“All pictorial form begins with the point that sets itself in motion… The point moves…and the line comes into being—the first dimension. If the line shifts to form a plane, we obtain a two-dimensional element. In the movement from plane to spaces, the clash of planes gives rise to a (three-dimensional) body…A summary of the kinetic energies which move the point into a line, the line into a plane, and the plane into a spatial dimension.”
—Paul Klee
The Thinking Eye
Shape, figure, and form have similar meanings. All refer to a distinctive, recognizable appearance of a thing as determined by its visible contours. Figure is the identifying outline of a shape or form. Shape may refer to either the characteristic outline of a figure or the surface configuration of a form. Form, a more inclusive term than either shape or figure, makes reference to both internal structure and external outline and includes a sense of three-dimensional mass or volume. It also refers to the principle that gives unity to the whole.
Volume refers to the three-dimensional extent of an object or region of space. Conceptually, a volume is bound by planes and has three dimensions of width, height, and depth. In drawing, we endeavor to convey the illusion of three-dimensional volumes of mass and space on a two-dimensional surface.
All objects fill a volume of space. Even thin, linear objects occupy space. We can pick up a small object and turn it around in our hands. Each turning of the object displays a different shape because the relationship between the object and our eyes changes. In seeing the object from different angles and distances, our vision assembles the shapes into a three-dimensional form.
A drawing presenting a view from a fixed angle and distance can only illustrate a single moment of our perception. If this is a frontal view that shows only width and height, the image would appear flat. But turning the view to expose three adjacent sides of the object reveals the third dimension of depth and clarifies its form. Paying attention to the planar shapes helps us see how they combine to convey the three-dimensional form of the volume.
A drawing can describe the outer configuration of surfaces of an object or explain its inner structural nature and the way its parts are arranged and joined in space. In drawing analytically, we seek to merge these two approaches.
Unlike contour drawing, in which we proceed from part to part, analytical drawing proceeds from the whole to the subordinate parts and finally the details. Subordinating parts and details to the structure of the overall form prevents a piecemeal approach that can result in faulty proportional relationships and a lack of unity.
We begin an analytical drawing with light, freely drawn lines using a soft, well-sharpened pencil. We draw these lines in a tentative and exploratory manner to block out and establish a transparent volumetric framework for a form. Imagine a transparent box whose sides touch the front, back, top, bottom, and both sides of an object. This imaginary container describes the extent and relations of the object’s three dimensions. Visualizing this enveloping volume of an object helps us to draw its three-dimensional form.
These lines are diagrammatic in nature, serving to establish and explain not only the appearance of exterior surfaces but also the underlying geometry and structure of the subject. We call these initial lines regulating lines since they order relationships and control the placement, size, and proportion of the fundamental parts of a form. In the process of blocking out the enveloping shapes and volume of an object, we use regulating lines to locate points, measure size and distance, find centers, express perpendicular and tangential relationships, and establish alignments and offsets.
Drawing approximate lines first helps the eye seek the correct ones. They represent visual judgments to be confirmed or adjusted. We do not erase any previously drawn lines. If necessary, we restate a line, correcting basic shapes and checking the relative proportions between the parts, always striving for incremental improvement over the last line drawn.
Because of their constructive nature, regulating lines are not limited by the physical boundaries of objects. They can cut through forms and extend through space as they link, organize, and give measure to the various parts of an object or composition. In ordering formal and spatial relationships, they establish a planar or spatial framework on which we can build up a drawing in stages, similar to the armature upon which a sculptor molds clay.
Drawing both unseen and visible parts of the subject makes it easier to gauge angles, control proportions, and see the optical appearance of shapes. The resulting transparency also conveys a convincing sense of volume occupied by the form. Working in this way prevents the appearance of flatness that can result from concentrating too much on surface rather than volume.
Through a continual process of elimination and intensification, we gradually build up the density and weight of the final contour or object lines, especially at critical points of intersection, connection, and transition. Having all lines remain visible in the final drawing intensifies the depth of the image and reveals the constructive process by which it was generated and developed.
When blocking out light construction lines, hold the pen or pencil lightly as you draw. Squeezing the pen or pencil too tightly creates tension that interrupts the fluid nature of a freehand line. Instead, try to feel the drawing surface through the tip of the instrument.
Before actually drawing a line, practice the eye-mind-hand movement by marking the beginning and end of the intended line with dots. Draw lines by pulling the pencil, never pushing it. For righthanders, this means drawing lines from left to right and from top to bottom; lefthanders should draw lines from right to left and from top to bottom. Keep a disciplined eye on where the line is headed, not where it’s been. Avoid scratching in lines with short, feeble strokes. Instead, draw lines slowly but continuously.
For short strokes or when applying considerable pressure, swing the hand at the wrist, or let the fingers perform the necessary motions. For longer strokes, swing the entire forearm and hand freely from the elbow, with a minimum of wrist and finger movement. Only as you approach the end of the stroke should you bring the wrist and fingers into motion to control where the line ends.
Using the analytical process of drawing, practice drawing cubes from a variety of viewpoints.
Collect three or four empty cardboard boxes of various sizes. Pile them on the floor, with some fitting within the volumes of others. See the boxes as geometric forms having smooth rectangular planes intersecting along straight lines. Using the analytical process of drawing, describe the geometric forms of the boxes.
Collect two glass bottles, one having a tall, cylindrical body and another having a square or rectilinear cross section. Arrange the bottles with one standing on its end and the other laying on its side. Using the analytical process of drawing, describe the geometric forms of the bottles. Pay careful attention to important axial and proportional relationships.
As we become more sensitive to the unique visual characteristics of what we see and draw, we should not lose sight of the total image. No single element in a drawing stands alone in the composition. All of the parts depend on one another for their visual impact, function, and meaning. To ensure things remain in their proper place and relationship to one another—to see both the trees and the forest and to avoid making mountains out of molehills—we must pay attention to proportion.
Proportion is the comparative, proper, or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole with respect to magnitude, quantity, or degree. Proportional relations are a matter of ratios, and ratio is the relationship between any two parts of a whole, or between any part and the whole. In seeing, we should pay attention to the proportional relationships that regulate our perception of size and shape.
Although often defined in mathematical terms, proportion refers to any consistent set of visual relationships among the parts of a composition. It can be a useful design tool in promoting unity and harmony. Our perception of the physical dimensions of things is, however, often imprecise. The foreshortening of perspective, viewing distance, and even cultural bias can distort our perception.
Proportion is primarily a matter of critical visual judgment. In this respect, significant differences in the relative dimensions of things are important. Ultimately, a proportion will appear to be correct for a given situation when we sense that neither too little nor too much of an element or characteristic is present.
These are some important points to remember in gauging or using proportion in a drawing:
In the analytical process of drawing, we build on geometry. We can simplify many familiar objects into basic geometric forms. If we break down what we see into regular geometric volumes or a geometric arrangement of parts, we can draw them more easily. We can reorganize the forms in an additive manner or transform them in a subtractive manner. The resulting structure then serves as a framework for developing and refining the forms and intervening spaces.
The cube is a convenient three-dimensional unit with which to begin. From the cube, we can use geometric principles to derive other basic geometric volumes, such as the pyramid, cylinder, and cone. Mastery of drawing these simple forms is a prerequisite for drawing a variety of derivative compositions. Once we understand the volumetric nature of a form, we are better able to manipulate it, transform it, or see it from a different point of view.
Using the analytical process of drawing, transform each of the cubes into a pyramid or other prismatic form.
Using the analytical process of drawing, copy each of the cubes and transform each into a cone, cylinder, or similar form based on the circle.
Building on the geometry of the forms you developed in the preceding two exercises, transform each into a familiar object.
We can extend a cube horizontally, vertically, as well as into the depth of a drawing. A number of cubic volumes or derivative forms can link, extend, or grow along axes and tangents into centralized, linear, symmetrical, or clustered compositions.
We can also extend the base of a cube into a two-dimensional grid upon which we can explore relationships of shape and size. A grid may consist of dots, lines, or shapes. Dots are subtle reminders of position. Lines represent the vertical and the horizontal, and regulate the spacing of elements. Shapes define areas and emphasize space rather than position.
Working from a simple, regular form, we can selectively remove or carve out portions to generate a new form. In this subtractive process, we use the solid-void relationship between mass and space to guide us as we draw the proportion and development of the parts. The procedure is similar to a sculptor who projects a mental image onto a block of stone and systematically carves away material until the image is realized.
When drawing a complex organization of forms, we can work in both an additive and a subtractive manner. The resulting formal and spatial composition is usually an outcome of structure, whether physical, visually perceived, or conceptual. In this process of seeking structure, we must first create the organizing framework before filling out and refining the image.
In drawing complex forms, keep the following points in mind:
Extend each cube horizontally, vertically, or into the depth of the drawing. Transform one or two of the cubes into a chair.
Transform one or two of the cubes by slicing off pieces and reattaching them to the original cube in new positions.
Select a small hand tool or kitchen utensil having a clear geometric order. Carefully study the geometric and proportional relationships among the constituent parts. Use the analytical process to draw the object from two different points of view.
