CHAPTER 1
1. Cunliffe 2012: 39
2. Our understanding of the activities of archaic humans in Britain has been greatly enhanced in recent years by the findings of the Ancient Human Occupation of Britain project. Stringer 2006 outlines how this research has changed our understanding of prehistoric Britain.
3. See Parfitt et al 2010; Stringer 2006: 63-66.
4. On Homo Heidelbergensis, see Stringer & Andrews 2005: 148-151.
5. See Stringer 2006: 95-100.
6. Pryor 2004: 20-30.
7. On Boxgrove, see Pitts & Roberts 1997.
8. For an overview of our understanding of Neanderthals, see Stringer & Andrews 2005: 154-157.
9. Schreve 2006
10. For a useful summary of current theories, see Stringer & Andrews 2005:164-165.
11. Stringer 2011: 192-193.
12. Pryor 2004: 45-51.
13. See Bello et al 2011.
14. On the discovery of prehistoric rock art at Creswell Crags, see Bahn et al 2005.
15. Cunliffe 2013: 54-56.
16. Pryor 2004: 85.
17. Evidence of religious belief during the Mesolithic is unsurprisingly scarce. However, a recent investigation at Warren Field in Scotland has interpreted the site as a ritual calendar used during this period. This discovery has the potential to revolutionise our understanding of Mesolithic rituals. See Gaffney 2013.
18. A site of Star Carr’s significance inevitably attracts a substantial bibliography. See Pryor 2004 82-90; Conneller et al 2012.
19. Oppenheimer 2007: 470.
20. Cunliffe 2013: 128-131.
CHAPTER 2
1. For a broad view of the Neolithic and its impact see Foster McCarter 2008.
2. The pioneering research which led to a revised chronology for the emergence of the British Neolithic can be found in Whittle et al 2010.
3. Morris 2012: 172.
4. Cunliffe 2013: 162-168.
5. Pryor 2011a: 61-62; Thomas 1999: 54.
6. Ritchie 1994: 12-14; Pryor 2004: 246-248.
7. Organized violence occurs in hunter gatherer communities - see Diamond 2012: 129-170. Yet it only becomes clearly visible in the British archaeological record during the Neolithic.
8. Schulting & Wysocki 2005.
9. Mercer 2009.
10. Mercer 2009: 149.
11. Cunliffe 2013: 165.
12. This case study draws on the findings of the Stonehenge Riverside Project, as summarised in Parker Pearson 2012.
13. Parker Pearson & Ramilisonina 1998.
14. Darvill 2006.
15. For a particularly innovative approach to understanding Neolithic belief systems, see Lewis-Williams & Pearce 2003.
CHAPTER 3
1. Bradley 2007: 184-185.
2. Parker Pearson 1996: 83-84.
3. See Bradley 2005 on the connections between domestic life and religious belief in prehistory.
4. Jay et al 2011.
5. For a description of these burials see Catling 2012.
6. Cunliffe 2013: 286-288.
7. Pope 2008.
8. Bradley 2007: 208-209.
9. Parker Pearson 1994: 99.
10. The classic study is Fleming 1988.
11. Cunliffe 2013: 253.
12. Parker Pearson 1994: 99-100.
13. Pryor 2011a: 99-102.
14. Pryor 1991 presents a comprehensive overview of the site.
15. Bradley 1998.
16. Pryor 2002.
17. Parker Pearson & Ramilisonina 1998.
CHAPTER 4
1. Pytheas’ journey deserves to be more widely known. His itinerary is reconstructed in Cunliffe 2001.
2. Cunliffe 2005: 70-86. The concept of the ‘Celts’ as a distinct people is a matter of great controversy, which is not explored here due to textual constraints. The best treatment is James 1999.
3. Pryor 2004: 332-334.
4. Strabo, Geography 2.5.8; 4.5.1-4.
5. Caesar, Gallic Wars 5.12-14.
6. Cunliffe 2013: 325-326.
7. On the Arras Culture see Cunliffe 2004: 84-86, 546-549.
8. Pope 2008.
9. Payne et al 2006: 44 – 47.
10. Waddington 2011.
11. Perhaps the most famous examples comes from accounts of the fall of Troy, see Virgil, Aeneid 2.760.
12. For a discussion on understanding the function of hillforts, see Payne et al 2006: 151-162.
13. The major text is Cunliffe 1983.
14. For an overview of Danebury see Payne et al 2006: 58-62.
15. On Bury Hill see Payne et al 2006: 54-58.
16. Cunliffe 2013: 323-324.
17. Ritchie 1994: 67-71.
18. Foster 1989.
19. On crannogs, see Pryor 2011a: 152-153.
20. Russell 2006: 66.
21. For a unique perspective on an unusual element of Iron Age religion, see Armit 2012.
22. Caesar, Gallic Wars 5.13-16.
23. Pliny the Elder, Natural History 16.249-51.
24. The best treatment of Lindow Man is Joy 2009.
25. Caesar, Gallic Wars 4.20-36.
26. Caesar, Gallic Wars 5.1-23.
27. Cicero, Letters to Atticus 4.15.10; 4.16.7; 4.18.5.
28. Creighton 2000: 76.
29. Augustus, Res Gestae 32.
30. Creighton 2000: 108
31. Creighton 2000: 192.
32. Cunliffe 2005: 156-158.
33. For a regional perspective, see Sharples 2010.
CHAPTER 5
1. Roman Inscriptions of Britain (RIB) 1065 add.
2. RIB 1171 add.
3. For a critical survey of the historical sources for the period between Caesar’s raids and the pacification of northern Britain, see Braund 1996.
4. Suetonius, Gaius 44.
5. Dio 60.19.1-60.22.2.
6. Suetonius, Claudius 17.
7. Erim 1982.
8. Suetonius, Vespasian 4.
9. Tacitus, Agricola 14.
10. RIB 91 add.
11. Dio 60.21.1.
12. Tacitus, Annals 12.36, 12.40; Tacitus, Histories 3.45.
13. Tacitus, Annals 14.31-37.
14. Mattingly 2007: 110-112.
15. Tacitus, Annals 14.38.
16. Tacitus, Agricola 21.
17. Grant 2007: 79.
18. Tacitus, Agricola 29-37.
19. Tacitus, Annals 14.38.
20. RIB 12.
21. Mattingly 2007: 166.
22. Reported in Britannia 2006 37: 468 no. 3.
23. For a series of useful papers on the concept of the army as a community, see Goldsworthy et al 1999.
24. RIB 816, 823.
25. Virgil, Aeneid 1.279.
26. See Campbell 2012 on the importance of rivers for the Roman worldview.
27. For an overview of the army in the north, see Breeze & Dobson 1991; Bidwell & Hodgson 2009.
28. Breeze 1994 summarises our understanding of forts in Britain.
29. Birley 1977.
30. Bowman 2003 offers a comprehensive introduction to the tablets.
31. Tab. Vindol. III 628.
32. Tab. Vindol. II 154.
33. Tab. Vindol. II 164.
34. Tab. Vindol. II 344.
35. Tab. Vindol. III 650.
36. Tab. Vindol. II 291.
37. Mattingly 2007: 166.
38. Britannia 1977 8: 430 no. 8.
39. ILS 4751.
40. AE 1973 370.
41. Cunliffe 2013: 383.
42. Armit 2012.
43. RIB 200.
44. RIB 2201 add.
45. RIB 959.
46. See Henig 1984. Rüpke 2011 provides an overview of religious practices across the empire.
47. E.g. Britannia 1982 13: 404-5 no. 7.
48. On military religions, see Irby-Massie 1999.
49. Gordon 2011 summarises our present understanding of Mithraism.
50. RIB 2.4.2447.20.
51. For differing approaches to the evidence for Christianity see Thomas 1981 and Mawer 1995.
52. Mattingly 2007: 255-291.
53. The extent of Romanisation is explored in Russell 2010 and Russell & Laycock 2010.
54. On the rural landscape of Roman Britain see Mattingly 2007: 352-378.
55. Hodgson 2013.
56. RIB 191.
57. On the impact of Rome in Scotland, see Hunter 2012.
CHAPTER 6
1. Zosimus 6.5.3.
2. Mattingly 2007: 530.
3. Mattingly 2007: 225-254.
4. See Collins 2012: 154-169.
5. Fleming 2011: 32-35.
6. On the links between Britain and Byzantium, see Harris 2003.
7. Halsall 2013.
8. A heavy reliance on the fragmentary historical records can mislead. See, for example, the ill-received account in Morris 1993.
9. Halsall 2013: 60.
10. Pryor 2005: 135-143.
11. Oppenheimer 2007: 443.
12. Gelling 2011.
13. See the synthesis in Frodsham & O’Brien 2005.
14. Williamson 2008 outlines the topographic context of the site.
15. Care Evans 1986 catalogues the finds in detail.
16. See the discussion on Wood 2005b: 61-79.
17. Klemperer 2013 summarises our current understanding of the hoard.
18. Mercia has had a notable impact on twentieth century literature. J.R.R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of the Rings, has the people of Rohan refer to their country as the Mark. The term almost certainly is derived from the contemporary name for Mercia, well known to Tolkien in his role as Professor of Anglo-Saxon. See Shippey 2005: 139-140.
19. For a collection of papers on the history of Mercia, see Brown & Farr 2011.
20. Wood 2005b: 81-110.
21. Semple 2011.
22. Fleming 2011: 165.
23. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of Britain 1.13.
24. Fleming 2011: 143.
25. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of Britain 1.30.
26. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of Britain 2.15.
27. Cramp 2005 describes the site in full.
28. Forster 2004 is an excellent introduction to the period.
29. Cunliffe 2013: 434-437.
30. For a synthesis of recent thinking on this topic, see Catling 2010.
31. Fleming 2011:227-232.
32. Richards 2007.
33. For what follows, see Ferguson 2010; Richards 2011.
34. The Viking archaeology of York is summarised in Hall 1994.
CHAPTER 7
1. Scully 2013 identifies the Classical allusions in the Mappa Mundi.
2. See Carpenter 2004: 1-25.
3. Different perspectives on Domesday are presented in Williams 1995 and Roffe 2000.
4. Wood 2005a reconstructs the English landscape based on Domesday.
5. Carpenter 2004: 31.
6. Morris 2013 is the best introduction to the Conquest and its immediate aftermath.
7. Goddall 2011.
8. Liddiard 2005: 20-22.
9. Morris 2012: 52-54.
10. See Morris 2012: 94-142.
11. Morris 2012: 127-132.
12. Goddall 2011.
13. Liddiard 2005: 131-134.
14. Liddiard 2005: 134-139.
15. See Fiorato et al 2007.
16. Monastic life is reconstructed in Brooke 2003.
17. Gilchrist 1999:230 summarises the history of the monastic orders in Britain.
18. Carpenter 2004: 39.
19. Cannon 2007: 305-315.
20. Yeoman 1995: 25-28.
21. Keene 2000.
22. This case study draws on the fundamental works of Lloyd 1996; 2008.
23. See Shoesmith & Johnson 2000 for the development of the castle.
24. Mann 2002.
25. Symonds 2012.
26. Rackham 1996: 168.
27. Pryor 2011a 298-301.
28. Rackham 1996: 123.
29. This case study utilises the comprehensive treatment in Beresford & Hurst 1990.
30. The first results from the excavation and initial analysis have been published in Buckley et al 2013.
CHAPTER 8
1. For the context of this episode, see Wood 2003: 7-13.
2. Aston 2000: 158-169.
3. Stirland 2000: 149.
4. Stirland 2000: 153.
5. See Bell 2009.
6. Thurley 1993: 50-56.
7. Pryor 2011a: 465.
8. Rackham 1996: 390.
9. See Colls 2010.
10. See Thomas 2012.
11. Wood 2003: 224.
12. Bowsher & Miller 2009.
13. Harrington 2004: 106.
14. Harrington 2004: 20-21.
15. Harrington 2004: 28.
16. Harrington 2004: 49-51.
17. Tabraham & Grove 1995: 11-12.
18. Tabraham & Grove is the best overview of the archaeology of the Jacobite rebellions. Duffy 2007 analyses the revolt of 1745.
19. This thesis is advanced by Osborne 2013.
20. Sutton & Trinder 1997: 37-38.
21. Osborne 2013: 77.
22. Trinder 2013: 47.
23. Stratton & Trinder 1997: 27.
24. Osborne 2013: 19.
25. Trinder 2013: 203.
26. Osborne 2013: 258.
27. Figures drawn from Osborne 2013: 281.
28. Trinder 2013: 107.
29. Hoskins 1955: 264.
30. Stratton & Trinder 1997: 98.
31. See Pryor 2011b: 106-115.
32. Osborne 2013: 163.
33. Figures taken from Osborne 2013: 164.
34. Trinder 2013: 387.
35. Trinder 2013: 398-400.
36. Newell 2011:14; Osborne 2013: 214.
37. Osborne 2013: 219.
38. Trinder 2013: 495-496.
39. Nevell 2010: 19.
40. Osborne 2013: 252.
41. This case study is drawn from a synthesis of unpublished excavation reports produced in Symonds & Casella 2006: 159-166.
42. Osborne 2013: 268.
43. See Hoskins 1955: 250-251.
44. See Trinder 2013: 570.
CHAPTER 9
1. See Ferguson 2006: xxxiv.
2. The database is accessible online: http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/dob/
3. Osborne 2004: 168-169.
4. Osborne 2004: 13.
5. Foot 2006: 7-11.
6. Osborne 2004: 88.
7. See Brockman 2009.
8. Osborne 2004: 66.
9. Pryor 2011: 267.
10. Foot 2006 512-518.
11. Pryor 2011: 268.
12. See Cocroft & Thomas 2003: 205-207)
13. Cocroft & Thomas 2003: 174.
14. The best source for the York bunker is the guide produced by English Heritage 2010.
15. Purdue 2011: 297-303.
16. Purdue 2011: 321.
17. See http://www.antonygormley.com/sculpture/item-view/id/211 (last accessed 25/09/13).
18. See http://www.antonygormley.com/sculpture/item-view/id/230#p0 (last accessed 25/09/13).
19. Pointon 1999.
20. Clayton 1989.
21. Poulton 2004.
22. See Gore 2006 on the potential impact of global climate change.