Clash! 8 Cultural conflicts that make us who we are

2. We use the label “West” to mean Europe, North America, Central America, South America, Australia, and New Zealand; and “East” to denote East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. We discuss the “in-between” regions of the Middle East and Africa in chapter 9. “West” and “East” are admittedly messy categories, encompassing billions of people. But as we will reveal in chapters 1 and 2, the cultures of each hemisphere share many ideas, institutions, practices, and artifacts.

4. D. Brooks, “Amy Chua Is a Wimp,” New York Times, January 17, 2011, p. A25.

5. J. Hyun, Breaking the Bamboo Ceiling: Career Strategies for Asians (New York: HarperCollins, 2005).

6. The Royal Society, Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global Scientific Collaboration in the Twenty-First Century (London: The Royal Society, 2011).

7. R. Atkinson, M. Shellenberger, T. Nordhaus, D. Swezey, T. Norris, J. Jenkins,…Y. Borofsky, Rising Tigers, Sleeping Giant (Oakland, CA: The Breakthrough Institute, 2009).

8. “The List: The Art Economist’s Top Earning 300 Artists,” The Art Economist 1 (2011): 20.

9. S. A. Hewlett, R. Rashid, D. Forster, and C. Ho, Asians in America: Unleashing the Potential of the “Model Minority” (New York: Center for Work-Life Policy, 2011).

11. N. Moray, “Attention in Dichotic Listening: Affective Cues and the Influence of Instructions,” The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 11 (1959): 56–60.

12. H. R. Markus, “Self-Schemata and Processing Information about the Self,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977): 63–78.

13. H. R. Markus and E. Wurf, “The Dynamic Self-Concept: A Social Psychological Perspective,” Annual Review of Psychology 38 (1987): 289–337; H. R. Markus and P. Nurius, “Possible Selves,” American Psychologist 41 (1986): 954–69.

14. H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation,” Psychological Review 98 (1991): 224–53.

We are not the first researchers to note that cultures and people come in more relational and more autonomous flavors. Harry Triandis identified the cultural syndromes of individualism and collectivism. Geert Hofstede studied these syndromes at the national and corporate level. Clifford Geertz compared egocentric selves with sociocentric selves. Within the individual, David Bakan documented the struggle between agency and communion. And long before them all, Sigmund Freud gave us the dichotomy of love and work.

15. H. R. Markus, P. R. Mullally, and S. Kitayama, “Selfways: Diversity in Modes in Cultural Participation,” in U. Neisser and D. A. Jopling, eds., The Conceptual Self in Context: Culture, Experience, Self-Understanding (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

16. T. Sugimoto and J. A. Levin, “Multiple Literacies and Multimedia: A Comparison of Japanese and American Uses of the Internet,” in G. E. Hawisher and C. L. Selfe, eds., Global Literacies and the World Wide Web (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 133–53.

17. N. Stephens, H. R. Markus, and S. S. M. Townsend, “Choice as an Act of Meaning: The Case of Social Class,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007): 814–30.

19. Like Jim Crow laws for African Americans, Juan Crow laws systematically discriminate against Latinos in the United States.

20. L. Ross and A. Ward, “Naive Realism in Everyday Life: Implications for Social Conflict and Misunderstanding,” in T. Brown, E. Reed, and E. Turiel, eds., Values and Knowledge (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), pp. 103–35.

21. M. W. Morris and K. Peng, “Culture and Cause: American and Chinese Attributions for Social and Physical Events,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994): 949–71.

22. M. D. Leinbach and B. I. Fagot, “Categorical Habituation to Male and Female Faces: Gender Schematic Processing in Infancy,” Infant Behavior and Development 16 (1993): 317–32; G. Anzures, P. C. Quinn, O. Pascalis, A. M. Slater, and K. Lee, “Categorization, Categorical Perception, and Asymmetry in Infants’ Representation of Face Race,” Developmental Science 13 (2010): 553–64.

1. S. Lubman, “Some Students Must Learn to Question,” San Jose Mercury News, February 23, 1998, pp. 1A, 2A.

3. S. A. Hewlett, R. Rashid, D. Forster, C. Ho, Asians in America: Unleashing the Potential of the “Model Minority” (New York: Center for Work-Life Policy, 2011).

4. “East” and “West” are broad categories that include vast variability. Nevertheless, these two hemispheres host distinct overarching culture cycles, as we demonstrate.

5. H. Kim, “We Talk, Therefore We Think? A Cultural Analysis of Talking and Thinking,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 373–82; H. Kim and H. R. Markus, “Speech and Silence: An Analysis of the Cultural Practice of Talking,” in L. Weis and M. Fine, eds., Beyond Silenced Voices: Class, Race and Gender in U.S. Schools (New York: SUNY Press, 2006).

7. A. Tsai, “Equality or Propriety? A Cultural Models Approach to Understanding Social Hierarchy” (doctoral dissertation), Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 2006.

8. S. S. Iyengar and M. R. Lepper, “Rethinking the Value of Choice: A Cultural Perspective on Intrinsic Motivation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7 (1999): 349–66.

9. T.-F. Wu, S. E. Cross, C.-W. Wu, W. Cho, and S.-H. Tey, “Cultural Values and Personal Decisions: Filial Piety in Taiwan and the U.S.,” unpublished manuscript.

10. H. Kim and H. R. Markus, “Deviance or Uniqueness, Harmony or Conformity? A Cultural Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(1999): 785–800.

12. S. J. Heine, S. Kitayama, D. R. Lehman, T. Takata, E. Ide, C. Lueng, and H. Matsumoto, “Divergent Consequences of Success and Failure in Japan and North America: An Investigation of self-Improving Motivations and Malleable Selves,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 599–615.

13. H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Cultural Variation in the Self-Concept,” in J. Strauss and G. R. Goethals, eds. The Self: Interdisciplinary Approaches (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991).

14. S. J. Heine, D. R. Lehman, H. R. Markus, and S. Kitayama, “Is There a Universal Need for Positive Self-Regard?” Psychological Review 106 (1999): 766–94.

16. S. Kitayama, M. Karasawa, K. Curhan, C. Ryff, and H. Markus, “Independence and Interdependence Predict Health and Well-Being: Divergent Patterns in the United States and Japan,” Frontiers in Psychology 1 (2010): 1–10.

17. Y. Uchida, S. S. M. Townsend, H. R. Markus, and H. B. Bergsieker, “Emotions as within or between People? Cultural Variation in Lay Theories of Emotion Expression and Inference,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35 (2009): 1427–39.

18. J. Tsai, B. Knutson, and H. H. Fung, “Cultural Variation in Affect Valuation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006): 288–307.

1. For reviews of some of this work and more detailed theoretical analysis, see A. Fiske, S. Kitayama, H. R. Markus, and R. E. Nisbett, “The Cultural Matrix of Social Psychology,” in D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, eds., The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, 4th ed. (San Francisco, CA: McGraw-Hill, 1998), pp. 915–81; H. R. Markus, S. Kitayama, and R. Heiman, “Culture and ‘Basic’ Psychological Principles,” in E. T. Higgins and A. W. Kruglanski, eds., Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (New York: Guilford, 1997), pp. 857–913; H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Models of Agency: Sociocultural Diversity in the Construction of Action,” in V. Murphy-Berman and J. Berman, eds., The 49th Annual Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Cross-Cultural Differences in Perspectives on Self (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), pp. 1–57; H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Cultures and Selves: A Cycle of Mutual Constitution,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (2010): 420–30; S. Kitayama, H. Park, A. T. Sevincer, M. Karasawa, and A. K. Uskul, “A Cultural Task Analysis of Implicit Independence: Comparing North America, Western Europe, and East Asia,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97 (2009): 236–55; S. J. Heine, Cultural Psychology (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007); S. Kitayama and D. Cohen, Handbook of Cultural Psychology (New York: Guilford Press, 2007); M. G. Hamedani, H. R. Markus, and A. Fu, “In the Land of the Free Interdependent Action Undermines Motivation,” Psychological Science, in press.

2. R. A. Shweder, Thinking through Cultures: Expeditions in Cultural Psychology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

3. C. Hall, “Proud of Me” [recorded by Frank Oz], on Let Your Feelings Show! [LP], Sesame Street Records, 1976.

4. C. C. Lewis, Educating Hearts and Minds: Reflections on Japanese Preschool and Elementary Education (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

5. R. Whiting, You Gotta Have Wa (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989).

7. L. Story, “Anywhere the Eye Can See, It’s Likely to See an Ad,” New York Times, January 15, 2007.

8. H. Kim and H. R. Markus, “Deviance or Uniqueness, Harmony or Conformity? A Cultural Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999): 785–800.

9. J. L. Tsai, J. Y. Louie, E. E. Chen, and Y. Uchida, “Learning What Feelings to Desire: Socialization of Ideal Affect through Children’s Storybooks,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33 (2007): 17–30.

10. J. L. Tsai, F. F. Miao, and E. Seppala, “Good Feelings in Christianity and Buddhism: Religious Differences in Ideal Affect,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33 (2007): 409–21.

11. H. R. Markus, Y. Uchida, H. Omoregie, S. S. M. Townsend, and S. Kitayama, “Going for the Gold: Models of Agency in Japanese and American Culture,” Psychological Science 17 (2006): 103–12.

12. P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966).

13. C. Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

14. V. C. Plaut and H. R. Markus, “The ‘Inside’ Story: A Cultural-Historical Analysis of Being Smart and Motivated, American Style,” in A. J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck, eds., Handbook of Competence and Motivation (New York: The Guilford Press, 2005), pp. 457–88.

15. Tweed and Lehman, “Learning Considered within a Cultural Context: Confucian and Socratic Approaches”; J. Li, “Mind or Virtue: Western and Chinese Beliefs about Learning,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2005): 190–94; J. Li, “U.S. and Chinese Cultural Beliefs about Learning,” Journal of Educational Psychology 95 (2003): 258–67.

16. M. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, T. Parsons, trans. (1905; reprint New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958); J. Sanchez-Burks, “Protestant Relational Ideology: The Cognitive Underpinning and Organizational Implications of an American Anomaly,” in B. M. Staw and R. M. Kramer, eds., Research in Organizational Behavior: An Annual Series of Analytical Essays and Critical Reviews 26 (2005): 265–306.

17. R. Nisbett, The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently…and Why (New York: The Free Press, 2003).

18. For much more on East/West differences in learning and pedagogy, see J. Li, Cultural Foundations of Learning (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

19. S. Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind, T. Dixon, ed. (New York: Weatherhill, Inc., 1970).

21. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Job Openings and Labor Turnover, May 2010” (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office); N. Terrell, “STEM Occupations,” Occupational Outlook Quarterly 51 (2007): 26–33.

22. J. M. Harackiewicz, C. S. Hulleman, and J. S. Hyde, “Helping Parents Motivate Adolescents in Mathematics and Science: An Experimental Test of a Utility-Value Intervention,” Psychological Science 10 (2012): 1–8.

23. Plaut and Markus, “The ‘Inside’ Story,” pp. 457–88; S. J. Heine, D. R. Lehman, E. Ide, C. Leung, S. Kitayama, T. Takata, and H. Matsumoto, “Divergent Consequences of Success and Failure in Japan and North America: An Investigation of Self-Improving Motivations and Malleable Selves,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 599–615; C.-Y. Chiu and Y.-Y. Hong, Social Psychology of Culture (New York: Psychology Press, 2006).

24. C. S. Dweck, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (New York: Random House, 2006).

25. A. L. Duckworth, C. Peterson, M. D. Matthews, and D. R. Kelly, “Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007): 1087–101.

27. S. A. Hewlett, R. Rashid, D. Roster, and C. Ho, Asians in America: Unleashing the Potential of the “Model Minority” (New York: Center for Work-Life Policy, 2011).

28. A. H. Eagly and J. L. Chin, “Diversity and Leadership in a Changing World,” American Psychologist 65 (2010): 216–24.

29. H. S. Kim, “Culture and the Cognitive and Neuroendocrine Responses to Speech,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008): 32–47.

30. S. Cheryan and B. Monin, “Where Are You Really From? Asian Americans and Identity Denial,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005): 717–30.

31. W. James, The Principles of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1890), p. 509.

1. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Table 11: Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation and Sex, 2010 Annual Averages,” Women in the Labor Force: A Databook (2011 Edition) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, December 2011). See also H. Rosin, “The End of Men,” The Atlantic 306 (July/August 2010): 56–72.

2. J. Chung, personal communication, 08/09/12. See also B. Luscombe, “Workplace Salaries: At Last, Women on Top,” Time, September 2010.

4. Women own a majority share of 29.6 percent of U.S. businesses and a 50 percent share of 17.5 percent of businesses (a total of 47.1 percent of U.S. businesses). Men own the majority share of 52.9 percent of businesses and a 50 percent share of 17.5 percent of businesses (a total of 70.4 percent of U.S. businesses). See U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, “Women-Owned Businesses in the Twenty-First Century” (October 2010), retrieved from www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/reports/documents/women-owned-businesses.pdf (accessed 08/09/12).

5. R. Kochar, “Two Years of Economic Recovery: Women Lose Jobs, Men Find Them” (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, July 2011).

7. For a summary of these findings, see P. Tyre, The Trouble with Boys (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2008).

8. S. Hinshaw and R. Kranz, The Triple Bind: Saving Our Teenage Girls from Today’s Pressures (New York: Ballantine, 2009).

11. In chapter 5, we will also document how classrooms, despite their interdependent tone, are still too independent to support the selves of working-class children.

12. Center for American Women and Politics, “Women in the U.S. Congress 2012” (New Brunswick, NJ: National Information Bank on Women in Public Office, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University, February 2012).

14. A. Hegewisch, C. Williams, and A. Zhang, “The Gender Wage Gap: 2011” (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women’s Policy Research, March 2012).

15. In this chapter, we focus on research about Western heterosexuals who are both sexed and gendered male or female. Sex is a biological category that has to do with which body parts you were born with; gender is a psychological category that has to do with which sex you view yourself as. Although the examples of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex people and cultures offer great insights into gender, high-quality research on these groups is scant. In addition, although all cultures—hemispheres, nations, races, classes, religions, regions, etc.—draw lines between women and men, we limit ourselves to discussions of gender in the wealthy industrialized nations of the West.

16. J. Allmendinger and J. R. Hackman, “The More, the Better? A Four-Nation Study of the Inclusion of Women in Symphony Orchestras,” Social Forces 74 (1995): 423–60.

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20. M. Inzlicht and A. Ben-Zeev, “A Threatening Intellectual Environment: Why Females Are Susceptible to Experiencing Problem-Solving Deficits in the Presence of Males,” Psychological Science 11 (2000): 365–71. See also A. Ben-Zeev, S. Fein, and M. Inzlicht, “Arousal and Stereotype Threat,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41 (2005): 174–81.

22. A. W. Woolley, C. F. Chabris, A. Pentaland, N. Hashmi, and T. W. Malone, “Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor in the Performance of Human Groups,” Science 330 (2010): 686–88.

23. Hellerstein, Neumark, and Troske, “Market Forces and Sex Discrimination.”

24. C. Herring, “Does Diversity Pay? Race, Gender, and the Business Case for Diversity,” American Sociological Review 74 (2009): 208–24.

25. C. L. Williams, “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions,” Social Problems 39 (1992): 253–67.

26. J. S. Hyde, “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis,” American Psychologist 60 (2005): 581–92.

27. Aggression can be used for both independent and interdependent ends. For instance, as we will discuss in chapter 6, U.S. Southerners use aggression to maintain honor—an interdependent motivation. In this chapter, however, we connect men’s aggression to more independent sources, including the desires to individuate and influence.

28. Y. Kashima, S. Yamaguchi, U. Kim, S. Choi, M. J. Gelfand, and M. Yuki, “Culture, Gender, and Self: A Perspective from Individualism-Collectivism Research,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995): 925–37.

29. S. E. Cross, P. L. Bacon, and M. L. Morris, “The Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal and Relationships,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000): 791–808.

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32. W. Ickes, T. Tooke, L. Stinson, V. L. Baker, and V. Bissonnette, “Naturalistic Social Cognition: Intersubjectivity in Same-Sex Dyads,” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 12 (1988): 58–82.

34. M. Ross and D. Holmberg, “Are Wives’ Memories for Events in Relationships More Vivid Than Their Husbands’ Memories?” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 9 (1992): 585–604.

35. J. K. Kiecolt-Glaser and T. L. Newton, “Marriage and Health: His and Hers,” Psychological Bulletin 127 (2001): 472–503; K. S. Kendler, L. M. Thornton, and C. A. Prescott, “Gender Differences in the Rates of Exposure to Stressful Life Events and Sensitivity to Their Depressogenic Effects,” American Journal of Psychiatry 158 (2001): 587–93.

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37. S. E. Taylor, L. C. Klein, B. P. Lewis, T. L. Gruenewald, R. A. R. Gurung, and J. A. Updegraff, “Biobehavioral Responses to Stress in Females: Tend-and-Befriend, Not Fight-or-Flight,” Psychological Review 107 (2000): 411–29.

38. A. Reid, “Gender and Sources of Subjective Well-Being,” Sex Roles 51 (2004): 617–29.

39. A. H. Eagly, M. C. Johannesen-Schmidt, and M. L. van Engen, “Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men,” Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 569–91.

40. N. A. Card, B. D. Stucky, G. M. Sawalani, and T. D. Little, “Direct and Indirect Aggression during Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Differences, Intercorrelations, and Relations to Maladjustment,” Child Development 79 (2008): 1185–229; J. Archer, “Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Review of General Psychology 8 (2004): 291–322; R. F. Diekstra and W. Gulbinat, “The Epidemiology of Suicidal Behaviour: A Review of Three Continents,” World Health Statistics Quarterly 46 (1993): 52–68.

41. S. Rosenfield, J. Vertefuille, and D. D. Mcalpine, “Gender Stratification and Mental Health: An Exploration of Dimensions of the Self,” Social Psychology Quarterly 63 (2002): 208–23.

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44. R. W. Simon and L. E. Nath, “Gender and Emotion in the United States: Do Men and Women Differ in Self-Reports of Feelings and Expressive Behavior?” American Journal of Sociology 109 (2004): 1137–76.

45. K. D. O’Leary, J. Barling, I. Arias, A. Rosenbaum, J. Malone, and A. Tyree, “Prevalence and Stability of Physical Aggression between Spouses: A Longitudinal Analysis,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57 (1989): 263–68.

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61. P. Orenstein, Cinderella Ate My Daughter: Dispatches from the Front Lines of the New Girlie-Girl Culture (New York: HarperCollins, 2011).

62. See, for example, S. N. Davis, “Sex Stereotypes in Commercials Targeted toward Children: A Content Analysis,” Sociological Spectrum 23 (2003): 407–24; Orenstein, Cinderella Ate My Daughter; S. Lamb and L. Brown, Packaging Girlhood: Rescuing Our Daughters from Marketers’ Schemes (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006); J. Sheldon, “Gender Stereotypes in Educational Software for Young Children,” Sex Roles 51 (2004): 433–44.

63. C. Good, J. Aronson, and J. A. Harder, “Problems in the Pipeline: Stereotype Threat and Women’s Acheivement in High-Level Math Courses,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 29 (2008): 17–28.

64. S. Cheryan, V. C. Plaut, P. G. Davies, and C. M. Steele, “Ambient Belonging: How Stereotypical Cues Impact Gender Participation in Computer Science,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97 (2009): 1045–60.

65. V. K. Gupta, D. B. Turban, and N. B. Bhawe, “The Effect of Gender Stereotype Activation on Entrepreneurial Intentions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 93 (2008): 1053–61.

66. M. E. Heilman, “Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women’s Ascent up the Organizational Ladder,” Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001): 657–74.

67. J. L. Berdahl, “The Sexual Harassment of Uppity Women,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007): 425–37.

70. R. R. Banks, Is Marriage for White People? How the African American Marriage Decline Affects Everyone (New York: Dutton, 2011); K. Bolick, “All the Single Ladies,” The Atlantic 308 (November 2011): 116–36.

71. B. Nosek, F. L. Smyth, N. Sriram, N. M. Lindner, T. Devos, A. Ayala,… A. G. Greenwald, “National Differences in Gender-Science Stereotypes Predict National Sex Differences in Science and Math Achievement,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (2009): 10593–97.

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77. E. T. Amanatullah and M. W. Morris, “Negotiating Gender Roles: Gender Differences in Assertive Negotiating Are Mediated by Women’s Fear of Backlash and Attenuated When Negotiating on Behalf of Others,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010): 256–67.

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1. In this chapter, we use the terms Black and White instead of African American and European American because people usually link the former terms with the concepts of race and ethnicity. As we will soon discuss, many people historically considered White and Black to be biological traits that were associated with distinct behaviors. Here, we aim to reclaim these terms and show that Blacks and Whites sometimes do have different thoughts, feelings, and actions, but for cultural reasons, not biological ones.

2. Races allegedly have a biological basis and ethnicities allegedly have historical, linguistic, or otherwise cultural bases. Yet race and ethnicity are used interchangeably because they usually belie a third variable: power. People often use race or ethnicity to assign more or less power or privilege and to justify the resulting inequality. For more on the definition of race and ethnicity, see H. R. Markus and P. M. L. Moya, eds., Doing Race: 21 Essays for the 21st Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010).

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5. Latino, Hispanic, and Chicano are often used interchangeably, although each has a specific meaning. Reflecting a preference common in California, we use the term Latino to refer to people of Latin American descent living in the United States.

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19. See, for example, N. M. Stephens, S. A. Fryberg, and H. R. Markus, “It’s Your Choice: How the Middle-Class Model of Independence Disadvantages Working-Class Americans,” in Fiske and Markus, eds., Facing Social Class, pp. 87–106.; D. Reay, M. E. David, and S. J. Ball, Degrees of Choice: Social Class, Race and Gender in Higher Education (Sterling, VA: Trentham, 2005); D. Reay, G. Crozier, and D. James, White Middle Class Identities and Urban Schooling (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); M. J. Bailey and S. Dynarski, “Gains and Gaps: Changing Inequality in U.S. College Entry and Completion,” PSC Research Report No. 11-746 (2011).

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24. Stephens, Fryberg, and Markus, “It’s Your Choice”; L. Rubin, Worlds of Pain: Life in the Working-Class Family (New York: Basic Books, 1976); N. M. Stephens, H. R. Markus, and S. S. M. Townsend, “Choice as an Act of Meaning: The Case of Social Class,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007): 814–30; M. L. Kohn, Class and Conformity: A Study in Value (Homewood, IL: Dorsey, 1969).

25. K. Curhan and H. R. Markus, “Social Class, Self and Well-Being,” unpublished manuscript, Stanford University, 2012.

27. Because of their keen awareness of rank and their lower place in the hierarchy, working-class Americans are more likely than middle-class Americans to mention that they do not let rank negatively impact their relations to others. For further discussion of the importance of rank and hierarchy in working-class worlds, see. M. Lamont, The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000); A. S. Rossi, Caring and Doing for Others: Social Responsibility in the Domains of Family, Work, and Community (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001); N. A. Bowman, S. Kitayama, and R. E. Nisbett, “Social Class Differences in Self, Attribution, and Attention: Socially Expansive Individualism of Middle-Class Americans,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35 (2009): 880–93; M. Argyle, The Psychology of Social Class (London: Routledge, 1994).

29. J. C. Williams, “The Class Culture Gap,” in Fiske and Markus, eds., Facing Social Class, pp. 39–57.

30. Snibbe and Markus, “You Can’t Always Get What You Want,” pp. 703–20; H. R. Markus and B. Schwartz, “Does Choice Mean Freedom and Well-Being?” Journal of Consumer Research 37 (2010): 344–55; H. R. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Models of Agency: Sociocultural Diversity in the Construction of Action,” in V. Murphy-Berman and J. J. Berman, eds., Cross-Cultural Differences in Perspectives on the Self (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).

31. Snibbe and Markus, “You Can’t Always Get What You Want,” pp. 703–20.

32. N. M. Stephens, S. A. Fryberg, and H. R. Markus, “When Choice Does Not Equal Freedom: A Sociocultural Analysis of Choice in Working-Class Contexts,” Social and Personality Psychology Science 2 (2011): 33–41; K. Savani, H. R. Markus, N. V. R. Naidu, S. Kumar, and N. Berlia, “What Counts as a Choice?” Psychological Science 14 (3) (2010): 391–98.

33. Stephens, Fryberg, and Markus, “When Choice Does Not Equal Freedom”; Stephens, Markus, and Townsend, “Choice as an Act of Meaning”; Markus and Schwartz, “Does Choice Mean Freedom and Well-Being?” pp. 344–355; B. Schwartz, H. R. Markus, and A. Conner Snibbe, “Is Freedom Just Another Word for Many Things to Buy?” New York Times Magazine (February 26, 2006).

35. M. W. Kraus and D. Keltner, “Signs of Socioeconomic Status: A Thin-Slicing Approach,” Psychological Science 20 (2009): 99–106.

36. M. W. Kraus, S. Côté, and D. Keltner, “Social Class, Contextualism, and Empathic Accuracy,” Psychological Science 21 (2010): 1716–23; M. W. Kraus, E. J. Horberg, J. L. Goetz, and D. Keltner, “Social Class Rank, Threat Vigilance, and Hostile Reactivity,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (2011): 1376–88.

37. Independent Sector, “Giving and Volunteering in the United States 2001” (Washington, D.C., 2002).

38. P. K. Piff, M. W. Kraus, S. Côté, H. Cheng, and D. Keltner, “Having Less, Giving More: The Influence of Social Class on Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 99 (2010): 771–84; National Public Radio, “Study: Poor Are More Charitable Than the Wealthy” (August 8, 2010), available from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129068241.

39. P. K. Piff, D. M. Stancato, S. Côté, R. Mendoza-Denton, and D. Keltner, “Higher Social Class Predicts Increased Unethical Behavior,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 (2012): 408b–91.

40. J. C. Magee, A. D. Galinsky, and D. H. Gruenfeld, “Power, Propensity to Negotiate, and Moving First in Competitive Interactions,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33 (2007): 200–212.

41. A. Kusserow, “When Hard and Soft Clash: Class-Based Individualisms in Manhattan and Queens,” in Fiske and Markus, eds., Facing Social Class, pp. 195–215; A. S. Kusserow, American Individualisms: Child Rearing and Social Class in Three Neighborhoods (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).

45. P. J. Miller, G. E. Cho, and J. R. Bracey, “Working-Class Children’s Experience through the Prism of Personal Storytelling,” Human Development 48 (2005): 115–35.

47. D. K. Dickinson and M. W. Smith, “Long-Term Effects of Preschool Teachers’ Book Readings on Low-Income Children’s Vocabulary and Story Comprehension,” Reading Research Quarterly 29 (1994): 105–22; R. Paige and T. Thompson (co-chairs), “The White House Summit on Early Childhood Cognitive Development, Proceedings,” 2001; G. J. Whitehurst, D. S. Arnold, J. N. Epstein, A. L. Angell, M. Smith, and J. Fischel, “A Picture Book Reading Intervention in Day Care and Home for Children from Low-Income Families,” Developmental Psychology 30 (1994): 679–89.

48. B. Hart and T. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brook, 1995); A. Lareau and J. McCrory Calarco, “Class, Cultural Capital, and Institutions: The Case of Families and Schools,” in Fiske and Markus, eds., Facing Social Class; A. Lareau, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011); M. Phillips, “Parenting, Time Use, and Disparities in Academic Outcomes,” in Duncan and Murnane, eds., Whither Opportunity? pp. 207–28.

49. K. B. Curhan and H. R. Markus, “Social Class, Self and Well-Being,” unpublished paper, 2012.

50. Snibbe and Markus, “You Can’t Always Get What You Want,” pp. 703–20.

54. F. Yeskel, “Diversity Training and Classism,” in B. Leondar-Wright, Class Matters: Cross-Class Alliance Building for Middle-Class Activists (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2005), pp. 153–54.

55. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, “Students Whose Parents Did Not Go to College: Post Secondary Access, Persistence, and Attainment,” NCES 2001–126 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2001).

57. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, “Students Whose Parents Did Not Go to College.”

58. N. M. Stephens, S. A. Fryberg, H. R. Markus, C. S. Johnson, and R. Covarriubas, “Unseen Disadvantage: How American Universities’ Focus on Independence Undermines the Academic Performance of First-Generation College Students,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 1178–97.

61. For evidence that some early humans were likely egalitarian, see D. S. Rogers, O. Deshpande, and M. W. Feldman, “The Spread of Inequality,” PLoS ONE 6 (2011): e24683.

62. M. Zitek and L. Z. Tiedens, “The Fluency of Social Hierarchy: The Ease with Which Hierarchical Relationships are Learned, Remembered, and Liked,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 98–115; D. H. Gruenfeld and L. Z. Tiedens, “Organizational Preferences and Their Consequences,” in S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, and G. Lindsay, eds., The Handbook of Social Psychology (New York: Wiley, 2010); J. Sidanius and F. Pratto, Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

66. L. Darling-Hammond, The Flat World and Education: How America’s Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future (New York: Teachers College Press, 2010), p. 192.

67. G. Orfield and C. Lee, Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality (Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project, Harvard University, 2005); D. S. Massey and N. A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).

69. S. M. Wilson, L. Darling-Hammond, and B. Berry, “Steady Work: The Story of Connecticut’s Reform,” American Educator 25 (2001): 34–39.

70. W. N. Grubb, The Money Myth: School Resources, Outcomes, and Equity (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009).

71. E. Aronson, “The Jigsaw Classroom: A Cooperative Learning Technique,” 2012, retreived from www.jigsaw.org (accessed 08/10/12); E. Aronson and S. Patnoe, Cooperation in the Classroom: The Jigsaw Method, 3rd ed. (London: Pinter and Martin, Ltd., 2011).

72. Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, Johnson, and Covarrubias, “Unseen Disadvantage.”

73. N. M. Stephens, S. S. M. Townsend, H. R. Markus, and L. T. Phillips, “A Cultural Mismatch: Independent Cultural Norms Produce Greater Increases in Cortisol and More Negative Emotion among First-Generation College Students,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012): 1389–93.

74. The Posse Foundation, Fulfilling the Promise: The Impact of Posse after 20 Years. 2012 Alumni Report (New York: The Posse Foundation, 2012); The Posse Foundation, “Partner Colleges and Universities, 2012,” retrieved from possefoundation.org (accessed 08/09/12).

75. J.-C. Croizet and T. Claire, “Extending the Concept of Stereotype Threat to Social Class: The Intellectual Underperformance of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24 (1998): 588–94.

76. KIPP Foundation, KIPP: 2011 Report Card and Individual School Results (San Francisco, CA: KIPP Foundation, 2011).

77. J. Marchese, “Is This the Best School in Philadelphia?” Philadephia Magazine (September 1, 2009); P. Tough, “What It Takes to Make a Student,” New York Times Magazine, November 26, 2006; “Getting Young Lives in Line,” U.S. News & World Report, March 14, 2004.

79. H. Markus and P. Nurius, “Possible Selves,” American Psychologist 41 (1986): 954–69; D. Oyserman and H. Markus, “Possible Selves in Balance: Implications for Delinquency,” Journal of Social Issues 46 (1990): 141–57.

80. D. Oyserman, D. Bybee, and K. Terry, “Possible Selves and Academic Outcomes: How and When Possible Selves Impel Action,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 188–204.

82. P. Sacks, Standardized Minds: The High Price of America’s Testing Culture and What We Can Do to Change It (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 1999).

83. B. Leondar-Wright, ed., Class Matters: Cross-Class Alliance Building for Middle-Class Activists (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2005); B. Jensen, “Becoming versus Belonging: Psychology, Speech, and Social Class,” in Leondar-Wright, ed., Class Matters.

85. N. Fast, D. Gruenfeld, N. Sivanathan, and A. Galinsky, “Illusory Control: A Generative Force behind Power’s Far-Reaching Effects,” Psychological Science 20 (2009): 502–8; S. E. Taylor and J. D. Brown, “Illusion and Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health,” Psychological Bulletin 103 (1988): 193–210; M. E. Lachman an S. L. Weaver, “The Sense of Control as a Moderator of Social Class Differences in Health and Well-being,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 763–73.

86. Reardon, “The Widening Gap between the Rich and the Poor,” pp. 91–116.

88. The idea that class equals money is captured in the following famous conversation:

Scott Fitzgerald: “The rich are different from us.”

Ernest Hemingway: “Yes, they have more money.”

See F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Crack-Up, E. Wilson, ed. (New York: New Directions, 1945), p. 125.

89. P. Bourdieu, In Other Words: Towards a Reflexive Sociology (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987).

1. R. Molloy, C. L. Smith, and A. K. Wozniak, “Internal Migration in the United States,” NBER working paper 17307 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economics Research, 2011).

2. E. Silver, E. P. Mulvey, and J. W. Swanson, “Neighborhood Structural Characteristics and Mental Disorder: Faris and Dunham Revisited,” Social Science and Medicine 55 (2002): 1457–70.

4. Although different researchers divide the United States differently, many agree that the South comprises U.S. census divisions 5, 6, and 7 (AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, WV, and VA); the Northeast comprises census divisions 1 and 2 (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT); the Midwest comprises divisions 3 and 4 (IA, IL, IN, KS, MI, MN, MO, NB, ND, OH, SD, and WI); and the West comprises divisions 8 and 9 (AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, and WY). Our analysis excludes Hawaii and Alaska because the histories, ecologies, and cultures of these two states are so distinct from those of the lower 48.

6. V. C. Plaut, G. Adams, and S. L. Anderson, “Does Attractiveness Buy Happiness? It Depends on Where You’re From,” Personal Relationships 16 (2009): 619–30.

7. The West comprises two census divisions: the Pacific (CA, OR, and WA, though excluding AK and HI) and the Mountain states (AZ, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, and WY).

8. V. C. Plaut, H. R. Markus, and M. E. Lachman, “Place Matters: Consensual Features and Regional Variation in American Well-Being and Self,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 160–84; P. J. Rentfrow, S. D. Gosling, and J. Potter, “A Theory of the Emergence, Persistence, and Expression of Geographic Variation in Psychological Characteristics,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (2008): 339–69.

10. Famous Club for Growth PAC TV ad about Howard Dean (video file), August 26, 2006, retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4-vEwD_7Hk (accessed 08/14/12).

11. V. C. Plaut, H. R. Markus, J. R. Treadway, and A. S. Fu, “The Cultural Construction of Self and Well-Being: A Tale of Two Cities,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2012).

12. S. Kitayama, K. Ishii, T. Imada, K. Takemura, and J. Ramaswamy, “Voluntary Settlement and the Spirit of Independence: Evidence from Japan’s ‘Northern Frontier,’” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 369–84.

13. S. Oishi, J. Lun, and G. D. Sherman, “Residential Mobility, Self-Concept, and Positive Affect in Social Interactions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007): 131–41.

14. B. Berkner and C. S. Faber, Geographical Mobility: 1995 to 2000 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000), retrieved from www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-28.pdf (accessed 08/12/12).

16. These are the San Francisco, San Diego, Seattle, and Los Angeles regions; see J. Cortright and H. Mayer, Signs of Life: The Growth of Biotechnology Centers in the U.S.(Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2002).

18. Plaut, Markus, Treadway, and Fu, “The Cultural Construction of Self and Well-Being.”

19. Robert D. Putnam, “Chapter 16: Introduction,” Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).

20. S. Oishi, A. J. Rothman, M. Snyder, J. Su, K. Zehm, A. W. Hertel… and G. D. Sherman, “The Socioecological Model of Procommunity Action: The Benefits of Residential Stability,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007): 831–44.

21. S. Oishi, F. F. Miao, M. Koo, J. Kisling, and K. A. Ratliff, “Residential Mobility Breeds Familiarity-Seeking,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 149–62.

22. A. Rao and P. Scaruff, A History of Silicon Valley: The Greatest Creation of Wealth in the History of the Planet (Palo Alto, CA: Omniware, 2011).

23. Martin Kenney, ed., Understanding Silicon Valley: The Anatomy of an Entrepreneurial Region (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000).

24. R. Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class (New York: Basic Books, 2002), p. 119.

27. B. McGrory, “Not Your Father’s Boston,” Boston Globe, July 26, 2004.

28. B. Johnstone, “Features and Uses of Southern Style,” in S. J. Nagle and S. L. Sanders, eds., English in the Southern United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 189–207.

29. D. Roberts, “Hospitality,” in C. R. Wilson, ed., The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, Vol. 4 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 234–36; quote appears on p. 236.

30. R. E. Nisbett and D. Cohen, Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996).

31. For more on steel magnolias and other southern archetypes, see T. McPherson, Reconstructing Dixie: Race, Gender, and Nostalgia in the Imagined South (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).

32. R. V. Levine, T. S. Martinez, G. Brase, and K. Sorenson, “Helping in 36 U.S. Cities,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994): 69–82.

34. A. K-Y. Leung and D. Cohen, “Within- and Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences and the Cultural Logics of Honor, Face, and Dignity Cultures,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (2011): 507–26.

36. C. P. Flynn, “Regional Differences in Attitudes toward Corporal Punishment,” Journal of Marriage and Family 56 (1994): 314–24.

37. Mississippi (7.5 percent of students), Arkansas (4.7 percent), and Alabama (4.5 percent) chart the highest percentages of students struck by educators in the past year. See A. Farmer, A. Neier, and A. Parker, A Violent Education: Corporal Punishment of Children in U.S. Public Schools (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009).

38. D. Cohen and R. E. Nisbett, “Self-Protection and the Culture of Honor: Explaining Southern Violence,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20 (1994): 551–67.

39. S. J. Watkins and J. Sherk, Who Serves in the U.S. Military? Demographic Characteristics of Enlisted Troops and Officers (Washington, D.C.: The Heritage Foundation, 2008).

40. D. Cohen, “Law, Social Policy, and Violence: The Impact of Regional Cultures,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996): 961–78.

41. L. Saad, “Self-Reported Gun Ownership in U.S. Is Highest since 1993,” Gallup, October 26, 2011.

42. Death Penalty Information Center, “Facts about the Death Penalty,” 2012, retrieved from www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/FactSheet.pdf (accessed 08/14/12).

43. D. Cohen and R. E. Nisbett, “Field Experiments Examining the Culture of Honor: The Role of Institutions in Perpetuating Norms about Violence,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997): 1188–99.

44. J. S. Reed, “Below the Smith and Wesson line: Reflections on Southern Violence,” in M. Black and J. S. Reed, eds., Perspectives on the American South: An Annual Review of Society, Politics, and Culture (New York: Cordon and Breach Science, 1981), pp. 9–22, 144.

46. M. K. L. Ching, “‘Ma’am’ and ‘Sir’: Modes of Mitigation and Politeness in the Southern United States,” abstract in Newsletter of the American Dialect Society 19 (1987): 10.

48. C. R. Wilson, “Manners,” in Wilson, ed., The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, Vol. 4, pp. 96–103 and 102.

50. G. Metcalfe and C. Hays, Being Dead Is No Excuse: The Official Southern Ladies Guide to Hosting the Perfect Funeral (New York: Miramax, 2005).

54. For more about the wild Southern frontier, see R. E. Nisbett, “Violence and U.S. Regional Culture,” American Psychologist 48 (1993): 441–49; J. Beck, W. J. Frandsen, and A. Randall, Southern Culture: An Introduction (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2009).

55. R. D. Baller, M. P. Zevenbergen, and S. F. Messner, “The Heritage of Herding and Southern Homicide: Examining the Ecological Foundations of the Code of Honor Thesis,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 46 (2009): 275–300.

57. T. L. Meares and D. M. Kahan, “Law and (Norms of) Order in the Inner City,” Law and Society Review 32 (1998): 805–38.

58. B. Hermann, C. Thoni, and S. Gächter, “Antisocial Punishment across Societies,” Science 319 (2008): 1362–67.

59. As quoted in A. Conner, “Where Nice Is Naughty,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 6 (2008): 14.

60. A. Knorr and A. Arndt, “Why Did Wal-Mart Fail in Germany?” (Bremen, Germany: Institute for World Economic and International Management, 2003).

61. K. Hamilton, “Students Plan to Form West Coast Club,” The Daily Princetonian, November 9, 2004; E. Graham, “Pulling Pork; Pulling Together,” Princeton Alumni Weekly, June 7, 2006.

62. M. Milian, “Zuckerberg’s Hoodie a ‘Mark of Immaturity,’ Analyst Says,” Bloomberg, May 8, 2012.

63. See, for example, W. Isaacson, Steve Jobs (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011).

1. For more on the relationship between science and religion in American history, see S. L. Otto, Fool Me Twice: Fighting the Assault on Science in America (New York: Rodale, 2011).

2. “Ron Paul: ‘I Don’t Accept the Theory of Evolution,’” CBS News, August 29, 2011, retrieved from www.cbsnews.com/2100-205_162-20098876.html (accessed 08/13/12).

3. C. Carnia, “Rick Perry: ‘Evolution Is a “Theory” with ‘Gaps,’” USA Today, August 18, 2011, retrieved from content.usatoday.com/communities/onpolitics/post/2011/08/rick-perry-evolution-presidential-race-/1#.T8Lp8r8hc60 (accessed 08/12/12).

4. “Republican Primary Candidates on Climate Change,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 5, 2012, p. E-6.

6. “Republican Primary Candidates on Climate Change,” San Francisco Chronicle.

7. K. Tumulty, “Gingrich Vows to Ban Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Questions In Vitro Practices,” Washington Post, January 29, 2012.

8. J. C. Green, J. L. Guth, C. E. Smidt, and L. A. Kellstedt, Religion and the Culture Wars: Dispatches from the Front (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996).

9. M. Wolraich, “Why Evangelicals Love Santorum, Hated JFK,” CNN Opinion, March 1, 2012, retrieved from www.cnn.com/2012/03/01/opinion/wolraich-catholics-protestants/index.html (accessed 08/17/12).

11. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “The Religious Composition of the United States,” in U.S. Religious Landscape Survey (Washington, D.C.: The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2008).

12. See W. B. Wilcox, “Conservative Protestant Childrearing: Authoritarian or Authoritative?” American Sociological Review 63 (1998): 796–809; J. P. Bartkowski and X. Xu, “Distant Patriarchs or Expressive Dads? The Discourse and Practice of Fathering in Conservative Protestant Families,” The Sociological Quarterly 41 (2000): 465–85.

13. For an overview, see D. E. Sherkat and C. G. Ellison, “Recent Developments and Current Controversies in the Sociology of Religion,” Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 363–94.

14. C. G. Ellison and D. E. Sherkat, “Obedience and Autonomy: Religion and Parental Values Reconsidered,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32 (1993): 313–29.

15. For a review, see R. D. Woodberry and C. S. Smith, “Fundamentalism et al.: Conservative Protestants in America,” Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 25–56.

16. T. M. Luhrmann, When God Talks Back: Understanding the Evangelical Relationship with God (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), p. 35.

17. Wilcox, “Conservative Protestant Childrearing”; Bartkowski and Xu, “Distant Patriarchs or Expressive Dads?”; and C. G. Ellison and D. E. Sherkat, “Conservative Protestantism and Support for Corporal Punishment,” American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 131–44.

18. P. Froese and C. Bader, America’s Four Gods: What We Say about God—and What That Says about Us (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

19. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Religious Composition of the United States.”

21. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Religious Composition of the United States.”

22. See G. Layman, The Great Divide: Religious and Cultural Conflict in American Party Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).

23. J. Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (New York: Pantheon Books, 2012).

24. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Religious Composition of the United States.”

25. W. Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955).

26. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Religious Composition of the United States.”

28. Although they were probably quite lethal to competing bands of humans. Conflicts between early human groups during the late Pleistocene claimed up to ten times more lives (as a percentage of all deaths) than did the European wars of the twentieth century. See J.-K. Choi and S. Bowles, “The Coevolution of Parochial Altruism and War,” Science 318 (2007): 636–40. Steven Pinker expands on this finding in his book The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2004).

29. S. Atran and A. Norenzayan, “Religion’s Evolutionary Landscape: Counterintuition, Commitment, Compassion, Communion,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27 (2004):713–70; and A. Norenzayan and A. F. Shariff, “The Origin and Evolution of Religious Prosociality,” Science 322 (2008): 58–62.

30. A. F. Shariff and A. Norenzayan, “God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game,” Psychological Science 18 (2007): 803–9.

31. V. Saroglou, “Religiousness as a Cultural Adaptation of Basic Traits: A Five-Factor Model Perspective,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 14 (2010): 108–25.

32. For an easy-to-read summary of the large literature on religion and well-being, see R. D. Putnam and D. E. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010).

35. A. B. Cohen and P. Rozin, “Religion and the Morality of Mentality,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 697–710.

36. A. B. Cohen and P. C. Hill, “Religion as Culture: Religious Individualism and Collectivism among American Catholics, Jews, and Protestants,” Journal of Personality 75 (2007): 709–42.

38. See K. Peng and R. E. Nisbett, “Culture, Dialectics, and Reasoning about Contradiction,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 741–54.

41. N. Jewison (director), Fiddler on the Roof (motion picture), MGM, USA, 1971.

42. For more about the sociology of America’s dominant religious groups, see the classic W. Herberg, Protestant-Catholic-Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955).

43. See J. P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience (New York: Doubleday, 1985).

44. L. A. Keister, “Upward Wealth Mobility: Exploring the Roman Catholic Advantage,” Social Forces 85 (2007): 1195–225.

45. J. Sanchez-Burks, “Protestant Relational Ideology and (in)attention to Relational Cues in Work Settings,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 919–29.

46. Y. J. Li, K. A. Johnson, A. B. Cohen, M. J. Williams, E. D. Knowles, and Z. Chen, “Fundamental(ist) Attribution Error: Protestants Are Dispositionally Focused,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 281–90, p. 282.

49. M. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, T. Parsons, trans. (1905; reprint New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958).

50. S. O. Becker and L. Woessmann, L., “Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (2009): 531–96.

51. See R. K. Smith, “The Cross: Church Symbol and Contest in Nineteenth Century America,” Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture 70 (2001): 705–34.

54. For more on the social forces that gave rise to conservative Protestantism, see D. E. Miller, Reinventing American Protestantism: Christianity in the New Millennium (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

55. N. T. Feather, “Protestant Ethic, Conservatism, and Values,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984): 1132–41.

56. I. McGregor, K. Nash, and M. Prentice, “Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM) for Religion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 99 (2010): 148–61.

57. J. T. Jost, J. Glaser, A. W. Kruglanski, and F. J. Sulloway, “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 339–75.

61. L. A. Keister, “Conservative Protestants and Wealth: How Religion Perpetuates Asset Poverty,” American Journal of Sociology 113 (2008): 1237–71.

62. Randy Alcorn, The Law of Rewards: Giving What You Can’t Keep to Gain What You Can’t Lose (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2003).

63. As told to A. Conner, “Don’t Save; Be Saved,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 5 (2008): 17.

65. K. W. Giberson and F. S. Collins, The Language of Science and Faith: Straight Answers to Genuine Questions (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2011); F. S. Collins, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief (New York: Free Press, 2006).

66. M. Deutsch, “Constructive Conflict Management for the World Today,” International Journal of Conflict Management 5 (1994): 111–129, p. 305.

67. Quoted in R. Williams, “Breaking through to Climate Change Skeptics,” Michigan Radio, January 24, 2012, retrieved from michiganradio.org/post/breaking-through-climate-change-skeptics (accessed 08/16/12).

68. T. M. Luhrmann, “Do as I Do, Not as I Say,” New York Times, May 6, 2012, campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/06/do-as-i-do-not-as-i-say/ (accessed 08/17/12).

69. For more about moralities of autonomy, community, and divinity, see R. A. Shweder, M. C. Much, M. Mahaptra, and L. Park, “The ‘Big Three’ of Morality (Autonomy, Community and Divinity) and the ‘Big Three’ Explanations of Suffering,” in A. Brandt and P. Rozin, eds., Morality and Health (New York: Routledge, 1997).

71. Evangelical Environmental Network, 2012, retrieved from creation-care.org (accessed 08/17/12).

72. J. Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

1. T. Krazit, “OLCP Fires Back at Intel, Children Learn Nothing,” CNET News, January 4, 2008, retrieved from news.cnet.com/8301-13579_3-9840478-37.html (accessed 08/17/12).

2. For instance, because Hurricane Katrina recovery efforts were profitable to the businesses contracted to carry them out, progress was delayed. See V. Adams, T. van Hattum, and D. English, “Chronic Disaster Syndrome: Displacement, Disaster Capitalism, and the Eviction of the Poor from New Orleans,” American Ethnologist 36 (2009): 615–36.

4. For example, C. Arthur, Digital Wars: Apple, Microsoft, Google and the Battle for the Internet (Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 2012); J. H. Gittell, The Southwest Airlines Way: Using the Power of Relationships to Achieve High Performance (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003); J. K. Liker, The Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004).

5. Quoted in G. Packer, “No Death, No Taxes,” The New Yorker, November 28, 2011, p. 44.

6. J. R. Rawls, R. A. Ullrich, and O. T. Nelson, “A Comparison of Managers Entering or Reentering the Profit and Nonprofit Sectors,” The Academy of Management Journal 18 (1975): 616–23.

7. See, for example, J. L. Perry and L. R. Wise, “The Motivational Bases of Public Service,” Public Administration Review 50 (1990): 367–73; and G. A. Brewer and S. C. Selden, “Whistle Blowers in the Federal Civil Service: New Evidence of the Public Service Ethic,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 8 (1998): 413–39.

8. S. T. Lyons, L. E. Duxbury and C. A. Higgins, “A Comparison of the Values and Commitment of Private Sector, Public Sector, and Parapublic Sector Employees,” Public Administration Review 66 (2006): 605–18; J. Taylor, “Public Service Motivation, Civic Attitudes and Actions of Public, Nonprofit and Private Sector Employees,” Public Administration 88 (2010): 1083–98; Z. Van Der Wal, G. De Graaf, and K. Lasthuizen, “What’s Valued Most? Similarities and Differences between the Organizational Values of the Public and Private Sector,” Public Administration 86 (2008): 465–82.

9. D. J. Houston, “‘Walking the Walk’ of Public Service Motivation: Public Employees and Charitable Gifts of Time, Blood, and Money,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 16 (2006): 67–86.

10. R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, 30th anniversary ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

11. See, for example, L. Leete, “Whither the Nonprofit Wage Differential? Estimates from the 1990 Census,” Journal of Labor Economics 19 (2001): 136–70; and F. Handy and E. Katz, “The Wage Differential between Nonprofit Institutions and Corporations: Getting More by Paying Less?” Journal of Comparative Economics 26 (1998): 246–61.

12. A. Amirkhanyan, H. Kim, and K. T. Lambright, “Does the Public Sector Outperform the Nonprofit and For-Profit Sectors? Evidence from a National Panel Study on Nursing Home Quality and Access,” Journal of Policy Analysis 27 (2008): 326–53.

13. M. Benz, “Not for the Profit, but for the Satisfaction? Evidence on Worker Well-Being in Non-Profit Firms,” Kyklos 58 (2005): 155–76.

14. See, for example, S. A. Frank and G. B. Lewis, “Government Employees: Working Hard or Hardly Working?” The American Review of Public Administration 34 (2004): 36–51.

16. Although corporations also do not enjoy all the rights that individual, “natural” people do, they do retain the rights to sue, make contracts, exercise free speech, and make political expenditures (as upheld in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission in 2010), as well as many other human rights.

17. C. L. Hays, “Ben & Jerry’s to Unilever, with Attitude,” New York Times, April 13, 2000.

18. All twenty-eight kinds of organizations in section 501(c) of the tax code are technically “nonprofits,” including civic leagues (501(c)4s); labor unions (501(c)5s); and cemeteries (501(c)13s). Section 501(c)3, charitable nonprofits, comprises the bulk of U.S. nonprofits, and is the only category of organization for which donors receive tax deductions for their contributions.

19. See, for example, T. Hobbes, Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill, I. Shapiro, ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010); or J. Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For an overview, see M. Hechter and C. Horne, Theories of Social Order: A Reader (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003).

20. Percentages calculated from 2009 U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis data.

21. M. Roomkin and B. A. Weisbrod, “Managerial Compensation and Incentives in For-Profit and Nonprofit Hospitals,” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 15 (1999): 750–81.

22. K. Patterson, J. Grenny, R. McMillan, and A Switzler, Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When Stakes Are High (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011).

23. As quoted in S. Silverman and L. Taliento, “What Business Execs Don’t Know—but Should—about Nonprofits,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 4 (2006): 36–43, p. 38.

24. B. Bozeman, “A Theory of Government Red Tape,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 3 (1993): 273–303; M. K. Feeney and H. G. Rainey, “Personnel Flexibility and Red Tape in Public and Nonprofit Organizations: Distinctions Due to Institutional and Political Accountability,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 20 (2010): 801–26.

25. See Chen, “Explaining the Difference of Work Attitudes between Public and Nonprofit Managers.”

26. Al Gore and National Performance Review, From Red Tape to Results: Creating a Government That Works Better and Costs Less (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 12.

27. B. Bozeman and G. Kingsley, “Risk Culture in Public and Private Organizations,” Public Administration Review 58 (1998): 109–18.

29. See D. Patnaik, Wired to Care: How Companies Prosper When They Create Widespread Empathy (New York: FT Press, 2009).

30. T. Hsieh, Delivering Happiness: A Path to Profits, Passion, and Purpose (New York: Business Plus, 2010).

31. J. A. Chatman, J. T. Polzer, S. G. Barsade, and M. A. Neale, “Being Different Yet Feeling Similar: The Influence of Demographic Composition and Organizational Culture on Work Processes and Outcomes,”Administrative Science Quarterly 43 (1998): 749–80.

32. S. T. Bell, “Deep-Level Composition Variables as Predictors of Team Performance: A Meta-Analysis,” The Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007): 595–615.

33. V. Liberman, S. M. Samuels, and L. Ross, “The Name of the Game: Predictive Power of Reputations versus Situational Labels in Determining Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Moves,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004): 1175–85.

34. A. C. Kay and L. Ross, “The Perceptual Push: The Interplay of Implicit Cues and Explicit Situational Construals on Behavioral Intentions in the Prisoner’s Dilemma,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003): 634–43.

35. D. L. Kirp, “Life Way after Head Start,” New York Times Magazine, November 21, 2004, pp. 32–38; R. Belfield, M. Nores, S. Barnett, and L. Schweinhart, “The High/Scope Perry Preschool Program: Cost-Benefit Analysis Using Data from the Age-40 Follow-Up,” Journal of Human Resources 41 (2006): 162–90.

36. A. Conner Snibbe, “Drowning in Data,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 4 (2006): 38–45.

37. Urban Institute’s National Center for Charitable Statistics and the Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University. The researchers examined more than 220,000 IRS Form 990s and conducted 1,500 in-depth surveys of organizations with revenues of more than $100,000.

38. A. G. Gregory and D. Howard, “The Nonprofit Starvation Cycle,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 7 (2009): 48–53.

39. For more about nonprofit advocacy, see F. Nelson, D. W. Brady, and A. Conner Snibbe, “Learn to Love Lobbying,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 5 (2007): 56–63.

40. For more ways to break the nonprofit starvation cycle, see Gregory and Howard, “Nonprofit Starvation Cycle.”

41. J. Aaker, K. D. Vohs, and C. Mogilner, “Nonprofits Are Seen as Warm and For-Profits as Competent: Firm Stereotypes Matter,” Journal of Consumer Research 37 (2010): 224–37.

2. S. Harrigan, “Relief and an Understanding of Local Knowledge: The Case of Southern Sudan,” in V. Rao and M. Walton, eds., Culture and Public Action (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 307–27.

4. Some authorities also include China in the Global South; see, for example, J. Rigg, An Everyday Geography of the Global South (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2007).

5. United Nations Development Programme, “Human Development Report 2005”; Rigg, An Everyday Geography of the Global South.

6. V. Rao and M. Walton, “Culture and Public Action: Relationality, Equality of Agency, and Development,” in V. Rao and M. Walton, eds., Culture and Public Action (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), p. 6.

7. For more on the relationship between economic development and independence, see G. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Value (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980); R. Inglehart and W. E. Baker, “Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistance of Traditional Values,” American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 19–51; and A. Inkeles and D. H. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (New York: Universe, 1976/2000).

8. “Fear Grips Accra,” People and Places, January 23–29, 1997, p. 2, cited in G. Adams and V. A. Dzokoto, “Genital-Shrinking Panic in Ghana: A Cultural Psychological Analysis,” Culture Psychology 13 (2007): 83–104.

9. West Africa comprises Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togolese. All of these countries, with the exception of Mauritania, are members of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Retrieved from www.ecowas.int. See also Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, April 25, 2012, West Africa Region, retrieved from wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/regions/west-africa.htm (accessed 08/11/12).; Adams and Dzokoto, “Genital-Shrinking Panic in Ghana”; G. Adams, “The Cultural Grounding of Personal Relationship: Enemyship in North American and West African Worlds,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005): 948–68.

13. Anthropologist Alan Fiske was one of the first social scientists to document that relationships are the basic unit of reality in much of the world, and that West Africans typically understand themselves in terms of relationships. See A. P. Fiske, “The Four Elementary Forms of Sociality: Framework for a Unified Theory of Social Relations,” Psychological Review 99 (1992): 689–723.

14. J. S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), p. 106.

17. P. E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983); J. C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996); B. Davidson, The African Slave Trade: A Revised and Expanded Edition (New York: Back Bay Books, 1988).

18. S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana, or a Comparative Vocabulary of Nearly Three Hundred Words and Phrases, in More Than One Hundred Distinct African Languages (London: Church Missionary House, 1854).

19. N. Nunn and L. Wantchekon, “The Slave Trade and the Origins of Mistrust in Africa,” American Economic Review 101 (2011): 3221–52.

21. The World Justice Project, “The World Justice Rule of Law Index,” 2011, retrieved from worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/index-2011 (accessed 08/11/12).

22. For more on what happens when institutions are weak, see J. Robinson and D. Acemoglu, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York: Crown Business, 2012).

23. P. S. Budhwa and A. Varma, Doing Business in India: Building Research-Based Practice (New York: Routledge, 2010).

24. E. Luce, In Spite of the Gods: The Rise of Modern India (New York: Anchor Books, 2008), pp. 201–3; see also Budhwa and Varma, Doing Business in India.

25. J. G. Miller and D. M. Bersoff, “Culture and Moral Judgment: How Are Conflicts between Justice and Interpersonal Responsibilities Resolved?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992): 541–54.

26. Ibid.; J. G. Miller, “Cultural Psychology of Moral Development,” in S. Kitayama and D. Cohen, eds., Handbook of Cultural Psychology (New York: Guilford Press, 2006).

27. K. Savani, H. R. Markus, and A. L. Conner, “Let Your Preferences Be Your Guide?: Preferences and Choices Are More Tightly Linked for North Americans than for Indians,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 861–76. See also K. Savani, H. R. Markus, N. V. R. Naidu, S. Kumar, and N. Berlia, “What Counts as a Choice? U.S. Americans Are More Likely Than Indians to Construe Actions as Choices,” Psychological Science 14 (2010): 391–98.

28. R. A. Shweder, Why Do Men Barbecue? Recipes for Cultural Psychology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 118.

30. R. Ferber, Solve Your Child’s Sleep Problems (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986); A. Mansbach, Go the F**k to Sleep (New York: Akashic Books, 2011).

31. R. A. Shweder, L. A. Jensen, and W. M. Goldstein, “Who Sleeps by Whom Revisited: A Method for Extracting the Moral Goods Implicit in Practice,” New Directions for Child Development 67 (1995): 21–39.

32. M. Toledo, “First Comes Marriage, Then Comes Love,” ABC 20/20, January 30, 2009; D. Jones, “One of USA’s Exports: Love, American Style,” USA Today, February 13, 2006.

33. S. E. Cross and H. R. Markus, “The Cultural Constitution of Personality,” in L. Pervin and O. John, eds., Handbook of Personality Theory and Research (New York: Guilford, 1999), pp. 378–96.

34. J. E. Myers, J. Madathil, and L. R. Tingle, “Marriage Satisfaction and Wellness in India and the United States: A Preliminary Comparison of Arranged Marriages and Marriages of Choice,” Journal of Counseling Development 83 (2005): 183–90; P. Yelsma and K. Athappilly, “Marital Satisfaction and Communication Practices: Comparisons among Indian and American couples,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies 19 (1988): 37–54; M. Pasupathi, “Arranged Marriages: What’s Love Got to Do with It?” in M. Yalom, L. Carstensen, E. Freedman, and B. Gulpi, eds., Inside the American Couple: New Thinking, New Challenges (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).

35. Toledo, “First Comes Marriage, Then Comes Love”; R. Seth, First Comes Marriage: Modern Relationship Advice from the Wisdom of Arranged Marriages (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008).

36. S. L. Bhansali (director), Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (I Have Given My Heart, My Love) (motion picture), Bhansali Films and Jhamu Sughand Productions, India, 1999.

37. J. Ganapathi, Ganesha: Ancient Tales for Modern Times (Bangalore, India: Unisun Publications, 2005).

38. R. Clements and J. Musker (directors), Aladdin (motion picture), Disney, United States, 1992.

39. United Nations Development Programme, “Human Development Report for Central America 2009–2010,” 2009.

40. J. W. Anderson, “Cartoons of Prophet Met with Outrage,” Washington Post, January 21, 2006; B. N. Bonde, “How 12 Cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed Were Brought to Trigger an International Conflict,” Nordicom Review 28 (2007): 33–48; “Embassies Torched in Cartoon Fury,” CNN, February 5, 2006.

41. P. Cohen, “Danish Cartoon Controversy,” New York Times, August 12, 2009; “Arson and Death Threats as Muhammed Caricature Controversy Escalates,” Spiegel Online, retrieved from www.spiegel.de/international/cartoon-violence-spreads-arson-and-death-threats-as-muhammad-caricature-controversy-escalates-a-399177.html (accessed 08/10/12).

43. “Turkish PM Given Hero’s Welcome,” BBC News, January 30, 2009, retrieved from www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/davos/7859815.stm (accessed 08/10/12).

44. L. Rosen, “Understanding Corruption,” The American Interest Magazine, March–April 2010.

45. B. Mesquita, “Emotions in Collectivist and Individualist Contexts,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 68–74.

46. J. E. Greenberg, “Cultural Psychology of the Middle East: Three Essays” (doctoral dissertation), Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 2010.

48. Silatech and Gallup, “The Silatech Index: Voices of Young Arabs,” June 2009, retrieved from sas-origin.onstreammedia.com/origin/gallupinc/media/poll/pdf/Silatech.Report.2011.Apr.pdf (accessed 08/10/12).

49. E. N. Akcinar, A. Maitreyi, and H. R. Markus, “Nepotism in European American and Middle Eastern Cultural Contexts,” poster presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, 2013.

50. L. Rosen, “Understanding Corruption,” The American Interest 5 (2010), retrieved from www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=792 (accessed 08/10/12); See also Gregg, The Middle East; D. G. Bates, Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001); C. Lindholm, The Islamic Middle East (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002).

51. B. Herrmann, C. Thoni, and S. Gächter, “Antisocial Punishment across Society,” Science 319 (2008): 1362–67. (Participants in Greece also show this punitive tendency.)

52. J. Cedar (director), Footnote (Hearat Shulayim) (motion picture), Movie Plus and United King Films, Israel, 2011.

53. A common Mexican expression reflecting a relaxed attitude toward time. For more on sources of this attitude, see J. Castañeda, Mañana Forever? Mexico and the Mexicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011).

54. H. C. Triandis, G. Marín, J. Lisansky, and H. Betancourt, “Simpatía as a Cultural Script of Hispanics,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47 (1984): 1363–75; R. Janoff-Bulman and H. K. Leggatt, “Culture and Social Obligation: When ‘Shoulds’ are Perceived as ‘Wants,’” Journal of Research in Perosnality 36 (2006): 260–70.

55. R. Holloway, A. M. Waldrip, and W. Ickes, “Evidence That a Simpatico Self-Schema Accounts for Differences in the Self-Concepts and Social Behavior of Latinos versus Whites (and Blacks),” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009): 1012–28.

57. M. C. Madsen, “Developmental and Cross-Cultural Differences in the Cooperative and Competitive Behavior of Young Children,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (1971): 365–71.

58. J. C. Condon, Good Neighbors: Communicating with the Mexicans, 2nd ed. (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 1997).

59. N. Ramirez-Esparza, M. R. Mehl, J. Alvarez-Bermudez, and J. W. Pennebaker, “Are Mexicans More or Less Sociable Than Americans? Insights from a Naturalistic Observation Study,” Journal of Research in Personality 43 (2009): 1–7.

60. J. Faura, The Whole Enchilada: Hispanic Marketing 101 (Ithaca, NY: Paramount, 2004), p. xvi.

61. H. R. Markus, C. D. Ryff, K. B. Curhan, and K. A. Palmersheim, “In Their Own Words: Well-Being among High School–Educated and College-Educated Adults,” in O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff, and R. C. Kessler, eds., How Healthy Are We? A National Study of Well-Being at Midlife (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), pp. 273–319.

63. M. Delgado, Social Work with Latinos: A Cultural Assets Paradigm (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); R. L. Smith and R. E. Montilla, eds., Counseling and Family Therapy with Latino Populations: Strategies That Work (New York: Routledge, 2006).

65. Quoted in “Business in Mexico: Still Keeping It in the Family,” The Economist, May 18, 2004.

67. D. Acemoglu, S. Johnson, J. Robinson, and P. Yared, “Income and Democracy,” American Economic Review 98 (2008): 808–42.

70. K. Jonker and W. M. Meehan, “Curbing Mission Creep,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 6 (2008): 60–65.

71. A. Day, “The Answer Is on the Ground,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 7 (2009): 63–64.

72. J. G. Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (Northampton, MA: Interlink Publishing Group, 2001).

73. C. R. Berg, Latinos in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, and Resistance (Austin, TX: University of Austin Press, 2002).

74. D. Teng’o, “More of the Same: The Flow and Framing of African News on the Web Sites of Five Western News Organizations and an African News Aggregator” (master’s thesis), Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, 2008.

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78. J. Sanchez-Burks, R. Nisbett, F. Lee, and O. Ybarra, “Intercultural Training Based on a Theory of Relational Ideology,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 29, no. 3 (2007): 257–68.

79. J. Temple, “Tribe Teams with Google to Make Stand in Amazon,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 18, 2009, retrieved from www.sfgate.com/green/article/Tribe-teams-with-Google-to-make-stand-in-Amazon-3213795.php (accessed 08/14/12).

80. C. Binns, “Smart Soaps,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 6 (2008): 69–70.

81. “Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication,” Media Psychology 3 (2001): 265–99; A. Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory for Personal and Social Change by Enabling Media,” in A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers, and M. Sabido, eds., Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004); A. Bandura, D. Ross, and S. A. Ross, “Imitation of Film-mediated Aggressive Models,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963): 3–11.

83. May, “Airborne Peace,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 7 (2010): 61–62.

84. E. Staub, The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

86. E. L. Paluck, “Reducing Intergroup Prejudice and Conflict Using the Media: A Field Experiment in Rwanda,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009): 574–87; E. L. Paluck, “What’s in a Norm? Sources and Processes of Norm Change,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009): 594–600.

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89. A. Bellow, In Praise of Nepotism: A Natural History (New York: Doubleday, 2003).

90. M. J. Bennett, “Overcoming the Golden Rule: Sympathy and Empathy,” in M. J. Bennett, ed., Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication: Selected Readings (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, 1998), p. 213.

1. H. Herrera, A Biography of Frida Kahlo (New York: HarperCollins, 1983); A. Haynes, “Frida Kahlo: An Artist ‘in Between,’” eSharp 6 (2006).

3. S. Saulny, “Black? White? Asian? More Young Americans Choose All of the Above,” New York Times, January 29, 2011, p. A1; S. Saulny, “Census Data Presents Rise in Multiracial Population of Youths,” New York Times, March 24, 2011, p. A3.

4. U.S. Census Bureau, “2010 Census Shows America’s Diversity” (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2011).

5. J. S. Passel, W. Wang, and P. Taylor, “Marrying Out: One-in-Seven New U.S. Marriages Is Interracial or Interethnic” (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2010).

6. J. W. Berry, J. S. Phinney, D. L. Sam, and P. Vedder, eds., Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition: Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation across National Contexts (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006); A. Chandra, W. D. Mosher, C. Copen, and C. Sionean, “Sexual Behavior, Sexual Attraction, and Sexual Identity in the United States: Data from the 2006–2008 National Survey of Family Growth” (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2011); B. Leondar-Wright, Class Matters: Cross-Class Alliance Building for Middle-Class Activists (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2005).

7. C. Fuentes, C., ed., B. Crow de Toledo and R. Pohlenz, trans., The Diary of Frida Kahlo: An Intimate Self-Portrait (London: Bloomsbury, 1995).

8. For an analysis of how exposure shapes preferences, see R. B. Zajonc, “Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 9 (1968): 1–27; R. B. Zajonc, “Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences,” American Psychologist 35 (1980): 151–75; R. B. Zajonc, “Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10 (2001): 224–28.

9. Cohorts do not have exact start and end dates. The tendencies of a person born on December 31, 1981, are probably not that different from those of a person born on January 1, 1982, even though the two people are technically of different generations. Partly because of these fuzzy boundaries, scholars use different start and end dates in naming generations. Here, we are applying the dates that historians William Strauss and Neil Howe use. See W. Strauss and N. Howe, Generations: The History of America’s Future, 1584 to 2069 (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1991).

10. Twenge dates the beginning of “Generation Me” as 1970. See J. Twenge, Generation Me: Why Today’s Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled—and More Miserable—Than Ever Before (New York: Free Press, 2006).

11. J. M. Twenge and S. M. Campbell, “Generational Differences in Psychological Traits and Their Impact on the Workplace,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 23 (2008): 862–77.

12. William Deresiewicz, “Generation Sell,” New York Times, November 12, 2011, p. SR1.

14. D. K. Simonton, “Foreign Influence and National Achievement: The Impact of Open Milieus on Japanese Civilization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997): 86–94; L. A. Ricciardelli, “Creativity and Bilingualism,” Journal of Creative Behavior 26 (1992): 242–54; J. M. Levine and R. L. Moreland, “Collaborations: The Social Context of Theory Development,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 8 (2004): 164–72.

15. Leung and Chiu, “Multicultural Experience, Idea Receptiveness, and Creativity.”

16. P. W. Linville, “Self-Complexity and Affective Extremity: Don’t Put All Your Eggs in One Cognitive Basket,” Social Cognition 3 (1985): 94–120; S. T. Hannah, R. L. Woolfolk, and R. G. Lord, “Leader Self-Structure: A Framework for Positive Leadership,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 30 (2009): 269–90.

17. A. D. Nguyen and V. Benet-Martínez, “Biculturalism and Adjustment: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, advance online publication, 2012; T. LaFramboise, H. L. Coleman, and J. Gerton, “Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory,” Psychological Bulletin 114 (1993): 395–412.

18. For more on the power of suspending judgment, see C. Geertz, Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

19. Although Hawaii is in the Western census region, most scholars agree that its culture is anomalous. See, for example, M. Haas, Barack Obama, The Aloha Zen President: How a Son of the 50th State May Revitalize America Based on 12 Multicultural Principles (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001).

20. D. Remnick, The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama (New York: Vintage Books, 2011); B. Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Crown, 1995).

22. K. Spink, Mother Teresa: An Authorized Biography, rev. ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 2011).

23. M. Landler and J. H. Cushman, “In Graduation Speech to Women, Obama Leaps into Gender Gap,” New York Times, May 14, 2012, p. A12.

25. D. Trafimow, H. C. Triandis, and S. G. Goto, “Some Tests of the Distinction between the Private Self and the Collective Self,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991): 649–55.

28. W. L. Gardener, S. Gabriel, and A. Y. Lee, “‘I’ Value Freedom but ‘We’ Value Relationships: Self-Construal Priming Mirrors Cultural Differences in Judgment,” Psychological Science 10 (1999): 321–26.

29. M. W. Morris and K. Peng, “Culture and Cause: American and Chinese Attributions for Social and Physical Events,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994): 949–71.

30. Y.-Y. Hong, M. W. Morris, C.-Y. Chiu, and V. Benet-Martínez, “Multicultural Minds: A Dynamic Constructivist Approach to Culture and Cognition,” American Psychologist 55 (2000): 709–20.

31. M. Ross, W. G. E. Xun, and A. E. Wilson, “Language and the Bicultural Self,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002): 1040–50.

32. D. A. Briley, “Cultural Chameleons: Biculturals, Conformity Motives, and Decision Making,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 15 (2005): 351–62.

33. C. M. Fausey and L. Boroditsky, “Subtle Linguistic Cues Influence Perceived Blame and Financial Liability,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 17 (2010): 644–50.

34. D. Oyserman and S. W. S. Lee, “Does Culture Influence What and How We Think? Effects of Priming Individualism and Collectivism,” Psychological Bulletin 134 (2008): 311–42.

36. Not his real name. To protect children’s identities, we do not use their real names in this section.

37. S. A. Fryberg and H. R. Markus, “Being American Indian: Current and Possible Selves,” Self and Identity 2 (2003): 325–44.

38. S. A. Fryberg, H. R. Markus, D. Oyserman, and J. M. Stone, “Of Warrior Chiefs and Indian Princesses: The Psychological Consequences of American Indian Mascots,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 30 (2008): 208–18.

39. J. Henrich, A. Norenzayan, and S. Heine, “The Weirdest People in the World?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33 (2010): 61–135.

41. Association of MultiEthnic Americans, AMEA, retrieved June 2, 2012, from www.ameasite.org (accessed 01/03/12).

Notes