The Colossus’, in Metropolis et al. (editors), Op. cit., pages 47ft for the many others who collaborated on Colossus. See Hodges, Op. cit., between pages 268 and 269 for photographs.
19. Strathern, Op. cit., page 63–64.
20. See Randall, Op. cit., pages 77–80 for an assessment of Turing and the ‘fog’ that still hangs over his wartime meeting with Von Neumann.
21. Hodges, Op. cit., page 247.
22. Strathern, Op. cit., page 66.
23. See John Haugeland, Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1985, pages 261–263 for an exact chronology.
24. Hodges, Op cit., pages 311–312.
25. Guy Hartcup, The Challenge of War: Scientific and Engineering Contributions to World War Two, Exeter: David & Charles, 1970, pages 17ff.
26. Ibid., page 94.
27. Ibid., pages 96–97.
28. Ibid., page 91. For German progress, and some shortcomings of radar, see: Alfred Price, Instruments of Darkness, London: William Kimber, 1967, circa pages 40–45; and David Pritchard, The Radar War, London: Patrick Stephens, 1989, especially pages 80ff.
29. Hartcup, Op. cit., page 91, but for a detailed chronology, see: Jack Gough, Watching the Skies: A History of Ground Radar for the Air Defence of the United Kingdom by the RAF from 1946 to 1975, London: HMSO, 1993, pages 8–12.
30. Hartcup, Op. cit., pages 90 and 107.
31. Ronald W. Clark, The Life of Ernst Chain: Penicillin and Beyond, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1985, pages 47ff. Weatherall, In Search of a Cure, Op. cit., pages 174–175.
32. Gwyn Macfarlane, Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, London: Chatto & Windus/The Hogarth Press, 1984, pages 119ff.
33. Weatherall, Op. cit., page 168.
34. Ibid., pages 165–166.
35. Gwyn Macfarlane, Howard Florey: The Making of a Great Scientist, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, page 331.
36. Weatherall, Op. cit., pages 175–176.
37. John E. Pfeiffer, The Creative Explosion: An Inquiry into the Origins of Art and Religion, New York: Harper & Row, 1982, pages 26ff, who says there was no dog. Annette Laming, Lascaux, London: Penguin, 1959, pages 54ff.
38. Mario Ruspoli, The Cave of Lascaux: The Final Photographic Record, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1987, page 188. See also note 37 above.
39. Ibid.
40. Pfeiffer, Op. cit., page 30.
41. Ruspoli, Op. cit., page 188.
42. Pfeiffer, Op. cit., page 31.
43. For a detailed description, see Ruspoli, Op. cit., and Fernand Windels, Montignac-sur-Vézere, Centre d’Études et de documentations préhistoriques, Dordogne, 1948.
44. Paul G. Bahn and Jean Vertut, Images of the Ice Age, London: Windward, 1988, pages 20–23.
45. Evan Hadingham, Secrets of the Ice Age: The World of the Cave Artists, London: Heinemann, 1979. page 187.
46. See Ruspoli, Op. cit., pages 87–88 for a discussion, though no women are represented at Lascaux. Professor Randall White, of New York University, believes that certain features of the Venus figurines (tails, animal ears) suggest that these objects date from a time when early humans had not yet linked sexual intercourse with birth. The animal features suggest that animal spirits were thought to be involved. (Personal communication.)
47. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, The Appearance of Man, London: Collins, 1965, page 51.
48. Ian Tattersall, The Fossil Trail, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, paperback 1996, pages 62 and 67.
49. Chardin, Op. cit., pages 91 and 145. Tattersall, Op. cit., page 62.
50. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, Op. cit., pages 566–569 which also includes Bernhard Rensch and G. Ledyard Stebbins in this group though they didn’t publish their works until 1947 and 1950 respectively, by which time the Princeton conference (see below) had taken place. Mayr says (page 70) that there was no ‘paradigm shift’ in a Kuhnian sense (see chapter 27 of this book) but ‘an exchange’ of ‘viable components.’ Julian Huxley’s book was published by George Allen & Unwin in London; all the others in the synthesis were published in New York by Columbia University Press. See also: Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (editors), The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1980, 1988, which explores the development in evolutionary thinking outside Britain and the United States: France, Germany, Soviet Russia, together with modern reassessments of the early figures in the field: T. H. Morgan, R. A. Fisher, G. G. Simpson, J. B. S. Haldane and William Bateson.
51. For the popularity of ‘saltation’ see David Kahn (editor), The Darwinian Heritage, Princeton: Princeton University Press in association with Nova Pacifica, 1985, pages 762–763.
52. Tattersall, Op. cit., pages 89–94.
53. Ibid., page 95.
54. Walter Moore, Schrödinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, page 395.
55. Erwin Schrödinger, What is Life?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944, page 77.
56. Moore, Op. cit., page 396.
57. Schrödinger, Op. cit., page 61.
58. Ibid., page 79.
59. Ibid., page 30.
60. Moore, Op. cit., page 397.
1. Karl Mannheim, Diagnosis of Our Time: Wartime Essays of a Sociologist, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1943.
2. Ibid., page 38.
3. Ibid., page 32.
4. Ibid., pages 60ff.
5. Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1943.
6. Johnston, The Austrian Mind, Op. cit., page 83.
7. Robert Heilbronner, The Worldly Philosophers, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953, Penguin Books, 1986, pages 292–293.
8. Schumpeter, Op. cit., pages 111ff.
9. Ibid., page 81.
10. Ibid., pages 143ff; Heilbronner, Op. cit., pages 6 and 301–302.
11. Heilbronner, Op. cit., pages 300–303.
12. Friedrich von Hayek, The Road to Serfdom, London: George Routledge, 1944, page 52.
13. Ibid., page 61.
14. C. H. Waddington, The Scientific Attitude, London (another Penguin Special), 1941.
15. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, Volume I: The Spell of Plato, Volume II: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1945.
16. Popper had problems publishing The Open Society, which some publishers felt too irreverent towards Aristotle; and the journal Mind turned down The Poverty of Historicism. See Mannheim’s autobiograhy, Unended Quest: An Intellectual Biography, London: Routledge, 1992, page 119.
17. Roberta Corvi, An Introduction to the Thought of Karl Popper, London and New York: Routledge, 1997, page 52.
18. Ibid., page 55.
19. Ibid., page 59.
20. Popper, Op. cit., volume I, page 143. Corvi, Op. cit., page 65.
21. Ibid., volume II, page 218.
22. Corvi, Op. cit., page 69.
23. See Popper, Op. cit., volume II, chapter 14, on the autonomy of sociology, and chapter 23, on the sociology of knowledge.
24. Corvi, Op. cit., page 73.
25. William Temple, Christianity and the Social Order, London: Penguin Special, 1942.
26. Ibid., chapter 2 on church ‘interference’.
27. Ibid., page 75.
28. Ibid., pages 76ff.
29. Ibid., page 79.
30. Ibid., page 87.
31. Nicholas Timmins, The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State, London: HarperCollins, 1995, Fontana Paperback, 1996, page 23. See also: Derek Fraser, The Evolution of the British Welfare State, London: Macmillan, 1973, page 199, which says the report sold 635,000 copies.
32. John Kenneth Galbraith, A History of Economics, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1987, Penguin edition, 1991, pages 213–215.
33. For the effects of war on attitudes, see: Fraser, Op. cit., pages 194–195.
34. Timmins, Op. cit., page 11. There is no mention of this, of course, in Beveridge’s memoirs: Lord Beveridge, Power and Influence, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1953.
35. Beveridge, Op. cit., page 9; quoted in Timmins, Op. cit., page 12. See also: José Harris, William Beveridge: A Biography, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977, page 44.
36. Paul Addison, Churchill on the Home Front 1900—1955, London: Jonathan Cape, 1992, page 51; quoted in Timmins, Op. cit., page 13.
37. Harris, Op. cit., pages 54 and 379. Timmins, Op. cit., page 14.
38. Timmins, Op. cit., page 15.
39. Ibid., page 20.
40. Ibid. See also: Harris, Op. cit., page 385.
41. Timmins, Op. cit., page 21, though according to Harris, Op. cit., page 390, he did not begin to think about insurance until the end of 1941.
42. Fritz Grunder, ‘Beveridge meets Bismark,’ York papers, volume 1, page 69, quoted in Timmins, Op. cit., page 25.
43. Ibid., pages 23–24.
44. Cmnd. 6404, Social Insurance and Allied Services: Report by Sir William Beveridge, London: HMSO, 1942, pages 6–7, quoted in Timmins, Op. cit., pages 23–24.
45. And, indeed, many officials were cautious. Harris, Op. cit., page 422.
46. Timmins, Op. cit., page 29.
47. Derek Fraser, Op. cit., page 180, quoted in Timmins, Op. cit., page 33.
48. Ibid., page 37.
49. In his memoirs, Beveridge refers to an American commentator who said: ‘Sir William, possibly next to Mr Churchill, is the most popular figure in Britain today.’ Beveridge, Op. cit., page 319
50. Allan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin, Op. cit., page 858.
51. Crick, George Orwell, Op. cit., page 316.
52. Malcolm Bradbury, Introduction to George Orwell, Animal Farm, Penguin Books, 1989, page vi.
53. Crick, Op. cit., pages 316–318, adds that paper shortage may not have been the only reason for delay.
54. Galbraith, A History of Economics, Op. cit., page 248.
55. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 128.
56. Moggridge, Op. cit., page 629.
57. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 124.
58. Moggridge, Op. cit., page 631.
59. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 127.
60. Ibid., page 131.
61. The New Republic, ‘Charter for America,’ 19 April 1943, quoted in Lekachman, Op. cit., pages ‘33–135. See also Galbraith, Op. cit., page 249.
62. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 150.
63. Ibid., page 152.
64. Moggridge, Op. cit., page 724. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 158.
65. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 152.
66. White had prepared his own proposal on an International Bank. Moggridge, Op. cit., page 724.
67. Ibid., pages 802–803.
68. Keynes himself was more worried about Britain’s overseas spending, which he felt did not match her reduced means. Ibid., page 825.
69. Lekachman, Op. cit., page 138.
70. Ibid., page 161.
71. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (two vols), New York: Harper & Row, 1944.
72. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, page 378.
73. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939.
74. Myrdal, Op. cit., page xlvii.
75. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 379.
76. See Myrdal, Op. cit., chapter 34, on leaders.
77. Paul Johnson, A History of the American People, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, page 794. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 395.
78. Ralph Ellison, Shadow and Act, New York: Random House, 1964, page 316.
1. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Op. cit., page 319.
2. Ibid., page 321.
3. See R. W. Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, London: Phoenix House, 1961, page 116, for an erroneous claim that Frisch’s house was hit by a bomb and set ablaze.
4. For more details about Peierls’ calculations, see Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit., page 118; also Rhodes, Op. cit., page 323.
5. Tizard’s committee, extraordinarily, was the only body in wartime Britain capable of assessing the military uses of scientific discoveries. Clark, Op. cit., page 55.
6. Robert Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns, London: Victor Gollancz in association with Rupert Hart-Davis, 1958, page 67.
7. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 212.
8. Fermi was known to other physicists as ‘the Pope.’ Jungk, Op. cit., page 57.
9. Laura Fermi, Atoms in the Family, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954, page 123. Also quoted in Rhodes, Op. cit., page 249.
10. C. P. Snow, The Physicists, Op. cit., pages 90–91.
11. Otto Hahn, New Atoms, New York and Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1950, pages 53ff.
12. Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 254–256.
13. Jungk, Op. cit., pages 67–77.
14. Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations, Op. cit., page 260.
15. Ronald Clark, The Greatest Power on Earth: The Story of Nuclear Fission, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1980, page 45. See also: Jungk, Op. cit., page 77. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 258.
16. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 261.
17. Szilard suggested secrecy but didn’t find many supporters. Kragh, Op. cit., page 263.
18. Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit., page 80.
19. See Jungk, Op. cit., pages 82ff for Szilard’s other initiatives.
20. Ibid., page 91 also says that the possibility of a chain reaction had not occurred to Einstein.
21. Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 291–292 and 296.
22. See Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit., page 183, which says that Canada was also considered as an entirely British alternative. See also: Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 329–330.
23. Kragh, Op. cit., page 265; and Rhodes, Op. cit., page 379.
24. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 385.
25. Mark Walker, German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pages 222ff, argues that the significance of this meeting has been exaggerated on both sides. The meeting became the subject of a successful play, Copenhagen, by Michael Frayn, first performed by the National Theatre in London in 1998, and on Broadway in New York in 2000.
26. Kragh, Op. cit., page 266; Rhodes, Op. cit., page 389.
27. Leslie Groves, ‘The atomic general answers his critics’, Saturday Evening Post, 19 May, 1948, page 15; see also Jungk, Op. cit., page 122.
28. Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 450–451.
29. Clark, The Greatest Power on Earth, Op. cit., page 161.
30. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 437.
31. Jane Wilson (editor), ‘All in Our Time’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 1975, quoted in Rhodes, Op. cit., page 440.
32. See Kragh, Op. cit., page 267, for its internal organisation.
33. Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 492 and 496–500.
34. Kragh, Op. cit., page 270.
35. Stefan Rozental (editor), Niels Bohr, Op. cit., page 192.
36. Margaret Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945, London: Macmillan, 1964, pages 354–356. See also: Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 482 and 529.
37. See Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit., page 141, for the way the British watched the Germans.
38. On the German preference for heavy water, see Mark Walker, Op. cit., page 27.
39. David Irving, The Virus House, London: William Kimber, 1967, page 191. The involvement of German physicists with the bomb became a cause célèbre after the war, following the claims by some that they had steered clear of such developments on moral grounds. Several contradictory accounts were published which culminated, in 1996, in Jeremy Bernstein (editor), Hitler’s Nuclear Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall, New York: American Institute of Physics Press. These were declassified transcripts of recordings made at the English country manor, Farm Hall, which housed the captured German scientists in the wake of World War II. The Germans were secretly tape-recorded. The recordings show that by war’s end the German nuclear effort employed hundreds of scientists in nine task-oriented research groups, and with Heisenberg in overall charge. The project was on track, in 1943, towards a working reactor but these plans were disrupted, partly by the interdiction of supplies of heavy water, and partly by Allied bombing, which caused the research institute to be moved south, out of Berlin.
40. Herbert York, The Advisers, London: W. H. Freeman, 1976, page 30. Rhodes, Op. cit., page 458.
41. Kragh, Op. cit., page 271. Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 501–502.
42. This is Rhodes, page 618, but Jungk says Truman was not informed until 25 April: Jungk, Op. cit., page 178.
43. Jungk, Op. cit., page 195.
44. See also Emilio Segrè’s account, reported in Kragh, Op. cit., page 269.
45. Jungle, Op. cit., chapters XI, XII, and XIV.
46. The names of the plane were the first names of the mother of the pilot, Paul Tibbets: Jungk, Op. cit., page 219.
47. Paul Tibbets, ‘How to Drop an Atomic Bomb,’ Saturday Evening Post, 8 June 1946, page 136.
48. Caffrey, Ruth Benedict, Op. cit., page 321.
49. Modell, Ruth Benedict, Op. cit., page 285.
50. Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946, paperback edition: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.
51. Ibid., pages x–xi.
52. Ibid., passim circa page 104.
53. Ibid., see the table on page 116 comparing On, Ko and Giri.
54. Ibid., pages 253ff.
55. Ibid., page 192.
56. Caffrey, Op. cit., page 325.
57. Modell, Op. cit., page 284.
58. Benedict, Op. cit., page 305.
1. Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre: A Life, London: Heinemann, 1987, page 250. Herman, Op. cit., page 343.
2. Herman, The Idea of Decline in Western History, Op. cit., page 343.
3. J.-P. Sartre, Self-Portrait at 70, in Life Situations, Essays Written and Spoken, translated by P. Auster and L. Davis, New York: Pantheon 1977, pages 47— 48; quoted in Herman, Op. cit., page 342.
4. Ibid., page 334.
5. Ronald Hayman, Writing Against: A Biography of Sartre, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986, page 64. Herman, Op. cit., page 334; Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 57.
6. Herman, Op. cit., page 335.
7. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 95.
8. Herman, Op. cit., page 333.
9. Ibid., page 338.
10. Heidegger’s notion that the world revealed itself to ‘maladjusted instruments’ fitted with Sartre’s own developing ideas of ‘l’homme revolté’. Hayman, Op. cit., pages 132–133.
11. Herman, Op. cit., page 339.
12. Antony Beevor and Artemis Cooper, Paris After the Liberation: 1944–1949, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994, page 199.
13. Ibid., pages 81 and 200.
14. Ibid., pages 156 and 164.
15. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 248. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., pages 159–161.
16. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 155.
17. Herman, Op. cit., page 343; Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 258.
18. Herman, Op. cit., page 344.
19. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., pages 444ff.
20. Herman, Op. cit., page 346.
21. Maurice Merlau-Ponty, Humanism and Terror, Boston: Beacon Press, 1969, pages xvi—xvii.
22. Herman, Op cit., page 346.
23. Arthur Koestler, Darkness at Noon, London: Jonathan Cape, 1940, translator Daphne Harley; see also: David Cesarani, Arthur Koestler: The Homeless Mind, London: Heinemann, 1998, pages 288–290, for the fights with Sartre.
24. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., pages 347–348.
25. Ibid., page 348.
26. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 158.
27. Stanley Karnow, Paris in the Fifties, New York: Random House/Times Books, 1997, page 240.
28. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 265.
29. Karnow, Op. cit., page 240. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 202.
30. Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 266. Karnov, Op. cit., page 242.
31. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 382.
32. Karnow, Op. cit., page 251. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 207.
33. See Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., page 307 for a discussion of the disagreements over America.
34. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 405.
35. Ibid., page 408.
36. Some idea of the emotions this episode can still raise may be seen from the fact that Annie Cohen-Solal’s 1987 biography of Sartre, 590 pages, makes no reference to the matter, or to Kravchenko, or to other individuals who took part.
37. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 409.
38. Ibid., pages 411–412.
39. Ibid. See Cohen-Solal, Op. cit., pages 332–333 for an account of their falling out.
40. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 416.
41. ‘Nikolas Bourbaki’ was the pseudonym of a group of mainly French mathematicians (Jean Dien-donné, Henri Carton et al.), whose aim was to recast all of mathematics into a consistent whole. The first volume of Elements of Mathematics appeared in 1939 and ran for more than twenty volumes. For Oliver Messaien, see: Arnold Whittall, Music Since the First World War, London: J. M. Dent, 1977; Oxford University Press paperback, 1995, pages 216–219 and 226–231; see also sleeve notes, pages 3–4, by Fabian Watkinson to: ‘Messaien, Turangalîla-Symphonie’, Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Decca, 1992.
42. See Olivier Todd, Albert Camus: Une Vie, Paris: Gallimard, 1996, pages 296ff, for the writing of The Myth of Sisyphus and Camus’ philosophy of the absurd. For the Paris art market after World War II, see: Raymonde Moulin, The French Art Market: A Sociological View, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987; an abridged translation by Arthur Goldhammer of Le Marché de la peinture en France, Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1967.
43. See: Albert Camus, Carnets 1942–1951, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966, circa page 53 for his notebook-thoughts on Tarrou and the symbolic effects of the plague.
44. Simone de Beauvoir, La Force des Choses, Paris: Gallimard, 1960, page 29, quoted in Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 206.
45. Kate Millett, Sexual Politics, London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1971, page 346.
46. Ironically, Mettray, the prison Genet served in, was an agricultural colony and, according to Genet’s biographer, ‘the place looked at once deceptively pastoral (no walls surrounded it and the long lane leading to it was lined with tall trees) and ominously well organised …’ Edmund White, Genet, London: Chatto & Windus, 1993, page 68.
47. Genet fought hard to ensure that black actors were always employed. See White, Op. cit., pages 502–503, for his tussle in Poland.
48. Andrew K. Kennedy, Samuel Beckett, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pages 4–5.
49. James Knowlson, Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett, London: Bloomsbury, 1996, page 54.
50. Kennedy, Op. cit., page 8.
51. Knowlson, Op. cit., page 175.
52. Beevor and Cooper, Op. cit., page 173.
53. Kennedy, Op. cit., pages 6, 7, 9 and 11.
54. Knowlson, Op. cit., page 387.
55. Kennedy, Op. cit., page 24.
56. Ibid., page 42.
57. Godot has always proved popular with prisoners – in Germany, the USA, and elsewhere. See: Knowlson, Op. cit., pages 409ff, for a discussion.
58. See Kennedy, Op. cit., page 30, for a discussion.
59. Ibid., pages 33–34 and 40–41.
60. Claude Bonnefoy, Conversations with Eugène Ionescu, London: Faber & Faber, 1970, page 65.
61. Ibid., page 82.
62. See Eugène Ionescu, Present Past, Past Present: A Personal Memoir, London, Calder & Boyars, 1972, translator Helen R. Lane, page 139, for Ionescu’s thoughts on ‘the end of the individual.’
63. Bonnefoy, Op. cit., pages 167–168.
1. See the letter, written in early 1944, where he is competing with Camus for a young woman. Simone de Beauvoir (editor), Quiet Moments in a War: The Letters of Jean-Paul Sartre to Simone de Beauvoir, 1940–1963, London: Hamish Hamilton, translators Lee Fahnestock and Norman MacAfee, 1994. page 263. And, in Simone de Beauvoir, Adieu: A Farewell to Sartre, London: André Deutsch and Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1984, she made a dignified and moving tribute.
2. Claude Francis and Fernande Gontier, Simone de Beauvoir, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1987, page 207.
3. Ibid., page 235.
4. Deidre Bair, Simone de Beauvoir, London: Jonathan Cape, 1990, pages 325, 379–80.
5. Bair, Op. cit., page 379.
6. Bair, Op. cit., page 380.
7. See the discussions in Bair, Op. cit., page 383, chapter 40.
8. See Francis and Gontier, Op. cit., page 251, for its reception in France; and page 253 for its being placed on the Index.
9. Bair, Op. cit., page 387. And see: Toril Moi, Simone de Beauvoir: The Making of an Intellectual Woman, Oxford: Blackwell, 1994, pages 155ff for a psychoanalytic approach to The Second Sex.
10. It was translated into sixteen languages: Francis and Gontier, Op. cit., page 254.
11. Bair, Op. cit., pages 432–433.
12. Ibid., page 438.
13. Brendan Gill, ‘No More Eve’, New Yorker, volume XXIX, Number 2, February 28, 1953, pages 97–99, quoted in Bair, Op. cit., page 439.
14. Bair, Op. cit., page 432.
15. He saw himself as ‘a second Darwin’: James H. Jones, Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life, New York: W. W. Norton, 1997, pages 25ff.
16. John Heidenry, What Wild Ecstasy: The Rise and Fall of the Sexual Revolution, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997, page 21.
17. John D’Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, New York: Harper & Row, 1988, page 285.
18. Ibid., page 285.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., page 286.
21. Ibid.
22. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 21.
23. Jones, Op. cit., pages 690–691; see also: D’Emilio and Freedman, Op. cit., page 286.
24. Jones, Op. cit., page 695.
25. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 21.
26. D’Emilio and Freedman, Op. cit., page 288.
27. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 23.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid., pages 24–25.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., page 26.
32. D’Emilio and Freedman, Op. cit., pages 268 and 312. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 28.
33. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 29.
34. Ibid., page 33.
35. Ibid.
36. Audrey Leathard, The Fight for Family Planning, London: Macmillan, 1980, page 72.
37. Ibid., page 87.
38. Ibid., page 84.
39. Heidenry, Op cit., page 31.
40. Leathard, Op cit., page 114, on Rock’s philosophy.
41. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 31.
42. Leathard, Op. cit., page 104. Heidenry, Op. cit., page 31.
43. Heidenry, Op. cit., pages 31–32.
44. Ibid, page 32.
45. Leathard, Op. cit., page 105.
46. He originally wanted to publish the book anonymously, to protect his position at Cornell University, where he was a full professor, but Farrar, Straus & Giroux, the publishers, felt this undermined their defence of the book as literature. This account has been disputed. See: Andrew Field, VN: The Life and Art of Vladimir Nabokov, London: Macdonald/Queen Anne Press, 1987, pages 299–300.
47. Ibid., pages 324–325 for VN’s rejection of psychoanalytic interpretations of his work.
48. Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan: The Making of the Feminine Mystique, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998, page 193.
49. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, New York: W. W. Norton, 1963; reprinted by Dell Publishing, paperback, 1984, page 7.
50. See Horowitz, Op. cit., page 202 for other reactions.
51. Friedan, Op. cit., page 38.
52. Horowitz, Op. cit., pages 2–3.
53. Friedan, Op. cit., pages 145–146.
54. Ibid., page 16.
55. Ibid., page 383.
56. See also: Horowitz, Op. cit., pages 226–227.
1. David Riesman, with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950, reprinted 1989 with the Preface to the 1961 edition and with a new Preface, page xxiv.
2. Ibid., pages 5ff.
3. Ibid., page 11.
4. Ibid., page 15.
5. Ibid., page 18.
6. Ibid., page 19.
7. Ibid., page 22.
8. Ibid., see for example, chapters VIII, IX and X.
9. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents, Boston: Bedford Books, 1994, page 63.
10. Herman, The Idea of Decline in Western History, Op. cit., page 316.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Adorno implied that the emotionalism that was once provided by the family was now provided by the Party. See: Ben Agger, The Discourse of Domination: From the Frankfurt School to Postmodernism, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1992, page 251. And T. B. Bottomore, Sociology as Social Criticism, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975, page 91.
14. Herman, Op cit., page 318.
15. Andrew Jamison and Ron Eyerman, Seeds of the Sixties, Berkeley: Los Angeles: London: University of California Press, page 52. This book, on which I have heavily relied, is an excellent introduction to the thought of the 1960s, very original, which deserves to be far better known.
16. In a letter dated 9 August 1956, Mary McCarthy said that even Bernard Berenson, who had a copy of Origins, was curious to meet Arendt. Carol Brightman, Between Friends: The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Mary McCarthy, 1949–1975, London: Secker & Warburg, 1995, page 42.
17. For its difficult gestation, see Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., pages 201ff.
18. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 47.
19. Young-Bruehl, Hannah Arendt, Op. cit., pages 204–11.
20. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1951, page 475. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 47.
21. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 48. Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., pages 206–207.
22. She herself referred to the book as ‘Vita Activa’: Brightman, Op. cit., page 50.
23. Young-Bruehl, Op. cit., page 319.
24. Jamieson and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 50.
25. Ibid., page 57.
26. Erich Fromm, The Sane Society, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1956.
27. Ibid., pages 5–9.
28. Ibid., pages 122ff.
29. Ibid., page 356.
30. Ibid., pages 95 and 198.
31. Ibid., page 222.
32. W. H. Whyte, The Organisation Man, London: Jonathan Cape, 1957.
33. Ibid., page 14.
34. Ibid., page 63.
35. Ibid., pages 101ff.
36. Ibid., pages 217ff.
37. Ibid., pages 338–341.
38. Jamieson and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 36.
39. Ibid., page 37.
40. Ibid., pages 36–37.
41. Ibid., pages 33 and 34.
42. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite, New York: Oxford University Press, 1956, pages 274–275. See also: Howard S. Becker, ‘Professional sociology: The case of C. Wright Mills,’ in Roy C. Rist, The Democratic Imagination: Dialogues on the work of Irving Louis Horowitz, New Brunswick and London: Transaction, 1994, pages 157ff.
43. Jamieson and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 39.
44. Ibid., page 40.
45. C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes, New York: Oxford University Press, 1953, page ix, quoted in Jamieson and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 40.
46. C. Wright Mills, White Collar, Op. cit., pages 294–295. Jamison and Eyerman, page 41.
47. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 43.
48. Ibid.
49. C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959, page 5.
50. Ibid., page 187.
51. Jamieson and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 46.
52. J. K. Galbraith, The Affluent Society, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958, Penguin paperback, 1991, page 40.
53. Ibid., page 65.
54. In Galbraith’s first autobiography his debt to Keynes is clearly shown. See J. K. Galbraith, A Life in Our Times, London: André Deutsch, 1981, pages 74–82. See also page 622.
55. Ibid., page 86.
56. Ibid., pages 122ff.
57. Ibid., pages 128ff
58. Ibid., pages 182 and 191–195.
59. Ibid., pages 195ff.
60. Ibid., pages 233ff.
61. In his autobiography, Galbraith says Time awarded it ‘a massive sneer’ but Malcolm Muggeridge put it into the same category as Tawney’s The Acquisitive Society and Keynes’s The Economic Consequences of the Peace. J. K. Galbraith, A Life in Our Times, Op. cit., page 354.
62. W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960, paperback edition, 1971.
63. Ibid., page 7.
64. Ibid., pages 36ff.
65. Ibid., pages 59ff.
66. Ibid., combining tables on pages 38 and 59.
67. Ibid., pages 73ff.
68. Ibid., page 11n.
69. Ibid., page 107.
70. See the discussion by Fukuyama in the Conclusion (infra).
71. Rostow, Op. cit., pages 102–103.
72. Daniel Horowitz, Vance Packard and American Social Criticism, Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1994, pages 98–100.
73. Ibid., page 105.
74. Ibid.
75. Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, New York: David McKay, 1957.
76. Ibid., pages 87–88.
77. Vance Packard, The Status Seekers, New York: David McKay, 1959.
78. Horowitz, Op. cit., page 123.
79. Vance Packard, The Waste Makers, New York: David McKay, 1960.
80. Horowitz, Op. cit., page 119.
81. Malcolm Waters, Daniel Bell, London: Routledge, 1996, pages 13–15.
82. Waters, Op. cit., page 78.
83. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties, Glencoe: The Free Press, 1960; 1965 paperback reprinted by Harvard University Press, 1988, with a new Afterword. Waters, Op. cit., page 79.
84. Waters, Op. cit., page 80.
85. See the chapters by Malcolm Dean, pages 105ff, and Daniel Bell, pages 123ff in Geoff Dench, Tony Flower and Kate Gavron (editors), Young at Eighty, London: Carcanet Press, 1995.
86. Michael Young, The Rise of the Meritocracy, London: Thames & Hudson, 1958, republished with a new Introduction by the author, by Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1994.
87. Ibid., page xi.
88. Ibid., page xii. It was, however, poorly received by, among others, Richard Hoggart. See: Paul Barker, ‘The Up and Downs of the Meritocracy’, in Dench, Flower and Gavron (editors), Op. cit., page 156.
89. Young, Op. cit., page 170.
90. Barker, Op. cit., page 161, cites reviewers who thought the book lacked ‘the sound of a human voice.’
1. Peter Ackroyd, T. S. Eliot, Op. cit., page 289.
2. T. S. Eliot, Notes Toward the Definition of Culture, London: Faber & Faber, 1948, paperback 1962.
3. Ackroyd, Op. cit., page 291.
4. For a discussion of Eliot’s wider thinking on leisure, see: Sencourt, T S. Eliot: A Memoir, Op. cit., page 154.
5. Eliot, Notes, Op. cit., page 31.
6. Ibid., page 23.
7. Ibid., page 43.
8. He was conscious himself, he said, of being a European, as opposed to a merely British, or American, figure. See: Sencourt, Op. cit., page 158.
9. Eliot, Notes, Op. cit., page 50.
10. Ibid., pages 87ff.
11. Ibid., page 25.
12. Ian MacKillop, F. R. Leavis, Op. cit., pages 15 and 17ff.
13. F. R. Leavis, The Great Tradition, London: Chatto & Windus, 1948; F. R. Leavis. The Common Pursuit, London: Chatto & Windus, 1952.
14. See Leavis, The Common Pursuit, chapter 14, for the links between sociology and literature, which Leavis was sceptical about; and chapter 23 for ‘Approaches to T. S. Eliot,’ where he counts ‘Ash Wednesday’ as the work which changed Eliot’s standing. (And see the Conclusion of this book, below, page 750.)
15. MacKillop, Op. cit., page 111. See in particular chapter 8, pages 263ff, on the future of criticism.
16. Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination, New York: Macmillan, 1948 London: Secker & Warburg, 1951.
17. Ibid., page 34.
18. Ibid., pages 288ff.
19. Henry S. Commager, The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character Since the 1880s, New York: Oxford University Press, 1950.
20. Ibid., pages 199ff and 227fr
21. Ibid., pages 176–177.
22. Ibid., pages 378ff.
23. Jamison and Eyerman, Seeds of the Sixties, Op. cit., pages 150–151.
24. Ibid., page 150.
25. Trilling’s wife described the relationship as ‘quasi-Oedipal.’ See: Graham Caveney, Screaming with Joy: The Life of Allen Ginsberg, London: Bloomsbury, 1999, page 33.
26. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 152.
27. Barry Miles, Ginsberg: A Biography, New York: Viking, 1990, page 196.
28. Ibid., page 192.
29. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 156.
30. Ibid., pages 158–159.
31. See Miles, Op. cit., page 197 for Ferlinghetti’s reaction to the Howl reading.
32. Ann Charters, Kerouac: A Biography, London: André Deutsch, 1974, pages 24–25. Kerouac broke his leg and never reached the first team, a failure, she says, that he never came to terms with.
33. Jack Kerouac, On the Road, New York: Viking, 1957, Penguin paperback 1991, Introduction by Ann Charters, page x.
34. Ibid., pages viii and ix.
35. Ibid., page xx.
36. Charters, Kerouac: A Biography, Op. cit., pages 92–97.
37. Kerouac took so much benzedrine in 1945 that he developed thrombophlebitis in his legs. See ibid., page 52.
38. For a brief history of bepop, see: Gerald Nicosia, Memory Babe: A Critical Biography of Jack Kerouac, New York: Grove Press, 1983, page 112. Regarding the argument, they made up later, ‘sort of. See pages 690–691.
39. Charters, ‘Introduction,’ Op. cit., page xxviii.
40. See: Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 159.
41. Alan Freed interview in New Musical Express, 23 September 1956, quoted in: Richard Aquila, That Old Time Rock’n’Roll: A Chronicle of an Era, 1954–1963, New York: Schirmer, 1989, page 5.
42. Donald Clarke, The Rise and Fall of Popular Music, New York: Viking, 1995, Penguin 1995, page 373.
43. Aquila, Op. cit., page 6.
44. Clarke, Op. cit., page 370, which says it was definitely not the first.
45. It wasn’t only imitation of course. See: Simon Frith, Performing Rites: Evaluating Popular Music, Oxford: Oxford University Press, page 195, for Presley’s sexuality.
46. Aquila, Op. cit., page 8.
47. See Frith, Op. cit., passim, for charts and popular music marketing categories.
48. Arnold Goldman, ‘A Remnant to Escape: The American Writer and the Minority Group,’ in Marcus Cunliffe (editor), The Penguin History of Literature, Op. cit., pages 302–303.
49. Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man, London: Gollancz, 1953, Penguin 1965. Goldman, Op. cit., page 303.
50. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 160.
51. James Campbell, Talking at the Gates: A Life of James Baldwin, London: Faber & Faber, 1991, page 117.
52. Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 163.
53. Campbell, Op. cit., page 228.
54. Ibid., page 125, quoted in Jamison and Eyerman, Op. cit., page 166.
55. Colin MacInness, Absolute Beginners, London: Allison & Busby, 1959; Mr Love and Justice, London: Allison & Busby, 1960.
56. See for example: Michael Dash, ‘Marvellous Realism: The Way out of Négritude,’ in Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin (editors) The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, page 199.
57. Ezenwa-Ohaeto, Chinua Achebe: A Biography, Oxford: James Currey and Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997, page 60. See also: Gilbert Phelps, ‘Two Nigerian Writers: Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka,’ in Boris Ford (editor), The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, volume 8: From Orwell to Naipaul, London: Penguin, 1983, pages 319–331.
58. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart, New York: Doubleday, 1959, Anchor paperback, 1994. Phelps, Op. cit., page 320.
59. Ezenwa-Ohaeto, Op. cit., page 66. Phelps, Op. cit., page 321.
60. Ibid., pages 66ff for an account of the various drafts of the book and Achebe’s initial attempts to have it published. Phelps, Op. cit., page 323.
61. See: Claude Lévi-Strauss and Didier Eribon, Conversations with Lévi-Strauss, Op. cit., page 145, for Lévi-Strauss’s views on the evolution of anthropology in the twentieth century. See also: Leach, Op. cit., page 9.
62. Edmund Leach, Lévi-Strauss, London: Fontana, 1974, page 13.
63. Claude Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, Paris: Plon, 1955; Mythologiques I: Le cru et le cuit, Paris: Plon, 1964. Translated as: The Raw and the Cooked, London: Jonathan Cape, 1970, volume I of The Science of Mythology; volume II, From Honey to Ashes, London: Jonathan Cape, 1973. Lévi-Strauss told Eribon that he thought psychoanalysis, or at least Totem and Taboo, was ‘a failure.’ See: Eribon and Lévi-Strauss, Op. cit., page 106.
64. Leach, Op. cit., page 60.
65. Ibid., page 63.
66. Ibid., pages 82ff.
67. When Margaret Mead visited Paris, Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced her to Simone de Beauvoir. ‘They didn’t say a word to one another.’ Eribon and Lévi-Strauss, Op. cit., page 12.
68. Basil Davidson, Old Africa Rediscovered, London: Gollancz, 1959.
69. Oliver Neville, ‘The English Stage Company and the Drama Critics,’ in Ford (editor), Op. cit., page 251.
70. Ibid., page 252. Osborne’s own account of reading the ad is in John Osborne, A Better Class of Person: Autobiography 1929–1956, London: Faber & Faber, 1981, page 275.
71. Neville, Op. cit., pages 252–253.
72. Peter Mudford, ‘Drama since 1950’, in Dodsworth (editor), The Penguin History of Literature, Op. cit., page 396.
73. For the autobiographical overlap of the play, see: Osborne, Op. cit., pages 239ff.
74. Mudford, Op. cit., page 395.
75. Ibid.
76. Michael Hulse, ‘The Movement’, in Ian Hamilton (editor), The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, Op. cit., page 368.
77. Mudford, Op. cit., page 346.
78. For Larkin’s library career, his reactions to it, and his feelings of timidity, see: Andrew Motion, Philip Larkin: A Writer’s Life, London: Faber & Faber, 1993, page 109ff. For other details about Larkin discussed in this section, see respectively: Alastair Fowler, ‘Poetry since 1950,’ in Dodsworth (editor), Op. cit., page 346; and Motion, Op. cit., pages 242–243 and 269, about publicity in The Times. Seamus Heaney’s poem, published as part of ‘A Tribute’ to Philip Larkin, George Hartley (editor), London: The Marvell Press, 1988, page 39, ended with the line, ‘A nine-to-five man who had seen poetry.’
79. For the ‘helpless bystander’ quote see Michael Kirkham, ‘Philip Larkin and Charles Tomlinson: Realism and Art’ in Boris Ford (ed.), From Orwell to Naipaul, vol. 8, New Pelican Guide to English Literature, London: Penguin, revised edn 1995, pages 286–289. Blake Morrison, ‘Larkin,’ in Hamilton (editor), Op. cit., page 288.
80. Richard Hoggart, A Sort of Clowning: Life and Times, volume II, 1940–59, London: Chatto & Windus, 1990, page 175.
81. Leavis said the book ‘had some value’ but that Hoggart ‘should have written a novel.’ See: Hoggart, Op. cit., page 206.
82. Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy, London: Chatto & Windus, 1957.
83. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, London: Chatto & Windus, 1958.
84. For a good discussion see: Fred Inglis, Cultural Studies, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993, pages 52–56; and Fred Inglis, Raymond Williams, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, pages 162ff.
85. Stefan Collini, ‘Introduction’ to: C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959, paperback 1969 and 1993, page vii.
86. Ibid.
87. Ibid., page viii. The fee for Snow’s lecture was 9 guineas (ie, £9.4p), the same rate as when the lecture was established in 1525. See: Philip Snow, Stranger and Brother: A Portrait of C. P. Snow, London: Macmillan, 1982, page 117.
88. Ibid., page 35. See also Collini, Op. cit., page xx.
89. C. P. Snow, Op. cit., page 14.
90. Ibid., page 18.
91. Ibid., pages 29ff
92. Ibid., page 34.
93. Ibid., pages 41ff.
94. MacKillop, Op. cit., page 320.
95. He was also ill. See: Philip Snow, Op. cit., page 130.
96. Collini, Op. cit., pages xxxiiiff. This essay, 64 pages, is recommended. Among other things, it relates Snow’s lecture to the changing map of the disciplines in the last half of the century.
97. Lionel Trilling, ‘A comment on the Leavis-Snow Controversy,’ Universities Quarterly, volume 17, 1962, pages 9–32. Collini, Op. cit., pages xxxvii-iff.
98. The subject was first debated on television in 1968. See: Philip Snow, Op. cit., page 147.
1. Michael Polanyi, Science, Faith and Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946.
2. Ibid., page 14.
3. Ibid., page 19.
4. Ibid., pages 6off.
5. Julian Symons, Introduction to: George Orwell, 1984, Everyman’s Library, 1993, page xvi. See also Ben Pimlott’s Introduction to Penguin paperback edition, 1989.
6. James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, or What is Happening in the World Now, New York: Putnam, 1941.
7. For the problem in physics see: Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press, 1991. For the Lysenko problem in Communist China, see: Laurence Schneider, ‘Learning from Russia: Lysenkoism and the Fate of Genetics in China, 1950–1986,’ in Denis Fred Simon and Merle Goldman (editors), Science and Technology in Post-Mao China, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University Press, 1989, pages 45–65.
8. Krementsov, Stalinist Science, Op. cit., page 115.
9. Ibid., page 107.
10. Ibid., pages 129–131, 151 and 159.
11. Ibid., pages 160 and 165.
12. Ibid., page 169.
13. Ibid., pages 174, 176 and 179.
14. Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, ‘Birth of an Era’, Scientific American: Special Issue: ‘Solid State Century: The Past, Present and Future of the Transistor’, 22 January 1998, page 10.
15. S. Millman (editor), A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell Systems: Physical Sciences (1923–1980), Thousand Oaks, California: Bell Laboratories, 1983, pages 97ff.
16. Riordan and Hoddeson, Op. cit., page 11.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., page 14.
20. Brian Winston, Media, Technology and Society: A History from the Telegraph to the Internet, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pages 216–217. And Chris Evans, The Mighty Micro, London: Gollancz, 1979, pages 49–50.
21. Frank H. Rockett, ‘The Transistor,’ Scientific American: Special Issue: ‘Solid State Century: The Past, Present and Future of the Transistor’, 22 January 1998, pages 18ff.
22. Ibid., page 19.
23. Winston, Op. cit., page 213.
24. Riordan and Hoddeson, Op. cit., pages 14–15.
25. Ibid., page 13.
26. Though the publicity helped the sales of the transistor. See: Winston, Op. cit., page 219.
27. Ibid., page 221.
28. Paul Strathern, Crick, Watson and DNA, London: Arrow, 1997, pages 37–38. James D. Watson, The Double Helix, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968; Penguin paperback, 1990, page 20.
29. Strathern, Op. cit., page 42.
30. Ibid., page 44.
31. For rival groups, and the state of research at the time, see: Bruce Wallace, The Search for the Gene, Op. cit., pages 108ff.
32. Strathern, Op. cit., page 45.
33. Watson, Op. cit., page 25.
34. Strathern, Op. cit., page 49.
35. Ibid., pages 50–53.
36. Watson, Op. cit., page 79.
37. Strathern, Op. cit., page 56.
38. Watson, Op. cit., pages 82–83. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 57–58.
39. Watson, Op. cit., page 91. Strathern, Op. cit., page 60.
40. Watson, Op. cit., page 123.
41. According to Pauling’s biographer, Thomas Hager, ‘Historians have speculated that the denial of Pauling’s passport for the May Royal Society meeting was critical in preventing him from discovering the structure of DNA, that if he had attended he would have seen Franklin’s work …’ Hager, Force of Nature, Op. cit., page 414.
42. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 70–71.
43. There was mutual respect. Pauling already wanted Crick to come to Caltech. See Hager, Op. cit., page 414. Strathern, Op. cit., page 72.
44. Strathern, Op. cit., page 81.
45. Ibid., page 84, where there is a useful diagram.
46. Watson, Op. cit., page 164.
47. Strathern, Op. cit., page 82.
48. Watson wrote an epilogue about her in his book, praising her courage and integrity. He admitted, too late, that he had been wrong about her. Watson, Op. cit., pages 174–175. Strathern, Op. cit., pages 83–84.
49. Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton, Moon Shot, New York: Turner/Virgin, 1994, page 37.
50. James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat the Americans to the Moon, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997, page 121.
51. See Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., page 39, for Reuters more fulsome headlines. Harford, Op. cit., page 130.
52. Although Sputnik I wasn’t large, it was still bigger than what the US planned. See: Charles Murray and Catherine Bly Cox, Apollo: The Race for the Moon, London: Secker & Warburg, 1989, page 23. See also Harford, Op. cit., page 122.
53. See Young, Silcock, and Peter Dunn, Journey to the Sea of Tranquility, London: Jonathan Cape, 1969, pages 80–81 for discussion of cost and security.
54. Harford, Op. cit. See note 50 supra.
55. See Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., pages 38–39 for other personal details.
56. Harford, Op. cit., pages 49–50.
57. Ibid., page 51.
58. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror, London: Macmillan, 1968; and the same author’s, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, New York: Viking, 1979.
59. Harford, Op. cit., page 57.
60. Ibid., page 91.
61. After Vanguard was announced, the Russians had gloated they would beat the Americans. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 67.
62. For the impact in America, see: Murray and Cox, Op. cit., page 77.
63. Harford, Op. cit., pages 114–115.
64. Ibid., page 110.
65. But not on Eisenhower, and not at first. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 68.
66. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., page 74, one of several contemporary accounts on the subject that makes no reference to Korolev. Harford, Op. cit., page 133.
67. Shepard and Slayton, Op. cit., page 42.
68. Harford, Op. cit., page 132.
69. Sputnik 2 had an even bigger effect than Sputnik 1. See: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., pages 70–71.
70. Harford, Op. cit., page 135.
71. Ibid., pages 135–136.
72. For the effect of Sputnik’s launch on Eisenhower’s policy, see: Young, Silcock et al., Op. cit., pages 82ff.
73. Richard Leakey, One Life, London: Michael Joseph, 1983, page 49.
74. Virginia Morrell, Ancestral Passions: The Leakey family and the Quest for Humankind’s Beginnings, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995, page 57.
75. Mary Leakey, Olduvai Gorge: My Search for Early Man, London: Collins, 1979, page 13.
76. Morrell, Op. cit., pages 80–89.
77. Partly as a result he wrote books on other aspects of East Africa. See for example, L. S. B. Leakey, Kenya: Contrasts and Problems, London: Methuen, 1936.
78. Morrell, Op. cit., pages 163–174.
79. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., pages 83ff.
80. See Mary Leakey, ibid., pages 52–53 for a detailed map of the gorge.
81. Morrell, Op. cit., page 178.
82. Ibid., pages 180–181.
83. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., page 75. See also: Richard Leakey, Op. cit., page 50.
84. Morrell, Op. cit., page 181.
85. Ibid.
86. Mary Leakey, Op. cit., page 74.
87. L. S. B. Leakey, ‘Finding the World’s Earliest Man’, National Geographic Magazine, September 1960, pages 421–435. Morrell, Op. cit., page 194.
88. Morrell, Op. cit., page 196.
89. Ibid., and Richard Leakey, Op. cit., page 49.
90. Claude Lévi-Strauss and Didier Eribon, Conversations with Lévi-Strauss, Op. cit., page 119.
91. Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London: Hutchinson, 1959. (Originally published in German in Vienna in 1934.) See especially, chapters I, IV and V.
92. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962; 2nd edition, enlarged, University of Chicago Press, 1970, especially chapter VI, pages 52ff.
93. Ibid., page 151.
94. Ibid., pages 137ff.
95. See the Postscript, pages 174ff, in the second, enlarged edition, referred to in Note 92 above.