Notes

ABBREVIATIONS

AC	Annals of Congress
ADAH	Alabama Department of Archives and History
ASPFR	American State Papers, Foreign Relations
ASPMA	American State Papers, Military Affairs
Cong. Globe	Congressional Globe
Duke	Special Collections, Perkins Library, Duke University
Filson	Filson Historical Society
HCP	Papers of Henry Clay
LOC	Library of Congress
LOV	Library of Virginia
MHS	Maryland Historical Society
NYPL	New York Public Library
Reg. of Deb.	Register of Debates
SCHS	South Carolina Historical Society
UKY	Special Collections, University of Kentucky
UNC	Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
UVA	Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
VHS	Virginia Historical Society
W&M	Swem Library, College of William and Mary

Prologue

1. Calvin Colton, editor, The Private Correspondence of Henry Clay (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1856), 636.

2. Executive Order, June 29, 1852, Henry Clay, The Papers of Henry Clay, 11 volumes, edited by James F. Hopkins, Mary W. M. Hargreaves, et al. (Lexington: University of Kentucky, 1959–1992), 10:968, hereafter cited as HCP; Congressional Globe, 46 volumes (Washington, DC: Blair & Rives, 1834–1873), 32 Cong., 1 sess., 1631; George Washington Ranck, History of Lexington, Kentucky (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1872), 141; John Melish, Travels Through the United States of America in the Years 1806 & 1807 (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1970), 213, 367; Marshall to Marshall, June 29, 1852, Bullitt Family Papers, Filson.

3. Obituary Addresses on the Occasion of the Death of the Hon. Henry Clay, a Senator of the United States from the State of Kentucky, Delivered in the Senate and in the House of Representatives of the United States, June 30, 1852, and the Funeral Sermon of the Rev. C. M. Butler, Chaplain of the Senate, Preached in the Senate, July 1, 1852. Printed by Order of the Senate and House of Representatives (Washington, DC: Robert Armstrong, 1852), 104. Hereafter cited as Obituaries.

4. Ibid., 9.

5. Ibid., 41, 48, 74, 76, 92. Seward had to swallow hard to say these words, because his attitude about emancipation clashed violently with Clay’s insistence on gradualism. When abolitionists, Seward’s wife included, objected to his kind words for Clay, Seward reminded her “how much of the misery of human life is derived from the indulgence of wrath!” Quoted in Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 153.

6. Obituaries, 107–8.

7. Ibid., 91, 101.

8. Ibid., 56.

9. Ibid., 23–28; see Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union: Volume 1, Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947), 279, for Hunter’s devotion to Calhoun.

10. Blair to Martin Van Buren, July 4, 1852, Martin Van Buren Papers, LOC, microfilm edition.

11. Obituaries, 54, 115, 34.

12. Cong. Globe, 32 Cong., 1 sess., 1644.

13. Ibid., 1649.

14. Obituaries, 127.

15. Blair to Van Buren, July 4, 1852, Van Buren Papers.

16. Robert V. Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 784. Embalming did not become customary until the 1860s.

17. Clay to Clay, June 29, 1852, Colton, Private Correspondence, 636. The quotation also appears with different punctuation in Thomas Hart Clay and Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, Henry Clay (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs, 1910), 379.

18. J. Thomas Scharf, The Chronicle of Baltimore: Being a Complete History of “Baltimore Town” and Baltimore City from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Baltimore: Turnbull Brothers, 1874), 40.

19. New York Times, July 3, 1852. Some writers have confused the grand July 20 funeral in New York City with this more modest event. See, for example, Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 488.

20. “Proclamation of the Special Committee of the Common Council,” New York Times, July 3, 1852.

21. New York Times, July 7, 1852.

22. William H. Townshend, Lincoln and the Bluegrass: Slavery and Civil War Kentucky (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1955), 202–3. For an example of the plans laid by other committees, see Committee of Citizens of Mercer County to Breckinridge, July 12, 1852, Robert J. Breckinridge Correspondence, Grigsby Collection, Filson.

23. Quoted from George M. Frederickson, “A Man but Not a Brother: Abraham Lincoln and Racial Equality,” Journal of Southern History 41 (February 1975): 40. Carl Sandburg said Lincoln was disillusioned by what Sandburg described as Clay’s selfish behavior that had helped injure the Whig Party and by his role in crafting the Compromise of 1850 and thus found it difficult to say laudatory things about Clay in a eulogy. See Sandburg, Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years, 2 volumes (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1926), 420–22. Yet there is no evidence, other than Lincoln’s support for Taylor in 1848—and that was for practical rather than principled reasons—to suggest that Lincoln was disenchanted with the man he had always tried and would continue to try to emulate. Sandburg probably relied on the diary of Gideon Welles for his conclusion, but Welles had acid views of his contemporaries, views secretly recorded in his diary while he himself seemed placid and benevolent.

24. Townshend, Lincoln and the Bluegrass, 132–35; Goodwin, Team of Rivals, 95. Townshend says that Mary had arranged a visit to Ashland for her husband in 1846, but other sources flatly deny Lincoln ever met Henry Clay, and Lincoln himself most tellingly never mentioned any such meeting, something he certainly would have done at some point in his life.

25. Roy P. Basler, Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings (Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1946), 269.

26. Ibid., 269.

27. Elbridge Gerry, Jr., The Diary of Elbridge Gerry, Jr., Preface and Footnotes by Claude G. Bowers (New York: Brentano’s, 1927), 110–17.

28. New York Times, July 17, 1852.

29. Clay to Clay, July 11, 1852, Thomas J. Clay Collection, Henry Clay Papers, LOC.

30. New York Times, June 30, 1852; London Times, July 12, 1852.

31. Josiah Stoddard Johnston, Josiah Stoddard Johnston Diary, June 30, 1852, Filson.

CHAPTER ONE
The Slashes

1. Register of Debates in Congress, 14 volumes (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1824–1837), 23 Cong., 1 sess., 1481.

2. Bernard Mayo, Henry Clay: Spokesman of the New West (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1937), 6; Glyndon G. Van Deusen, The Life of Henry Clay (Boston: Little, Brown, 1937), 5; Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 16; “Genealogical Notes and Queries,” William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine 21 (January 1941): 61–62; Zachary F. Smith and Mary Rogers Clay, The Clay Family (Louisville, KY: J. P. Morton, 1983), 48.

3. Noah Webster is quoted in Stephanie Grauman Wolf, As Various as Their Land: The Everyday Lives of Eighteenth-Century Americans (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994), 257.

4. Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 6; Wesley M. Gewehr, The Great Awakening in Virginia, 1740–1790 (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1965), 106; Clay and Oberholtzer, Henry Clay, 15. Specifically, John Clay founded the Chickahominy congregation over which he presided until his death in 1781 and the Black Creek congregation on the border between Hanover and Henrico counties. See Robert Baylor Semple, A History of the Rise and Progress of the Baptists in Virginia (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1894), 141, 145.

5. Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 153–34, 162–65, 171, 174–75; Gewehr, Great Awakening in Virginia, 106, 108.

6. Mayo, Clay, 3–4; Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 280; William Taylor Thom, Struggle for Religious Freedom in Virginia: The Baptists (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1900), 26.

7. Mayo, Clay, 4; Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 147–48; Gewehr, Great Awakening in Virginia, 136; Thomas E. Buckley, Church and State in Revolutionary Virginia, 1776–1787 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977), 38.

8. “Will of John Clay” in “Biographical and Genealogical Notes and Queries,” William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine 14 (April 1934): 174–75. The slave “Little Sam” appears to have been taken to Kentucky by Henry’s mother and stepfather when they left Virginia in 1791. See Settlement of Accounts of Henry Watkins, October 27, 1797, HCP 1:1–2. Records do not indicate what happened to James. Perhaps he was one of the slaves taken by the British.

9. “Will of John Clay,” 174.

10. Banastre Tarleton, A History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America (New York: Arno Press, 1968), 294–95.

11. Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 15–19; Mayo, Clay, 5–6.

12. “Will of George Hudson, November 30, 1770,” Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 8, 40, 54.

13. Wolf, As Various as Their Land, 162–66.

14. Mayo, Clay, 12–13; Calvin Colton, The Life and Times of Henry Clay, 2 volumes (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1846), 1:19.

15. Mayo, Clay, 14–16; Wolf, As Various as Their Land, 220–21.

16. Oscar Handlin and Mary Flug Handlin, Facing Life: Youth and the Family in American History (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), 101.

17. Reg. of Deb., 23 Cong., 1 sess., 1484; Van Deusen, Clay, 7; Mayo, Clay, 13–14; Colton, Life and Times, 1:19.

18. Wolf, As Various as Their Land, 132–36.

19. See “John Clay’s Will”; Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 17; Epes Sargent, The Life and Services of Henry Clay Brought Down to the Year 1844 (New York: Greeley & McElrath, 1844), 3; Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 43; Van Deusen, Clay, 9.

20. Horace Greeley and Robert Dale Owen, The Autobiography of Horace Greeley, or Recollections of a Busy Life (New York: E. B. Treat, 1872), 62.

21. Van Deusen, Clay, 423.

22. Mayo, Clay, 20; Albert J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall, 4 volumes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 1:190; François-Alexandre-Frédéric La Rochefoucauld–Liancourt, Travels Through the United States of North America: The Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 4 volumes (London: R. Phillips, 1800), 3:60, 63–64.

23. Mayo, Clay, 20; Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time, 6 volumes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948–1981), 3:89–91.

24. Colton, Life and Times, 1:20; Van Deusen, Clay, 10; Remini, Clay, 9.

25. Van Deusen, Clay, 10; Mayo, Clay, 22–23; Colton, Life and Times, 1:20–21.

26. Malone, Jefferson, 1:77–78.

27. Isaac Weld, Jr., Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 4th edition, 2 volumes (London: John Stockdale, 1807), 1:191.

28. Mayo, Clay, 22–23; La Rochefoucauld–Liancourt, Travels 3:76–79.

29. Colton, Life and Times, 1:25; Mayo, Clay, 32–39; Clay to Wickham, January 17, 1838, HCP 9:131.

30. Clay to Tinsley, January 9, 1793, Clay Letter, Special Collections, Transylvania University; Watkins to Clay, September 13, 1827, Henry Clay Family Papers, LOC.

31. Jefferson to Wythe, August 13, 1786, quoted in Malone, Jefferson, 1:281.

32. Ibid., 1:69.

33. Joyce Blackburn, George Wythe of Williamsburg (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 108; Julian P. Boyd, “The Murder of George Wythe,” William and Mary Quarterly 12 (October 1955): 516; La Rochefoucauld–Liancourt, Travels, 3:76; Mayo, Clay, 28–29; J. Drew Harrington, “Henry Clay and the Classics,” Filson Club Historical Quarterly 61 (April 1987): 236–37.

34. Clay to Minor, May 3, 1851, HCP 10:886–89; Maurice G. Baxter, Henry Clay the Lawyer (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 17–18; Colton, Life and Times, 1:21–22; Mayo, Clay, 24–26; Blackburn, George Wythe, 125.

35. W. Edwin Hemphill, “George Wythe Courts the Muses: In Which, to the Astonishment of Everyone, That Silent, Selfless Pedant Is Found to Have Had a Sense of Humor,” William and Mary Quarterly 9 (July 1952): 338.

36. Mayo, Clay, 29–30.

37. Ibid., 8, 29.

38. Ibid., 30–31; Malone, Jefferson, 1:119.

39. Malone, Jefferson, 1:67.

40. E. Lee Shepard, “Breaking In the Profession: Establishing a Law Practice in Antebellum Virginia,” Journal of Southern History 48 (August 1982): 394–97, 402.

41. Colton, Life and Times, 1:24; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 18; Van Deusen, Clay, 12; Mayo, Clay, 41.

42. Mayo, Clay, 42–43; Van Deusen, Clay, 12; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 17; Francis Taliaferro Brooke, A Family Narrative (New York: New York Times, 1971), 38; License to Practice Law, HCP 1:2–3.

43. Mayo, Clay, 44; La Rochefoucauld–Liancourt, Travels, 76; Van Deusen, Clay, 15; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 18–19.

CHAPTER TWO
“My Hopes Were More than Realized”

1. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 10; Mayo, Clay, 60; Neal O. Hammon, “Pioneer Routes in Central Kentucky,” Filson Club History Quarterly 74 (2000): 143; Theodore G. Gronert, “Trade in the Blue-Grass Region, 1810–1820,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 5 (December 1981): 314a; Spratt to Bullitt, n.d., Bullitt Family Papers.

2. Moses Austin, “A Memorandum of M. Austin’s Journey from the Lead Mines in the County of Wythe in the State of Virginia to the Lead Mines in the Province of Louisiana West of the Mississippi, 1796–1797,” edited by George P. Garrison, American Historical Review 5 (April 1900): 524–25.

3. Stephen Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 6, 61–64; Steven A. Channing, Kentucky: A Bicentennial History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), 20, 27.

4. Mayo, Clay, 49.

5. Thomas Perkins Abernethy, Three Virginia Frontiers (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1940; reprint edition, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), 64–65; Channing, Kentucky, 44–47; Robert D. Mitchell, editor, Appalachian Frontiers: Settlement, Society, and Development in the Pre-Industrial Era (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 241–42; Craig Thompson Friend, “Merchants and Markethouses: Reflections on Moral Economy in Early Kentucky,” Journal of the Early Republic 17 (Winter 1997): 556.

6. John W. Watkins was the son of Henry Clay’s cousin John Watkins (his stepfather Henry’s brother) and his aunt Mary Hudson Watkins. Watkins was among several family members who moved to New Orleans in the early nineteenth century and became one of that city’s first American mayors. Mayo, Clay, 186.

7. Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 26.

8. Mayo, Clay, 60; Ranck, Lexington, 141; Melish, Travels, 400; Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 23; William Edward Railey, History of Woodford County (Versailles, KY: Woodford Improvement League, 1968), 54, 184; Clay to Robert Wickliffe, May 24, 1828, HCP 7:298.

9. Craig Thompson Friend, Along the Maysville Road: The Early American Republic in the Trans-Appalachian West (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2005), 55; Ranck, Lexington, 219; François Michaux, Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, in the Year 1802 (London: R. Phillips, 1805), 56–57; Melish, Travels, 400.

10. Ranck, Lexington, 188, 194–95, 202; Mayo, Clay, 59; Richard C. Wade, The Urban Frontier: The Rise of Western Cities, 1790–1830 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), 143; Humphrey Marshall, History of Kentucky, Exhibiting an Account of the Modern Discovery, Settlement; Progressive Improvement; Civil and Military Transactions; and the Present State of the Country, 2 volumes (Frankfort, KY: G. S. Robinson, 1824), 1:356; Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 22–23.

11. F. Garvin Davenport, Ante-Bellum Kentucky: A Social History, 1800–1860 (Oxford, OH: Mississippi Valley Press, 1943), 195; William Henry Perrin, The Pioneer Press of Kentucky, from the Printing of the First Paper West of the Alleghenies (Louisville, KY: J. P. Morton, 1892), 9–14; Richard Miller Hadsell, “John Bradford and His Contributions to the Culture and the Life of Early Lexington,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 62 (October 1964): 268; Mayo, Clay, 59.

12. Mayo, Clay, 61; Remini, Clay, 19; Ranck, Lexington, 206.

13. Colton, Clay, 1:78; Remini, Clay, 19; Mayo, Clay, 61.

14. E. L. Hawes, “Nicholas Family,” William and Mary Quarterly Historical Magazine 16 (January 1936): 103; Mayo, Clay, 61, 63, 92–93; Ranck, Lexington, 151; William Henry Perrin, History of Fayette County, Kentucky, with an Outline Sketch of the Blue Grass Region by Robert Peter, M.D. (Chicago: O. L. Baskin, 1882), 339; Remini, Clay, 18; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 2.

15. Colton, Clay, 1:30.

16. Mayo, Clay, 88, 109–10; Aron, Daniel Boone to Henry Clay, 82; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 21, 32–33, 35; Legal Document, Papers of Thomas P. Hughes, UVA; Lowell H. Harrison, John Breckinridge: Jeffersonian Republican (Louisville, KY: Filson Club, 1969), 67.

17. Harrison, Breckinridge, 67.

18. Mayo, Clay, 61.

19. Retainer, July 3, 1799, Henry Clay Legal Documents, Filson; Mayo, Clay, 88; Clay to Taylor, November 1, 1799, Clay to Taylor, September 28, 1801, HCP 11:1, 4; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 21.

20. Sargent, Clay, 4.

21. Mayo, Clay, 98–99; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 24; Sargent, Clay, 4–5.

22. Mayo, Clay, 103.

23. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 11; Mayo, Clay, 102.

24. Mayo, Clay, 108.

25. Abernethy, Three Virginia Frontiers, 86; HCP 1:8n.

26. Abernethy, Three Virginia Frontiers, 71, 83, 85; Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 12; Hadsell, “John Bradford,” 268.

27. Lowell H. Harrison, The Antislavery Movement in Kentucky (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1978), 1; Mayo, Clay, 78.

28. “Scaevola” letter, April 16, 1798, HCP 1:5; Harrington, “Clay and the Classics,” 239.

29. Jeffrey Brooke Allen, “Were Southern White Critics of Slavery Racists? Kentucky and the Upper South, 1791–1824,” Journal of Southern History 44 (May 1978): 187–88; Abernethy, Three Virginia Frontiers, 71, 83; Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 12; Harrison, Breckinridge, 99; Thomas D. Clark, A History of Kentucky (Lexington, KY: John Bradford Press, 1950), 202.

30. Aron, Daniel Boone to Henry Clay, 93; “Scaevola” letter, February 1799, HCP, 1:12; Mann Butler, History of the Commonwealth of Kentucky (Louisville, KY: Wilcox, Dickerman, 1834), 281; Mayo, Clay, 76–78.

31. Aron, Daniel Boone to Henry Clay, 93.

32. Mayo, Clay, 78; Ranck, Lexington, 219; Abernethy, Three Virginia Frontiers, 87; Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 13. Clay’s progeny mirrored the fratricidal tragedy that the Civil War became in Kentucky, a state where divided loyalties were especially evident in its most prominent families. Thomas Hart Clay, the second oldest of Henry and Lucretia’s sons, never joined the army but was a staunch Union man and supporter of Abraham Lincoln, who appointed him minister to Nicaragua in 1862. Yet Thomas’s oldest and youngest sons, Harry and Thomas Jr., became officers in the Confederate army. James Brown Clay, the tenth of Henry and Lucretia’s eleven children, also supported the Confederacy and was briefly imprisoned for treason. After James’s release, Braxton Bragg appointed him a colonel, but following the Confederate defeat at Perryville, James fled to Cuba and then to Montreal, where he died in January 1864 of tuberculosis. James’s oldest son, James Jr., fought for the Confederacy at Chickamauga but was with his father in Canada when he died. Returning to active duty, James Jr. earned the distinction of figuring in the final hours of the Confederate War Department, which accepted his resignation as its last official act in 1865.

Henry Clay III, the eldest son of Henry Clay, Jr., joined the Union army at the start of the war, fought at Shiloh, and shortly after died of typhoid fever on June 5, 1862. The youngest of Henry Jr.’s children, Tommy, became a Confederate officer and was captured at Fort Donelson. Exchanged in August 1862, he returned to active service but died, ironically of typhoid fever just as his brother had, in October 1863. Tommy was twenty-three.

Andrew Eugene Erwin (Eugene to the family), the fifth child of James and Anne Clay Erwin, became a lieutenant colonel in the Confederate army and was killed during the siege of Vicksburg in June 1863. Finally, Henry Jr.’s daughter, Anne (Nannie), married Henry Clay McDowell in 1857. McDowell joined the Union army, survived the war, and with Nannie restored Ashland to its prewar stateliness.

We are grateful to Eric Brooks, curator of Ashland, the Henry Clay Estate, for this information about Henry Clay’s descendants.

33. Harrison, Breckinridge, 74; Mayo, Clay, 73; Clark, Kentucky, 107; Ethelbert Dudley Warfield, The Kentucky Resolutions (New York: Putnam’s, 1887), 42–43.

34. George T. Blakey, “Rendezvous with Republicanism: John Pope vs. Henry Clay in 1816,” Indiana Magazine of History 62 (1966): 248; Warfield, Kentucky Resolutions, 43; Clark, Kentucky, 107; Mayo, Clay, 74.

35. Mayo, Clay, 75–76; Ranck, Lexington, 216.

36. Mayo, Clay, 89–91; Archibald Henderson, “The Creative Forces in Westward Expansion: Henderson and Boone,” American Historical Review 20 (October 1914): 99, 106–7; Aron, Daniel Boone to Henry Clay, 61; Robert S. Cotterill, History of Pioneer Kentucky (Cincinnati: Johnson & Hardin, 1917), 74–75; HCP 1:15–16; Genealogical Records, Todd Family Papers, Filson.

37. Mayo, Clay, 90.

38. Wade, Urban Frontier, 51; Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 127; Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 10; Edna Talbott Whitley, “George Beck, An Eighteenth Century Painter,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, 67 (January 1969): 20; Archibald Henderson, “The Transylvania Company, A Study in Personnel,” Filson Club History Quarterly 21 (July 1947): 234–36; Mayo, Clay, 92; Hart Genealogy, Susanna Hart Price Papers, Filson.

39. Anya Jabour, Marriage in the Early Republic: Elizabeth and William Wirt and the Companionate Ideal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 13–14; Mayo, Clay, 91.

40. Memoir, Clay-Russell Papers, Filson.

41. Clay to Mercer, April 5, 1848, HCP 10:425.

42. Ranck, Lexington, 152; Memoir, Clay-Russell Papers; Mayo, Clay, 91.

43. Stephen Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988), 43–45; David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Daily Life in the Early American Republic: Creating a New Nation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 36–37; Jabour, Marriage in the Early Republic, 5.

44. Harrison, Breckinridge, 67; Land Sale Indenture, December 1799, Thomas Hart, Jr., to Thomas Hart, Sr., April 8, 1804, Agreement Between Jones and Hart, March 13, 1806, Thomas Hart Papers, UKY; Mayo, Clay, 113–14.

45. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 12; Van Deusen, Clay, 30; Mayo, Clay, 115–16, 194–95.

46. Clay to Clay, July 6, 1804, Clay to Breckinridge, January 5, 1806, HCP 1:145, 215; Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 123; Harrison, Breckinridge, 181. During his Lexington years, Porter Clay worked as a furniture maker. Charles G. Talbert, “William Whitley, 1749–1813,” Filson Club History Quarterly 25 (July 1951): 300; Brown to Price, Price Papers.

47. HCP 1:15–16; Gray to Hart, Hart Papers.

48. Mayo, Clay, 59, 209–15; Conditional Pledge to Transylvania University, April 1802, Agreement with Fisher, August 18, 1803, HCP 1:77–78, 114; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 33; Representation Agreement, September 7, 1804, Henry Clay Legal Documents.

49. Robert Charles Winthrop, Memoir of Henry Clay (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson, 1880), 39; Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 127; Jabour, Marriage in the Early Republic, 36.

50. Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 22–25; Mayo, Clay, 105.

51. Van Deusen, Clay, 24; Mayo, Clay, 204–6.

52. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 11.

53. Benjamin Perley Poore, Perley’s Reminiscences of Sixty Years, 2 volumes (New York: W. A. Houghton, 1886), 1:62.

54. Mayo, Clay, 120–21; Tavern Bill, May 1803–March 1804, HCP 1:133–34.

55. Mayo, Clay, 208.

56. The area had been called Mud Licks when Hart acquired it. He, for obvious reasons, changed the name to Olympian Springs, after a nearby mountain. Hart financed the construction of a hotel and cabins that attracted Kentucky’s upper class throughout the summer months. There, they “took the waters” for their health, socialized, played games (the men played a lot of cards, thus attracting to the resort an unsavory element of professional gamblers posing as tourists), and gossiped about their friends and enemies. Clay later acquired the resort from the estate of his father-in-law. The popularity of the Springs increased in 1803 when a weekly stage line was established from Lexington. J. Winston Coleman, Jr., “Old Kentucky Watering Places,” Filson Club History Quarterly 16 (January 1942): 2.

57. Mayo, Clay, 148–49; Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 37; Butler, History of Kentucky, 308.

58. Timothy Flint, Recollections of the Last Ten Years, Passed in Occasional Residences and Journeyings in the Valley of the Mississippi, introduction by George F. Berkhofer, Jr. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1968), 77.

59. Mayo, Clay, 149–50.

60. Mayo, Clay, 150–52; Ranck, Lexington, 178.

61. Clay to Breckinridge, November 21, 1803, HCP 1:122; Mayo, Clay, 142–43, 151–52.

62. It was this very provision, originally enacted by Virginia and in force in the part of Virginia that became Kentucky, that confused the circumstances of Andrew and Rachel Jackson’s marriage. Rachel only obtained permission from the Virginia legislature to pursue divorce from her husband in the courts. She did not do that, however, before she married Jackson. Because of this, political enemies would later charge that she was a bigamist and he an adulterer.

63. Act for Choosing Presidential Electors, December 24, 1803, Clay to Breckinridge, December 30, 1803, HCP 1:123–25; Mayo, Clay, 152–53.

64. Clay (Scaevola) to Daveiss, January 1803, HCP 1:93–95; Mayo, Clay, 153–54.

65. Mayo, Clay, 96–97.

66. Friend, “Merchants and Markethouses,” 570; Ranck, Lexington, 222; Mayo, Clay, 158–60.

67. Joseph Howard Parks, Felix Grundy, Champion of Democracy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1940), 24–27; Mayo, Clay, 160.

68. John Marshall’s 1819 decision in the Dartmouth College case affirmed the Constitution’s protection of contracts.

69. Brown to Clay, March 12, 1805, HCP 1:180.

70. Mayo, Clay, 164–66.

71. Parks, Grundy, 20–21.

72. Mayo, Clay, 167–68, 170–72; Parks, Grundy, 26.

73. Aron, From Daniel Boone to Henry Clay, 158–63; Mayo, Clay, 174–75.

74. Mayo, Clay, 175. The biblical imagery was drawn in part from Deuteronomy and Revelation.

75. Brown to Clay, February 27, 1806, HCP 1:221.

76. Alfred Leland Crabb, “Some Early Connections Between Kentucky and Tennessee,” Filson Club History Quarterly 13 (July 1939): 148.

77. Randall Strahan et al., “The Clay Speakership Revisited,” Polity 32 (2000): 567; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 33; Mayo, Clay, 180–81.

78. Amendments to Bill Providing Tax on Billiard Tables, November 27, 1804, HCP 1:158–59. The state senate raised the tax to $100.

79. Fortescue Cuming, Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country Through the States of Ohio and Kentucky, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1904), 184–85, 188–89.

80. Josiah Espy, Memorandums of a Tour Made by Josiah Espy in the States of Ohio and Kentucky and Indian Territory in 1805 (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1870), 8.

81. Melish, Travels, 400–401.

82. Mayo, Clay, 186–88, 218; Agreement with Banks, September 13, 1804, Transylvania University, Special Collections; Clay to Walter Beall, August 16, 1806, Beall-Booth Family Papers, Filson; Brown to Clay, December 18, 1804, Clay to Ballinger, September 6, 1806, HCP 1:65, 11:8.

83. Mayo, Clay, 125, 194.

84. Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 28.

CHAPTER THREE
“Puppyism”

1. For full discussions regarding the controversial election of 1800, see John E. Ferling, Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Edward J. Larson, A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, America’s First Presidential Campaign (New York: Free Press, 2007); and Bernard A. Weisberger, America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the Revolutionary Election of 1800 (New York: William A. Morrow, 2000).

2. Nancy Isenberg, Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York: Viking, 2007), 293; Mayo, Clay, 193; Blennerhassett to James Brown, December 9, 1805, William Harrison Safford, editor, The Blennerhassett Papers: Embodying the Private Journal of Harman Blennerhassett and the Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence (Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin, 1864), 110–11.

3. Isenberg, Burr, 294.

4. Henry C. Castellanos, New Orleans As It Was: Episodes of Louisiana Life (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 244–47; Isenberg, Burr, 296–97; Willard Rouse Jillson, “Aaron Burr’s ‘Trial’ for Treason at Frankfort, Kentucky, 1806,” Filson Club History Quarterly 17 (October 1943): 209; Mayo, Clay, 225. Territorial Governor William C. C. Claiborne later removed John Watkins as New Orleans mayor because of his complicity in Burr’s schemes. See Thomas Perkins Abernethy, The Burr Conspiracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), 277.

5. It was a common eighteenth- and nineteenth-century practice to give the mother’s maiden name to at least one child as a middle name. Henry and Lucretia Clay did this with two of their children, Thomas Hart Clay and Susan Hart Clay. Lee Shai Weissbach, “The Peopling of Lexington, Kentucky: Growth and Mobility in a Frontier Town,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 81 (1983): 119.

6. Milton Lomask, Aaron Burr: The Conspiracy and Years of Exile, 1805–1836 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1982), 126; Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 84, 90; Mayo, Clay, 239; Mary K. Bonsteel Tachau, Federal Courts in the Early Republic: Kentucky, 1789–1816 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 139; John Breckinridge died at home at the end of 1806 after a long illness, probably tuberculosis. James C. Klotter, The Breckinridges of Kentucky, 1760–1981 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986), 34.

7. Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 92; Mayo, Clay, 236; Remini, Clay, 42.

8. Ranck, Lexington, 266; Mayo, Clay, 227–29.

9. Aaron Burr, Political Correspondence and Public Papers of Aaron Burr, edited by Mary-Jo Kine, 2 volumes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 2:999–1000; Mayo, Clay, 240.

10. Leland R. Johnson, “Aaron Burr: Treason in Kentucky?” Filson Club History Quarterly 75 (2001): 1–32; Burr to Clay, November 7, 1806, HCP 1:253; Burr, Political Correspondence, 2:1000; Mayo, Clay, 240; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 143; Innes to Daveiss, November 5, 1806, Daveiss to Innes, November 6, 1806, Papers of Harry Innes, LOC.

11. Scioto (Chillicothe, Ohio) Gazette, November 27, 1806; Robert McNutt McElroy, Kentucky in the Nation’s History (New York: Moffat, Yard, 1909), 300–301; Mayo, Clay, 241.

12. Mayo, Clay, 244; Van Deusen, Clay, 40.

13. Mayo, Clay, 244–45; Remini, Clay, 43; Burr to Clay, November 27, 1806, HCP 1:256.

14. Van Deusen, Clay, 41; Burr to Clay, December 1, 1806, HCP 1:256; Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 97.

15. Mayo, Clay, 246–48; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 146–47; Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 97.

16. Mayo, Clay, 246–50; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 144; National Intelligencer, January 5, 1807; Marshall, History of Kentucky, 2:404–6.

17. National Intelligencer, January 5, 1807; Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 98; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 147.

18. Mayo, Clay, 252–53.

19. Everett Somerville Brown, editor, William Plumer’s Memorandum of Proceedings in the United States Senate, 1803–1807 (New York: Macmillan, 1923), 566; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 147–48; Abernethy, Burr Conspiracy, 98.

20. Mayo, Clay, 237, 256–57; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 149.

21. Marshall, History of Kentucky, 2:410–11.

22. Advertisement, December 8, 1806, Clay to Pindell, October 15, 1828, HCP 1:261, 7:501–2; Van Deusen, Clay, 43.

23. Mayo, Clay, 244; Remini, Clay, 43.

24. Clay to Street, December 17, 1806, HCP 11:9.

25. Mayo, Clay, 261–62.

26. Clay to Street, HCP 11:9; Melish, Travels, 144; Mayo, Clay, 262.

27. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 570; Van Deusen, Clay, 44. Matthew Clay was Henry Clay’s father John Clay’s first cousin. Matthew was the brother of Green Clay, who had emigrated to Kentucky and formed another branch of the Clay family there. Henry Clay handled much of the legal work for his older cousin Green. Brief for Green Clay, 1801, Brief for Green Clay, 1805, Henry Clay Legal Documents.

28. Annals of Congress, 42 volumes (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1834–1856), 9 Cong., 2 sess., 24 (hereafter cited as AC); Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 547, 614; Senate Credentials, HCP 1:254–55.

29. Melish, Travels, 145.

30. Mayo, Clay, 270–71.

31. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 547–48.

32. Clay to Innes, January 16, 1807, Clay to Todd, January 24, 1807, Clay to Hart, February 1, 1807, HCP 1:270, 272, 273; Mayo, Clay, 266.

33. Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 41, 44–45; Mayo, Clay, 266; Sargent, Clay, 7; Colton, Clay, 89.

34. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 554; AC, 9 Cong., 2 sess., 27, 28, 32; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 33; Mayo, Clay, 272–73.

35. AC, 9 Cong., 2 sess., 40–43.

36. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 565, 589. The House refused to suspend the writ. Mayo, Clay, 266.

37. Mayo, Clay, 273–74, 276–79; National Intelligencer, January 16, 1807; Strahan et al., “Clay Speakership,” 567–68; Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 595, 628.

38. National Intelligencer, April 3, 1807; Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 634; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 34; Van Deusen, Clay, 46–48.

39. Charles Francis Adams, editor, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1785 to 1848, 12 volumes (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1874–1877), 1:444. Clay later expressed pride regarding his stand on this issue. Matthew Mason, “Slavery Overshadowed: Congress Debates Prohibiting the Atlantic Slave Trade to the United States, 1806–1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 20 (Spring 2000): 74.

40. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 595.

41. Hoadley to Evarts, February 5, 1807, George Hoadley Letter, VHS.

42. Clay to Hart, February 1, 1807, HCP 1:274.

43. Hoadley to Evarts, February 5, 1807, Hoadley Letter.

44. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 628; Mayo, Clay, 274–75.

45. George Bancroft, “A Few Words About Henry Clay,” The Century Magazine 30 (July 1885), 479.

46. Brown, ed., Plumer’s Memorandum, 565, 608.

47. Ibid., 634; Mayo, Clay, 298.

48. Mayo, Clay, 300–301.

49. Ibid., 269, 303–5; Comegys to Clay, March 24, 1807, Brown to Clay, April 10, 1807, Clay to Jacoby, May 18, 1807, HCP 1:288, 289, 294; Blennerhassett to Blennerhassett, July 14, 1807, Safford, ed., Blennerhassett Papers, 259.

50. Mayo, Clay, 306; Lomask, Aaron Burr, 260; Blennerhassett to Blennerhassett, July 14, 1807, Extract from the New World, July 21, 1807, Safford, ed., Blennerhassett Papers, 259, 268–70; “Argument Relative to Harman Blennerhassett, July 15, 1807, Clay to Blennerhassett, July 22, 1807, Clay to Blennerhassett, March 14, 1842, HCP 1:298–99, 300–301, 9:678–80; Pittsburgh Gazette, August 11, 1807; Baxter, Clay the Lawyer, 32.

51. Deposition of Harry Innes, 1807, Harry Innes Papers, Filson; Mayo, Clay, 306–8.

52. Clay to Rodney, December 5, 1807, HCP 1:311; Bibb to Rodney, December 11, 1807, George Mortimer Bibb Papers, Filson.

53. Mayo, Clay, 309; Marshall, History of Kentucky, 2:447; Fowler to Innes, March 4, 1807, Innes Papers, LOC.

54. Resolution of Kentucky House and Senate, February 17, 1808, Innes Papers, LOC.

55. Mayo, Clay, 309–10; Clay acted as one of Innes’s attorneys. Street eventually had to leave the state to avoid paying the court costs incurred in the libel suit. Trial Transcript, Innes Papers, Filson; Anderson C. Quisenberry, The Life and Times of Hon. Humphrey Marshall (Winchester, KY: Sun Publishing, 1892), 79.

56. “Regulus” to the People, ca. July 9, 1808, HCP 1:361–67.

57. National Intelligencer, March 9, 1808, March 18, 1808.

58. Quisenberry, Marshall, 100; George D. Prentice, Biography of Henry Clay (New York: John Jay Phelps, 1831), 42; Mayo, Clay, 336.

59. Amendment on Resolution on Foreign Relations, December 15, 1808, Debate on Foreign Relations, December 16, 1808, Further Amendment of Resolutions on Foreign Relations, December 16, 1808, HCP 1:388–90; Van Deusen, Clay, 53; Marshall, History of Kentucky, 2:459, 462; Mayo, Clay, 337.

60. Quisenberry, Marshall, 100; Van Deusen, Clay, 53–54; Mayo, Clay, 337–38.

61. Mayo, Clay, 338.

62. Clay to Marshall, January 4, 1809, HCP 1:397.

63. For discussions of duels or affairs of honor during the antebellum period, see Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1890s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); and Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor & Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Proslavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).

64. Marshall to Clay, January 4, 1809, HCP 1:398–99; Quisenberry, Marshall, 102; Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 50.

65. Clay to Hart, January 4, 1809, HCP 1:398; Charles Anderson Memoir, Filson.

66. Montpelier Vermont Patriot, November 2, 1844.

67. Payne to Payne, January 18, January 21, 1809, Letters from DeVall Payne to Hannah Payne, Miscellaneous Manuscripts Collection, University of Chicago Library; Mayo, Clay, 340; Clark, Kentucky, 287; Remini, Clay, 55.

68. Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 50.

69. Clay to Clark, January 19, 1809, Johnson to Clay, January 28, 1809, Barry to Clay, January 29, 1809, Resolution of Censure, January 24, 1809, HCP 1:400–402; Mayo, Clay, 341.

70. Van Deusen, Clay, 71; Remini, Clay, 74; Mayo, Clay, 194–95; for more on Ashland as a symbol, see Wendy S. Bright-Levy, “Ashland, the Henry Clay Estate, as House Museum: Private Home and Public Destination,” M.A. thesis, University of Kentucky, 2008, and Eric Brooks, Ashland, the Henry Clay Estate (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2007).

71. Smith and Clay, Clay Family, 127.

72. Brown to Clay, September 16, 1804; Clay to Clay, March 10, 1814, HCP 1:149, 870–71; Lucretia Clay to Marshall and Harrison, September 18, 1856, Louisville Journal, reprinted in New York Times, September 26, 1856. The two surviving examples of Lucretia Clay’s correspondence exist only as copies. The 1814 letter was loaned to Clay biographer Calvin Colton and never returned. Colton’s careless disregard for returning loaned documents, in fact, strained his relationship with the family. Nor does Lucretia’s 1856 letter to the Journal exist in the original. We are grateful to Eric Brooks, head curator at Ashland, the Henry Clay Estate, for this information.

73. Brown to Clay, September 16, 1804, Assignment by Henry Watkins, December 5, 1808, Clay to Mercer, April 5, 1848, HCP 1:149, 385, 10:424. Railey, Woodford County, 176; Brown to Price, May 1, 1806, Price Papers.

74. Last Will and Testament of Thomas Hart, August 31, 1807, Thomas J. Clay Collection, Henry Clay Papers.

75. Henderson, “Transylvania Company,” 241; Mayo, Clay, 218; Memorandum, July 26, 1810, Hart Papers; Benton to Clay, September 18, 1810, Clay to Shelby, December 2, 1809, HCP 1:427, 490.

76. Wade, Urban Frontier, 109; Friend, Maysville Road, 221; Van Deusen, Clay, 30; Mayo, Clay, 197, 206.

77. Mayo, Clay, 343; Remini, Clay, 58; Resignation from Kentucky House of Representatives, January 4, 1810, HCP 1:33–34.

78. National Intelligencer, February 7, 1810; Clay to Thompson, March 14, 1810, HCP 1:458.

79. Garnett to Randolph, January 9, 1810, Randolph to Garnett, March 20, 1810, Papers of John Randolph of Roanoke, UVA.

80. Reginald Horsman, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), 181.

81. Maryland Gazette, February 28, 1810.

82. AC, 11 Cong., 2 sess., 579–82.

83. Clay to Beatty, April 23, 1810, Clay to Unknown Recipient, March 21, 1810, Clay to Daveiss, April 19, 1810, HCP 1:470, 11:13–14; Gronert, “Blue-Grass Region,” 316–18.

84. AC, 11 Cong., 2 sess., 623, 626–30; National Intelligencer, April 6, 1810.

85. Raleigh Register and North Carolina Weekly Advertiser, April 19, 1810; Van Deusen, Clay, 59–60.

86. Clay to the Electors of the Fifth Congressional District, May 14, 1810, Clay to Beatty, May 31, 1810, HCP 1:471, 473; National Intelligencer, August 24, 1810; Mayo, Clay, 360; Remini, Clay, 64.

87. Clay to Rodney, August 6, 1810, ibid., 1:481.

88. Margaret Bayard Smith, The First Forty Years of Washington Society, edited by Gaillard Hunt (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1906), 85–86.

89. Clay to Ridgely, January 17, 1811, HCP 11:16; Smith, Forty Years, 86.

90. AC, 11 Cong., 3 sess., 44–62; National Intelligencer, December 29, 1810.

91. AC, 11 Cong., 3 sess., 63–64.

92. Ibid., 66; Mayo, Clay, 370.

93. AC, 11 Cong., 3 sess., 67–80; National Intelligencer, January 12, 1811; Octavius Pickering and Charles W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering, 4 volumes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1867–1873), 4:175–82.

94. Mayo, Clay, 371; Remini, Clay, 67; Clay to Rodney, January 11, 1811, HCP 1:522.

95. Clay to Ridgely, January 17, 1811, HCP 11:16.

96. Richard Sylla et al., “Banks and State Public Finance in the New Republic: The United States, 1790–1860,” Journal of Economic History 47 (June 1987): 392–93; Mayo, Clay, 375; Henry Adams, The Life of Albert Gallatin (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1879), 428; Lucius P. Little, Ben Hardin: His Times and Contemporaries, with Selections from His Speeches (Louisville, KY: Courier-Journal, 1887), 62.

97. Mayo, Clay, 375; Philip Jackson Green, The Life of William Harris Crawford (Charlotte: University of North Carolina, 1965), 17; Adams, Gallatin, 428; Norman K. Risjord, The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 113.

98. Speech on the Bill to Recharter the Bank of the United States, February 15, 1811, HCP 1:528.

99. Ibid., 1:529–39; Irving to Irving, February 16, 1811, Pierre M. Irving, The Life and Letters of Washington Irving, 3 volumes (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883), 1:131.

100. Mayo, Clay, 377; Remini, Clay, 71; Evan Cornog, The Birth of Empire: DeWitt Clinton and the American Experience, 1769–1828 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 94.

101. Clay to Rodney, April 29, 1811, HCP 1:557.

CHAPTER FOUR
The Hawk and the Gambler

1. Mayo, Clay, 385, 391–95; Rental Agreement, April 5, 1811, Agreement with George Slaughter, Jr., April 6, 1811, Property Deed to William M. Nash, April 27, 1811, Graham to Clay, July 31, 1811, Clay to Rodney, August 17, 1811, HCP 1:553, 554, 556, 570–71, 574.

2. Clay to Rodney, August 17, 1811, Clay to Nicholson, October 8, 1811, Clay to Madison, ca. November 1811, HCP 1:574, 594, 11:18; Smith, Forty Years, 86; Van Deusen, Clay, 69.

3. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Life and Letters of Harrison Gray Otis, Federalist, 1765–1848, 2 volumes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913), 2:32.

4. Clay and Oberholtzer, Clay, 59; Irving H. Bartlett, John C. Calhoun: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 70; Mark Zuehlke, For Honour’s Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace (Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2006), 11; Remini, Clay, 78–79; Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782–1828 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1944), 53.

5. Speech, November 4, 1811, HCP 1:594; Lowndes to Lowndes, November 2, 1811, Harriott Horry Ravenel, The Life and Times of William Lowndes, 1782–1822 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901), 84; Niles’ Weekly Register, November 9, 1811; Mayo, Clay, 404, 408–10.

6. For discussions of Clay and House committees, see James Sterling Young, The Washington Community, 1800–1828 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1966); Gerald Gamm and Kenneth Shepsle, “Emergence of Legislative Institutions: Standing Committees in the House and Senate, 1810–1825,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 14 (February 1989): 39–66; Jeffrey A. Jenkins, “Property Rights and the Emergence of Standing Committee Dominance in the Nineteenth-Century House,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 23 (November 1998): 493–519; Strahan et al., “Clay Speakership.”

7. Edmund Quincy, Life of Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1869), 255.

8. Randolph Papers, University of Virginia; Robert J. Brugger, Beverley Tucker: Heart Over Head in the Old South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 90. Klinefelter’s syndrome was first described by Dr. Harry Klinefelter in 1942 as caused by a chromosome abnormality.

9. Mayo, Clay, 408–10; Irving Brant, James Madison, 6 volumes (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1941–1961), 5:381.

10. For different perspectives on the evolving role of the speakership, see Young, Washington Community; Randall Strahan, Leading Representatives: The Agency of Leaders in the Politics of the U.S. House (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007); Randall Strahan, Matthew Gunning, and Richard L. Vining, Jr., “From Moderator to Leader: Floor Participation by U.S. House Speakers 1789–1841,” Social Science History 30 (Spring 2006): 51–74; Ralph Volney Harlow, The History of Legislative Methods in the Period before 1825 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1917); and Ronald M. Peters, Jr., The American Speakership (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990).

11. Plumer to Clay, November 20, 1811, HCP 1:598; Plumer to Harper, November 22, 1811, William Plumer Papers, LOC.

12. Strahan et al., “Moderator to Leader,” 51–54.

13. Ibid., 56; Robert Allen Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), 85–86.

14. Peters, American Speakership, 12, 33–37; Elaine K. Swift, “The Start of Something New: Clay, Stevenson, Polk, and the Development of the Speakership, 1789–1869,” in Roger H. Davidson et al., Masters of the House: Congressional Leadership over Two Centuries (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 13–14, 16, 21.

15. Clay to Daveiss, April 19, 1810, Clay to Parker, December 7, 1811, HCP 11:14–15, 1:599; AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 602; Mayo, Clay, 395–96; Van Deusen, Clay, 70; Ranck, Lexington, 143; Alfred Pirtle, The Battle of Tippecanoe (Louisville, KY: J. P. Morton, 1900), 57; Dorothy Goebel, William Henry Harrison: A Political Biography (Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 1974), 122.

16. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 588; Clay to Randall, December 28, 1811, HCP 1:602; Niles’ Weekly Register, January 4, 1812.

17. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 447–55; Larry James Winn, “The War Hawks’ Call to Arms; Appeals for a Second War with Great Britain,” Southern Speech Communication Journal 37 (1972): 402–3; Van Deusen, Clay, 79; Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 72; William C. Bruce, John Randolph of Roanoke, 1773–1833, 2 volumes (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1922), 1:370.

18. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 595–601.

19. Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 5.

20. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 601–2.

21. Ibid., 743; J.C.A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 87; Randolph to Garnett, January 12, 1812, Randolph Papers, UVA.

22. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 910–16; Van Deusen, Clay, 81–82; Rutland, Presidency of Madison, 89; L. W. Meyer, Life and Times of Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), 82.

23. Mayo, Clay, 447, 450–54; Randolph to Garnett, February 1, 1812, Randolph Papers, UVA.

24. For those who view Clay as the primary instigator of the war, see Zuehlke, For Honour’s Sake, and Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War That Forged the Nation (New York: HarperCollins, 2004). For historians who present a more balanced picture of Clay’s role, see Rutland, Presidency of Madison; Brant, Madison, volume 5; Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971; reprint edition, Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990); Ronald L. Hatzenbuehler, “The War Hawks and the Question of Congressional Leadership in 1812,” Pacific Historical Review 45 (February 1976): 1–22; Norman K. Risjord, “1812: Conservatives, War Hawks and the Nation’s Honor,” William and Mary Quarterly 18 (April 1961): 196–210.

25. Raleigh Register and North Carolina Gazette, February 7, 1812; Mayo, Clay, 485.

26. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 93; Mayo, Clay, 490–91; Rutland, Presidency of Madison, 90.

27. Clay to Monroe, March 15, 1812, HCP 1:637; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 96.

28. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 1588–92; Hickey, War of 1812, 39; Remini, Clay, 91.

29. Augustus John Foster, Jeffersonian America: Notes on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–6–7 and 11–12 by Sir Augustus John Foster, Bart., edited by Richard Beale Davis (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1954), 4, 90, 96, 183.

30. Brant, Madison, 5:435–36; Ammon, Monroe, 306; National Intelligencer, May 12, 1812.

31. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 107; James Madison, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, edited by Robert Allen Rutland et al., 6 volumes (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1984–2008), 4:110; Clay to Worsley, May 24, 1812, Clay to unknown recipient, May 27, 1812, HCP 1:657, 659–60.

32. James Madison, The Writings of James Madison, edited by Gaillard Hunt, 9 volumes (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1900–1910), 8:192; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 109; Risjord, Old Republicans, 142.

33. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 1451–78.

34. Remini, Clay, 92; Van Deusen, Clay, 87; Mayo, Clay, 521–25; Parks, Grundy, 59.

35. Mayo, Clay, 524–25; Wiltse, Calhoun, Nationalist, 65–66; Clay to Bledsoe, June 18, 1812, Clay to Worsley, June 20, 1812, HCP 1:674, 676.

36. Randolph to Garnett, April 14, 1812, Randolph Papers, UVA; Clay to National Intelligencer, June 17, 1812, Randolph to National Intelligencer, July 2, 1812, HCP 1:668–73, 686–91.

37. AC, 12 Cong., 1 sess., 1544–46; Hickey, War of 1812, 49.

38. Clay to Adams, June 18, 1812, HCP 11:23; Smith, Forty Years, 86–88.

39. Latrobe to Clay, June 20 and 24, 1812, HCP 1:676, 679; Gerry, Diary, 168–69; Bartlett, Calhoun, 75.

40. Charles Oscar Paullin and Frederic Logan Paxson, Guide to Materials in the London Archives for the History of the United States Since 1783 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1914), 39.

41. Clay to Worsley, July 21, 1812, Remarks, July 27, 1812, HCP 1:696–97; National Intelligencer, August 13, 1812.

42. Clay to Monroe, July 29, 1812, Clay to Eustis, July 31, 1812, Clay to Monroe, August 12, 1812, Speeches to Troops, August 14 and 16, 1812, HCP 1:697–99, 702–3, 712, 715.

43. Clay to Monroe, August 12, 1812, Clay to Eustis, August 22, 1812, ibid., 1:713–14, 717–18.

44. Clay to Eustis, August 22, 1812, ibid., 1:717–18.

45. Scott to Madison, August 25, 1812, Madison, Papers, Presidential Series, 5:202–3; Clay to Monroe, August 25, 1812, HCP 1:719–21; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 216; Goebel, Harrison, 136–37.

46. Harrison to Clay, August 29, August 30, 1812, HCP 1:723–25; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 218.

47. Clay to Monroe, September 21, 1812, HCP 1:728–29; Remini, Clay, 97.

48. Rutland, Presidency of Madison, 119; Remini, Clay, 96.

49. Clay to Harrison, November 7, 1812, Clay to Monroe, December 23, 1812, Clay to Rodney, December 29, 1812, HCP 11:23–24, 1:748–49, 750.

50. AC, 12 Cong., 2 sess., 298–304.

51. HCP 1:747; Randolph to Garnett, December 7, 1812, Randolph Papers, UVA.

52. AC, 12 Cong., 2 sess., 540–70; Richard Buel, Jr., America on the Brink: How the Political Struggle over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 171–72.

53. Van Deusen, Clay, 93; Speech, January 8–10, 1813, HCP 1:754–59; for Lincoln’s Lyceum speech, see Basler, Lincoln Speeches, 76–85.

54. Speech, HCP 1:759–62.

55. Remini, Clay, 99; Speech, HCP 1:762–73.

56. Raleigh Register and North Carolina Gazette, February 19, 1813.

57. Quincy, Life of Quincy, 298–99; AC, 12 Cong., 2 sess., 677.

58. Washington, Kentucky, Dove, March 13, 1813; Raleigh Register and North Carolina Gazette, March 19, 1813.

59. Brant, Madison, 6:147.

60. Clay to Taylor, April 10, 1813, Clay to Hardin, May 26, 1813, HCP 1:782, 799.

61. Randolph to Quincy, June 20, 1813, Quincy, Life of Quincy, 332.

62. Hickey, War of 1812, 119, 125; Remini, Clay, 102; AC, 13 Cong., 1 sess., 106.

63. Calhoun Remarks, May 31, 1813, John C. Calhoun, The Papers of John C. Calhoun, edited by Robert L. Meriwether et al., 28 volumes (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1959–2003), 1:168–69; Maryland Gazette, June 10, 1813.

64. Remarks, May 26, 1813, HCP 1:800; Webster to Webster, May 26, 1813, Daniel Webster, The Papers of Daniel Webster, edited by Charles M. Wiltse et al., series 1, 7 volumes (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College by the University of New England Press, 1974–1988), 1:140.

65. Brant, Madison, 6:196–97; Hickey, War of 1812, 122.

66. Gerry, Diary, 149–50, 154, 202, 210.

67. Ibid., 154, 178, 188; Smith, Forty Years, 91; Rutland, Presidency of Madison, 130.

68. Henry Barrett Learned, “Gerry and the Presidential Succession in 1813,” American Historical Review 22 (October 1916): 94–97; Brant, Madison, 6:187.

69. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 374; Brant, Madison, 6:240; Remini, Clay, 103–4; Robert Ernst, Rufus King: American Federalist (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 331; Maryland Gazette, January 19, 1814, February 17, 1814; Plumer to Adams, January 24, 1814, Plumer Papers.

70. National Intelligencer, January 20, 1814.

71. Monroe to American Commissioners, January 28 and 30, 1814, American State Papers, Foreign Relations, 6 volumes (Washington, DC: Gales & Seaton, 1833–1858), 3:701–2; Yancey to Ruffin, February 4, 1814, J. G. deR. Hamilton, editor, The Papers of Thomas Ruffin, 4 volumes (Raleigh: Edwards & Broughton, 1918–1920), 1:143.

72. Clay to Brown, February 20, 1814, HCP 11:33; National Intelligencer, March 2, 1814; Remini, Clay, 105.

73. Adams, Memoirs, 2:584; Bayard to Clay and Russell, April 22, 1814, Gallatin to Clay, April 22, 1814, HCP 1:881–85; George Milligan to Bayard, May 10, 1814, James A. Bayard, Papers of James A. Bayard, 1796–1815, edited by Elizabeth Donnan (Washington, DC: Annual Report of the American Historical Association of 1913, 1915), 293.

74. Clay to Russell, May 1, 1814, same to same, May 4, 1814, Clay to Bayard and Gallatin, May 2, 1814, Clay to Gallatin, May 2, 1814, HCP 1:888–94; Milligan to Bayard, May 10, 1814, Bayard, Papers, 294; James Gallatin, The Diary of James Gallatin, Secretary to Albert Gallatin: A Great Peace Maker, 1813–1827, edited by Count Gallatin (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916), 21; Remini, Clay, 106.

75. Clay to Russell and Adams, May 31, 1814, Clay to Crawford, July 2, 1814, HCP 1:928–29, 937; Remini, Clay, 108; Bayard Journal, in Maris Stella Connelly, “The Letters and European Travel Journal of James A. Bayard, 1812–1815,” Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 2007, p. 447.

76. Hughes to Clay, May 15, 1814, HCP 1:914; Gallatin to Castlereagh, June 9, 1814, Connelly, “Bayard,” 436; Van Deusen, Clay, 97, 100; Remini, Clay, 108.

77. Bayard to Clay and Russell, April 22, 1814, Gallatin to Clay, April 22, 1814, Clay to Crawford, May 14, 1814, HCP 1:881–84, 909; Gallatin to Crawford, April 21, 1814, Connelly, “Bayard,” 406.

78. Adams, Memoirs, 2:656–57; Gallatin, Diary, 27; Adams to Adams, July 22, December 16, 1814, John Quincy Adams, Writings of John Quincy Adams, edited by Worthington Chauncey Ford, 7 volumes (New York: Macmillan, 1913–1917), 5:66, 237–38.

79. Adams, Memoirs, 3:32, 39; Marie B. Hecht, John Quincy Adams: A Personal History of an Independent Man (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 230; Adams to Adams, August 23, 1814, Adams, Writings, 5:91.

80. Adams, Memoirs, 2:656; Crawford to Clay, June 10, July 4, July 9, July 19, August 4, August 22, August 28, September 10, September 14, September 19, September 26, October 24, November 11, December 12, 1814, Clay to Crawford, July 2, July 25, August 8, August 11, August 18, August 22, September 20, October 17, 1814, HCP 1:932–36, 937–39, 941–49, 950, 960–61, 971–72, 974–75, 978–81, 988–90, 992–94, 11:34–36, 37–39, 40, 42–43.

81. Connelly, “Bayard,” 17–22, 459; Castlereagh to His Majesty’s Commissioners, July 23, 1814, Correspondence, Despatches and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, Second Marquess of Londonderry, edited by Charles Vane, 12 volumes (London: Henry Colburn, 1848–1853), 10:67–72.

82. Bayard to Bayard, August 9, 1814, James A. Bayard and Richard H. Bayard Papers, LOC; Journal of Ghent Negotiations, August 7–10, 1814, Clay to Monroe, August 18, 1814, HCP 1:952–54, 962–67; British Memorandum of Substance, August 9, 1814, Arthur Wellesley, Supplementary Despatches, Correspondence and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur, Duke of Wellington, K.G., 15 volumes (London: John Murray, 1858–1872), 9:179.

83. Journal of Ghent Negotiations, August 7–10, 1814, Journal of Ghent Negotiations, August 19, 1814, HCP 1:955–59, 968–70; Castlereagh to Commissioners, August 14, 1814, Correspondence of Castlereagh, 10:90.

84. Gallatin, Diary, 28; Hecht, Adams, 227.

85. Monroe to American Ministers, June 25, 1814, ASPFR, 3:703–4; Gallatin, Diary, 30; Goulburn to Earl Bathurst, August 23 and August 24, 1814, Despatches of Wellington, 9:189–90; Clay to Crawford, August 22, 1814, American Commissioners to British Commissioners, August 24, 1814, HCP 1:972–73.

86. Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool, August 28, 1814, Correspondence of Castlereagh, 10:102; Hecht, Adams, 229; Clay to Goulburn, September 5, 1814, HCP 1:973–74; Goulburn to Earl Bathurst, September 5, 1814, Despatches of Wellington, 9:222; Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 207.

87. American to British Commissioners, September 30, 1814, HCP 1:981–82; Hickey, War of 1812, 291.

88. Goulburn to Clay, October 3, 1814, Clay to Crawford, October 17, 1814, HCP 1:982, 989; Gallatin, Diary, 32; Hecht, Adams, 231; Remini, Clay, 115; Wilbur Devereux Jones, “A British View of the War of 1812 and the Peace Negotiations,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45 (December 1958): 481.

89. British to American commissioners, October 8, 1814, American to British commissioners, October 13, 1814, British to American commissioners, October 21, 1814, ASPFR, 3:721–25; Frank A. Updyke, The Diplomacy of the War of 1812 (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1965), 276; Gallatin, Diary, 32.

90. American to British commissioners, October 24, 1814, British to American commissioners, October 31, 1814, ASPFR, 3:725–26.

91. Adams, Memoirs, 3:48–50.

92. Updyke, Diplomacy, 300–301; Gallatin, Diary, 32–33; Adams, Gallatin, 541.

93. Fred L. Engelman, The Peace of Christmas Eve (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960), 250–53; Wellington to Lord Liverpool, November 9, 1814, Despatches of Wellington, 9:424–26; Jones, “British View,” 487.

94. British to American Commissioners, November 26, 1814, ASPFR, 3:735–41; Gallatin, Diary, 34; Adams, Memoirs, 3:71–78.

95. Hecht, Adams, 236; Adams, Memoirs, 3:101–3; British to American Commissioners, December 22, 1814, HCP 1:1005; Treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814, ASPFR, 3:745–48; Engelman, Peace of Christmas Eve, 286.

96. Clay to Monroe, December 25, 1814, HCP 1:1007–8; Adams, Memoirs, 3:104.

97. Adams to Adams, December 16, 1814, Adams, Writings, 5:237, 239.

98. Adams, Memoirs, 3:133–34, 139, 143–44; Adams to Bayard, Clay, and Russell, January 2, 1815, Bayard Papers.

99. Adams, Memoirs, 3:155, 158; Van Deusen, Clay, 106–7.

100. Van Deusen, Clay, 107; Adams to Adams, April 24, 1815, Adams, Writings, 5:305; Clay to Crawford, March 23, 1815, HCP 2:11.

101. Clay to Monroe, March 25, 1815, Clay to Bayard, April 3, 1815, Minutes of Meeting, April 16, 1815, American Proposal, June 21, 1815, British to American commissioners, June 29, 1815, American commissioners to Monroe, July 3, 1815, HCP 2:12, 17, 19, 48–52, 54–57; Adams, Gallatin, 548–49; Adams, Memoirs, 3:190; Bayard, Papers, 384.

102. National Intelligencer, August 31, 1815, September 11, 1815; Providence Patriot, Columbian Phenix, September 9, 1815.

CHAPTER FIVE
Uncompromising Compromiser

1. Clay to Clay, March 10, 1814, HCP 1:870–71; Smith, Forty Years, 93.

2. Clay to Clay, April 15, 1835, Thomas J. Clay Collection, Henry Clay Papers.

3. Kendall to Flugel, May 14, 1814, Amos Kendall Papers, Filson; Amos Kendall, Autobiography of Amos Kendall, edited by William Stickney (reprint edition, New York: Peter Smith, 1949), 113–15; James D. Daniels, “Amos Kendall: Kentucky Journalist, 1815–1829,” Filson Club History Quarterly 52 (January 1978): 47.

4. Kendall, Autobiography, 115, 131.

5. Ibid., 116–18, 123–24.

6. Ibid., 148–49, 172; Kendall to Flugel, August 16, 1815, October 11, 1815, Kendall Papers, Filson.

7. National Intelligencer, September 19, 1815; Wade, Urban Frontier, 50; Gronert, “Blue-Grass Region,” 321; Kirkpatrick to Este, July 4, no year, Marie Este Fisher Bruce Papers, VHS.

8. Kendall, Autobiography, 115, 141; Clay to Kendall, December 30, 1815, HCP 2:116.

9. Clay to Irving, August 13, 1817, HCP 11:62.

10. National Intelligencer, October 24, 1815; Trustees to Clay, October 5, 1815, Toasts, October 7, 1815, Clay to Hardin, October 13, 1815, HCP 2:65, 68–72, 99; Morrison to Innes, October 6, 1815, Innes Papers, LOC.

11. Agreement with Watkins, October 27, 1815, Acceptance of Speakership, December 4, 1815, HCP 2:86–88, 105.

12. Monroe to Clay, October 30, 1815, ibid., 2:88–89.

13. Annual Message, December 5, 1815, James D. Richardson, editor, Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 10 volumes (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896–1899), 1:562–69.

14. Quoted in Charles S. Sydnor, “One-Party Period of American History,” American Historical Review 51 (April 1946): 450.

15. Hubbard to Hubbard, December 4, 1817, Papers of Thomas H. Hubbard, LOC.

16. Clay to Gallatin, December 21, 1815, HCP 2:109.

17. Carl J. Vipperman, William Lowndes and the Transition of Southern Politics, 1782–1822 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 123.

18. For discussions of the expansion of the national government’s role in economic development, see Harry L. Watson, “The Market and Its Discontents,” Journal of the Early Republic 12 (Winter 1992): 464–70; Stephen Minicucci, “The ‘Cement of Interest’: Interest-Based Models of Nation-Building in the Early Republic,” Social Science History 25 (Summer 2001): 247–74; John R. Van Atta, “Western Lands and the Political Economy of Henry Clay’s American System, 1819–1832,” Journal of the Early Republic 21 (Winter 2001): 633–65; Maurice G. Baxter, Henry Clay and the American System (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Harry L. Watson, Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1990); and Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

19. Randolph to Garnett, February 2, 1816, Randolph Papers, UVA; Buchanan to Franklin, December 21, 1821, James Buchanan, The Works of James Buchanan, edited by John Bassett Moore, 12 volumes (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1908–1911), 1:10; McLean to Este, February 15, 1816, Bruce Papers; Jewett to Dearborn, February 5, 1817, James C. Jewett, “The United States Congress of 1817 and Some of Its Celebrities,” William and Mary College Historical Quarterly 17 (October 1908): 140.

20. John Lauritz Larson, “‘Bind the Republic Together’: The National Union and the Struggle for a System of Internal Improvements,” Journal of American History 74 (September 1987): 376.

21. AC, 14 Cong., 1 sess., 1249–52, 1834, 1877, 1878–79; Speech, January 29, 1816, HCP 2:140–58.

22. Charles E. McFarland and Nevin E. Neal, “The Nascence of Protectionism: American Tariff Policies, 1816–1824,” Land Economics 45 (February 1969): 22–24; Remarks, March 22, 23, 1816, HCP 2:180.

23. For a history of the BUS, see Ralph C. H. Catterall, The Second Bank of the United States (reprint edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

24. AC, 14 Cong., 1 sess., 1189; Speech, June 3, 1816, HCP 2:199–205.

25. McLean to Este, February 15, 1816, Bruce Papers.

26. Ammon, Monroe, 356.

27. Young, Washington Community, 116; Bailey to Payne, January 29, 1816, Papers of John Payne, LOC; William G. Morgan, “The Origin and Development of the Congressional Nominating Caucus,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 113 (April 1969): 193–94; Resolutions, March 16, 1816, Clay to Hardin, March 18, 1816, HCP 2:176–77.

28. C. Edward Skeen sees this event as a transformational moment, showing the move from deferential politics to popular politics. See Skeen, “Vox Populi, Vox Dei: The Compensation Act of 1816 and the Rise of Popular Politics,” Journal of the Early Republic 6 (Autumn 1986): 253–74.

29. Remarks, March 7, 1816, HCP 2:171; AC, 14 Cong., 1 sess., 1174; Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 86.

30. Blakey, “Pope vs. Clay,” 233; Clay to Willis Field, March 25, 1816, HCP 2:181–82.

31. Blakey, “Pope vs. Clay,” 241–45, 249; Perrin, Fayette County, 339.

32. Speech, June 3, 1816, July 25, 1816, “Pitt” to Clay, June 21, 1816, HCP 2:199–205; 208–9, 216–20.

33. Blakey, “Pope vs. Clay,” 237.

34. Ibid., 239, 240–41, 250; Clay to Rodney, December 6, 1816, HCP 2:257.

35. Clay to Morris, February 5, 1817, Walsh to Clay, March 11, 1817, HCP 2:323, 11:58.

36. Clay to Morris, June 16, 1816, Clay to Irving, August 30, 1816, Agreement with Atkinson, October 7, 1816, Agreement with Long, October 24, 1816, Clay to McMahon, March 30, 1817, ibid., 2:236, 241, 333, 11:53, 55.

37. Clay to Madison, September 14, 1816, ibid., 2:233.

38. Madison to Clay, August 30, 1816, ibid., 2:226; Crawford to Gallatin, October 9, 1816, Albert Gallatin, The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, 3 volumes (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1879), 2:14; Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996), 22.

39. Clay to Hughes, December 8, 1816, Clay to Morris, December 14, 1816, HCP 2:260, 261–62; Smith, Forty Years, 130.

40. AC, 14 Cong., 2 sess., 495.

41. Henry Noble Sherwood, “The Formation of the American Colonization Society,” Journal of Negro History 2 (July 1917): 211–22.

42. Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 14; Sherwood, “American Colonization Society,” 222–27; Frankie Hutton, “Economic Considerations in the American Colonization Society’s Early Effort to Emigrate Free Blacks to Liberia, 1816–36,” Journal of Negro History 68 (Autumn 1983): 379; Charles I. Foster, “The Colonization of Free Negroes, in Liberia, 1816–1835,” Journal of Negro History 38 (January 1953): 44–47; Speech, December 21, 1816, HCP 2:263–64.

43. Johnson to Clay, February 5, 1807, Bill of Sale, September 26, 1807, Deed of Emancipation, July 11, 1808, Bradford to Clay, October 3, 1816, Clay to Gales, October 14, 1817, Clay to Hart, November 15, 1817, Bill of Sale, April 7, 1821, Bill of Sale, December 19, 1817, Clay to Gurley, June 21, 1824, Speech, December 17, 1829, HCP 1:276–77, 303–4, 370, 2:391, 398, 417, 3:73, 7:147; 11:56, 178.

44. Ella Forbes, “African-American Resistance to Colonization,” Journal of Black Studies 21 (December 1990): 211, 214; Rayford W. Logan, “Some New Interpretations of the Colonization Movement,” Phylon 4 (1943): 329; Foster, “Colonization,” 49–50.

45. AC, 14 Cong., 2 sess., 851–68; Jewett to Dearborn, February 5, 1817, Jewett, “Congress of 1817,” 144.

46. Pamela L. Baker, “The Washington National Road Bill and the Struggle to Adopt a Federal System of Internal Improvement,” Journal of the Early Republic 22 (Autumn 2002): 439–40, 442; Larson, “Internal Improvements,” 377, 381.

47. Drew R. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 92; Larson, “Internal Improvements,” 381; Wiltse, Calhoun, Nationalist, 137.

48. Clay to Madison, March 3, 1817, HCP 2:322; Larson, “Internal Improvements,” 382; Rutland, Madison, 206; Calhoun, Papers, 1:408.

49. Crawford to Gallatin, March 12, 1817, Gallatin, Writings, 2:25.

50. King to Gore, February 16, 1817, Charles R. King, editor, Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, 6 volumes (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894–1900), 6:56; Crawford to Yancey, May 27, 1817, Bartlett Yancey Papers, UNC; Monroe to Jackson, March 1, 1817, John Spencer Bassett, editor, The Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 7 volumes (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1927–1928), 2:276; Ammon, Monroe, 358–59; Roger J. Spiller, “John C. Calhoun as Secretary of War, 1817–1825,” Ph.D. dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1977, 40–44.

51. Clay to Barbour, March 3, 1817, HCP 2:320; Van Deusen, Clay, 116; Brant, Madison, 6:418.

52. Clay to Monroe, May 21, 1817, Clay to Thompson, February 22, 1817, HCP 2:351, 11:58.

53. Clay to Hughes, October 9, 1817, HCP 2:390.

54. Clay to Russell, January 8, 1817, Clay to Tinsley, June 26, 1817, Toast, Reply, June 4, 1817, Clay to Hart, August 19, 1817, October 28, 1817, November 18, 1817, January 4, 1818, ibid., 2:353, 356, 374, 393, 394, 399, 423, 11:57; Crawford to Gallatin, October 27, 1817, Gallatin, Writings, 2:55.

55. Macon to Yancey, February 8, 1818, Yancey Papers; Cunningham, Presidency of Monroe, 134–35; Smith, Forty Years, 141; Clay to Adams, February 4, 1818, Clay to Hardin, February 22, 1818, HCP 2:433, 439; Crawford to Bibb, April 25, 1818, Governor William W. Bibb Papers, ADAH.

56. Cunningham, Presidency of Monroe, 50–52; Clay to Bodley, December 3, 1817, Speeches, March 7, 1818, March 13, 1818, HCP 2:406, 448–56, 467–89; McLane to McLane, February 11, 1818, Papers of Louis McLane, LOC; Richard C. Anderson Diary, May 1817, LOC.

57. Adams, Memoirs, 4:29.

58. Halford L. Hoskins, “The Hispanic American Policy of Henry Clay, 1816–1828,” Hispanic American Historical Review 7 (November 1927): 462–66; Van Deusen, Clay, 117–23; Adams to Rodney, November 21, 1817, Caesar A. Rodney Papers, NYPL; Remarks, March 17, 1818, March 24, 1818, Speech, March 24–25, 1818, March 28, 1818, HCP 2:492, 509–10, 512–30, 553–59.

59. Adams to Rodney, November 11, 1817, Rodney Papers; Bemis, Adams, Foreign Policy, 308; Calhoun to Jackson, December 26, 1817, Andrew Jackson, Papers of Andrew Jackson, edited by Harold D. Moser et al., 7 volumes (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980–2007), 4:163.

60. Fowler to Clay, May 23, 1818, Clay to Fowler, May 23, 1818, Speech, May 28, 1818, Clay to Tait, June 25, 1818, HCP 2:571–73, 580; National Advocate, August 27, 1818.

61. Clay to Tait, June 25, 1818, HCP 2:580.

62. For a full account of the First Seminole War, see David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003).

63. Adams to Monroe, July 8, July 20, 1818, Adams, Writings, 6:383, 385; Calhoun to Monroe, September 1, 1818, Calhoun, Papers, 3:87; Ammon, Monroe, 421; William P. Cresson, James Monroe (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1946), 311.

64. John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 68–69.

65. Castlereagh to Bagot, August 18, 1818, same to same, September 2, 1818, Public Record Office Reference Foreign Office 115, volume 32, LOC; Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964), 293; Adams to Erving, November 28, 1818, Adams, Writings, 6:474–75.

66. Adams, Memoirs, 4:119.

67. Anderson Diary, December 25, 1818.

68. Monroe’s Second Annual Message, Richardson, Messages and Papers, 2:608–16; Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 185.

69. Bibb to Tait, September 19, 1818, Tait Family Papers, ADAH.

70. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 367–76.

71. Wirt to unknown recipient, January 2, 1819, William and Elizabeth Washington Gamble Wirt Papers, Duke.

72. Clay to Hardin, January 4, 1819, HCP 2:624; Majority Report and Minority Report, January 12, 1819, American State Papers, Military Affairs, 7 volumes (Washington, DC: Gales and Seaton, 1832–1861), 1:735–39; Anderson Diary, February 14, 1819.

73. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 615–30; Risjord, Old Republicans, 189–90.

74. Jackson to Clay, October 25, 1806, HCP 1:250.

75. Nelson to Everette, December 1, 1818, Hugh Nelson Papers, LOC; Hubbard to Hubbard, January 20, 1819, Hubbard Papers.

76. Clay to Tait, June 25, 1818, HCP 2:580.

77. Smith, Forty Years, 145–47.

78. McLane to McLane, January 20, 1819, McLane Papers, LOC.

79. Speech, January 20, 1819, HCP 2:636–60.

80. Smith, Forty Years, 146.

81. Johnson to Desha, October 29, 1818, Joseph Desha Papers, LOC.

82. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 55–56; Jackson to Lewis, January 25, 1819, January 30, Andrew Jackson Papers, LOC; Jackson to Donelson, January 31, 1819, Bassett, Correspondence, 2:408; AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 912–21; Adams, Memoirs, 4:239–40; Herbert Bruce Fuller, The Purchase of Florida, Its History and Diplomacy (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1906), 264–65.

83. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 256–66, 655–62, 674–721, 1132–33; Morrison to Clay, February 17, 1819, HCP 2:671–72.

84. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 418, 1166.

85. Ibid., 1166.

86. Clay to Coburn, February 20, 1819, HCP 11:72–73.

87. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 1170–1214, 1222–35; Robert Pierce Forbes, The Missouri Compromise and Its Aftermath: Slavery and the Meaning of America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 36–37; Alfred Lightfoot, “Henry Clay and the Missouri Question, 1819–1921: American Lobbyist for Unity,” Missouri Historical Review 61 (1967): 149–50.

88. AC, 15 Cong., 2 sess., 1204, 1214, 1433–34.

89. For full discussions of the Missouri issue, see Glover Moore, The Missouri Controversy, 1819–1821 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1953) and Forbes, Missouri Compromise.

90. Clay to Hardin, February 21, 1819, HCP 2:673–74; for McCulloch v. Maryland, see Richard E. Ellis, Aggressive Nationalism: McCulloch v. Maryland and the Foundation of Federal Authority in the Young Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

91. Clay to Cheves, April 19, 1819, Clay to Holley, May 6, 1819, Lewis et al. to Clay, May 18, 1819, Clay to Lewis, May 18, 1819, Bill of Lading, May 26, 1819, Clay to Butler, July 19, 1819, Clay to Gales, July 19, 1819, HCP 2:687, 690–92, 693–94, 698, 700; Orleans Gazette and Commercial Advertiser, May 18, 1819; Randolph to Cunningham, July 20, 1819, Randolph Papers, VHS.

92. Van Atta, “Western Lands,” 635; Clay to Cheves, July 19, 1819, November 14, 1819, Clay to Gales, July 19, 1819, HCP 2:699, 700–701, 720–22.

93. Adams, Memoirs, 4:471; Speech, December 6, 1819, HCP 2:726.

94. Van Deusen, Clay, 127–28; Adams, Memoirs, 4:276; Bemis, Adams, Foreign Policy, 336–37.

95. Watkins to Clay, October 5, 1820, Thomas J. Clay Collection, Henry Clay Papers.

96. Speech, December 30, 1819, HCP 2:740–48; AC, 16 Cong., 1 sess., 849.

97. Clay to Kendall, January 8, 1820, Clay to Beatty, January 22, 1820, Clay to Hardin, February 5, 1820, HCP 2:752, 766, 775; Adams, Memoirs, 4:525–26.

98. Clay to Hardin, February 5, 1820, Clay to Combs, February 5, 1820, HCP 2:774–75; Cunningham, Presidency of Monroe, 98.

99. Clay to Holley, February 17, 1820, HCP 2:781; Yancey to Austin, February 10, 1820, Austin-Twyman Papers, W&M.

100. AC, 16 Cong., 1 sess., 1586–87; Pleasants to Cabell, March 28, 1820, Joseph C. Cabell Papers, UVA; Taylor to Austin, March 28, 1820, Austin-Twyman Papers; Calhoun to DeSaussure, April 28, 1820, Henry William DeSaussure Papers, SCHS.

101. AC, 16 Cong., 1 sess., 1588–90.

102. Clay to Hunt, January 22, 1819, Clay to Beatty, March 4, 1820, HCP 2:662, 788; Louisville Public Advertiser, January 12, 1820; Adams, Memoirs, 5:110.

103. AC, 16 Cong., 1 sess., 1719–31; 2228–30; Van Deusen, Clay, 129–30; Bemis, Adams, Foreign Policy, 351–52; Alvin Laroy Duckett, John Forsyth: Political Tactician (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1962), 56–62; Cresson, Monroe, 322–25; Clay to Crittenden, January 29, 1820, Clay to Kendall, April 16, 1820, HCP 2:769, 823; Randolph B. Campbell, “The Spanish American Aspect of Henry Clay’s American System,” Americas 24 (July 1967): 4–7.

104. Gronert, “Blue-Grass Region,” 321–22; Wade, Urban Frontier, 169, 177; Clay to Harrison, September 11, 1831, Papers of George P. Fisher, LOC.

105. National Intelligencer, June 28, 1820; Advertisement, June 5, 1820, Clay to Cheves, March 15, 1820, November 5, 1820, June 23, 1822, Cheves to Clay, February 23, 1821, HCP 2:794, 869, 870–75, 900–901, 3:47–48, 238.

106. Clay to Leigh, December 7, 1819, December 18, 1819, December 26, 1819, May 1, 1820, receipt, January 14, 1820, HCP 2:726–27, 733, 735–36, 754, 849; Leigh to Clay, December 11, 1819, Benjamin Watkins Leigh Papers, VHS.

107. Clay to Dougherty, October 28, 1820, HCP 2:895.

108. Advertisement, October 2, 1820, Morrison to Clay, February 12, 1821, HCP 2:891, 3:33–34; Account Settlement, June 29, 1821, Hart Papers.

109. Clay to Ridgely, January 23, 1821, HCP 3:14–15.

110. Clay’s old friend William Plumer cast the only vote against Monroe. He voted for John Quincy Adams because he did not like Monroe and believed Adams more qualified for the position.

111. Crawford to Gallatin, April 23, 1817, Gallatin, Writings, 2:35.

112. Floyd to McDowell, January 4, 1821, Papers of James McDowell, UVA; Remarks, January 23, 1821, HCP 3:15; C. Edward Skeen, “Calhoun, Crawford, and the Politics of Retrenchment,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 73 (July 1972): 142, 147; Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 230.

113. Van Deusen, Clay, 141–42; Moore, Missouri Controversy, 146; William N. Chambers, Old Bullion Benton, Senator from the New West: Thomas Hart Benton, 1782–1858 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1956), 101–2.

114. Cabell to Cocke, December 2, 1820, Pleasants to Cabell, February 4, 1821, Cabell Papers.

115. Van Deusen, Clay, 142–43; George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1952), 238; AC, 16 Cong., 2 sess., 1078–80, 1093–1146.

116. AC, 16 Cong., 2 sess., 1147–54.

117. Ibid., 1147–63; Adams, Memoirs, 5:276–77.

118. AC, 16 Cong., 2 sess., 1219, 1228, 1236–38; Van Deusen, Clay, 146–48; Clay to Cheves, March 5, 1821, HCP 3:58–59.

119. Clay to Monroe, March 1, 1821, Anderson to Clay, July 12, 1822, Clay to Adams, March 18, 1821, HCP 3:54, 70, 258; Adams, Memoirs, 5:311, 329.

120. Adams, Memoirs, 5:323–26, 330.

CHAPTER SIX
“I Injured Both Him and Myself”

1. Adams, Memoirs, 5:30; St. Louis Enquirer, May 19, 1821.

2. Van Deusen, Clay, 130; Hoskins, “Hispanic American Policy,” 468–70; Ernest R. May, The Making of the Monroe Doctrine (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), 180.

3. Clay to Morris, February 25, 1822, March 8, 1822, March 21, 1822, HCP 11:100, 102–3.

4. Calhoun to Clay, May 19, 1821, Marriage Bond, April 22, 1822, Clay to Clay, December 13, 1822, ibid., 3:83, 198, 338.

5. Clay to Rodes, October 21, 1823, ibid., 3:502.

6. National Intelligencer, July 4, 1823; Clay to Graham, May 20, 1823, Graham Family Papers, VHS.

7. Baxter, Clay and the American System, 44–45; Credentials, December 22, 1821, Clay and Bibb to Randolph, January 31, 1822, HCP 3:151, 158.

8. Paul W. Gates, “Tenants of the Log Cabin,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 (June 1962): 20–21; Baxter, Clay and the American System, 45–46; Cary to Cary, February 11, 1822, Carr-Cary Family Papers, UVA; Speech, February 7, 1822, Clay to Brooke, March 9, 1823, HCP 3:161–70, 392–93; Clay to Grundy, July 7, 1822, Felix Grundy Papers, LOC; Clay to Burnet, August 27, 1822, Letters of Jacob Burnet, UVA; Clay to Leigh, February 15, 1823, Letters to Benjamin Watkins Leigh, UVA; Hernando de Soto, The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 151–52.

9. Osborn v. United States, 34 U.S. 573 (1824).

10. Paul E. Doutrich III, “A Pivotal Decision: The 1824 Gubernatorial Election in Kentucky,” Filson Club History Quarterly 65 (January 1982): 16–18, 22; Mary W. M. Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985), 15; Thomas William Howard, “Indiana Newspapers and the Presidential Election of 1824,” Indiana Magazine of History 63 (September 1967): 188–89.

11. Warfield to Clay, December 18, 1821, Overton to Clay, January 16, 1822, Beatty to Clay, April 17, 1822, HCP 3:148–49, 156, 193.

12. Clay to Porter, April 14, 1822, Clay to Beatty, April 16, 1822, April 30, 1822, Hynes to Clay, June 30, 1822, Hammond to Clay, July 1, 1822, Benton to Clay, July 12, 1822, Leigh to Clay, November 9, 1822, ibid., 3:190–92, 243, 245, 318, 11:107, 109–10, 115; Clay to Burnet, October 5, 1822, Burnet Letters; Augusta Chronicle, October 31, 1822.

13. AC, 17 Cong., 1 sess., 733; Hecht, Adams, 337–38; Benton to Clay, April 9, 1822, HCP 11:103–4.

14. Benton to Clay, May 2, 1822, Kendall to Clay, June 20, 1822, Clay to Kendall, June 23, 1822, Clay to Hardin, June 23, 1822, Clay to Russell, July 9, 1822, September 4, 1822, HCP 3:204, 237, 238–39, 253–56, 283; Hecht, Adams, 342.

15. Clay to Gales and Seaton, November 15, 1822, Clay to Porter, February 4, 1823, HCP 3:322, 367; James Henry Rigali, “Restoring the Republic of Virtue: The Presidential Election of 1824,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 2004, 189–91; Adams, Memoirs, 6:49; Van Deusen, Clay, 171.

16. For a thorough examination of Jackson as a national symbol, see John William Ward, Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955).

17. Hynes to Clay, July 31, 1822, Clay to Porter, August 10, 1822, Clay to Meigs, August 21, 1822, Meigs to Clay, September 3, 1822, HCP 3:265, 274, 282, 11:117.

18. Clay to Meigs, September 11, 1822, Clay to Sloane, October 22, 1822, Clay to Anderson, January 5, 1823, ibid., 3:285, 11:120–21, 129; John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 153; Everett S. Brown, “The Presidential Election of 1824–1825,” Political Science Quarterly 40 (September 1925): 389; Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 262.

19. Clay to Porter, October 22, 1822, Porter to Clay, January 29, 1823, Clay to Kendall, February 16, 1823, HCP 3:300–301, 356, 382–83; Richard P. McCormick, The Presidential Game: The Origins of American Presidential Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 116–18; Lillian B. Miller, “If Elected—”: Unsuccessful Candidates for the Presidency, 1796–1968 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1972), 87.

20. Clay to Porter, February 2, 1823, February 3, 1823, March 18, 1823, June 15, 1823, Porter to Clay, February 3, 1823, February 8, 1823, Astor to Clay, March 26, 1823, Tracy to Clay, April 27, 1823, HCP 3:362–66, 371–72, 401–3, 412, 432–34; Maxcy to Gaston, July 2, 1823, William Gaston Papers, UNC.

21. Clay to Brooke, January 8, 1823, February 26, 1823, August 28, 1823, Brooke to Clay, February 19, 1823, HCP 3:350–51, 384, 387–88, 477.

22. Carroll to Clay, February 19, 1823, Woods to Clay, May 22, 1823, Clay to Trimble, May 28, 1823, Benton to Clay, July 23, 1823, Clay to Godman, August 9, 1823, Wharton to Clay, August 13, 1823, Clay to Hammond, August 21, 1823, Clay to Jones, August 23, 1823, ibid., 3:385, 419, 460, 465, 466–67, 471, 11:141, 151; Jackson to Coffee, March 10, 1823, Jackson, Papers, 5:258; Calhoun to Jackson, March 30, 1823, Jackson to Calhoun, August 20, 1823, Calhoun, Papers, 7:550, 8:236; Jackson to Coffee, April 28, 1823, John Coffee Family Papers, LOC; Providence Gazette, December 2, 1823.

23. Albert Ray Newsome, The Presidential Election of 1824 in North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 104; Risjord, Old Republicans, 176; Plumer to Hale, April 5, 1820, Everett S. Brown, editor, The Missouri Compromises and Presidential Politics, 1820–1825: From the Letters of William Plumer, Jr. (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1926), 47.

24. Chase C. Mooney, William H. Crawford, 1772–1834 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 241.

25. Ibid.; Clay to Creighton, January 1, 1824, HCP 11:166; Saunders to Yancey, December 20, 1823, Yancey Papers; Washington Republican and Congressional Examiner, December 23, 1823; Beecher to Ewing, January 2, 1824, Papers of Thomas Ewing Family, LOC.

26. Clay to Epes Sargent, August 20, 1842, HCP 9:758.

27. Niles’ Weekly Register, November 8, 1823, November 29, 1823; Carroll to Clay, October 1, 1823, Clay to Leigh, October 20, 1823, Clay to Porter, December 11, 1823, HCP 3:492, 501, 535; Saunders to Yancey, December 20, 1823, Yancey Papers; Van Deusen, Clay, 182.

28. Clay to Erwin, December 29, 1823, HCP 11:164–65; Saunders to Ruffin, February 5, 1824, Seawell to Ruffin, March 1, 1824, Thomas Ruffin Papers, UNC; Johnson to Walworth, February 22, 1824, John Telemachus Johnson Papers, Filson; Niles’ Weekly Register, November 15, 1823; McCormick, Second American Party System, 139–40; Kim T. Phillips, “The Pennsylvania Origins of the Jackson Movement,” Political Science Quarterly 91 (Autumn 1976): 495–96.

29. Argus of Western America, December 31, 1823; Calhoun to Fisher, December 2, 1823, “Correspondence of John C. Calhoun, George McDuffie, and Charles Fisher Relating to the Presidential Campaign of 1824,” edited by Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina Historical Review 7 (October 1930): 484; Williams to Yancey, November 30, 1823, Yancey Papers; Brown, “Election of 1824,” 391; Saunders to Yancey, December 4, 1823, “Letters of Romulus M. Saunders to Bartlett Yancey, 1821–1828,” edited by Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina Historical Review (1931): 435; Mangum to Cameron, December 10, 1823, Papers of Willie Person Mangum, edited by Thomas Henry Shanks, 5 volumes (Raleigh: North Carolina State Department of Archives and History, 1950), 1:82–83; Rochester to Clay, December 20, 1823, HCP 3:546–47.

30. Buchanan to Ewing, February 25, 1824, Ewing Family Papers; Robert V. Remini, Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 43–44.

31. Clay to Kendall, April 16, 1820, HCP 2:823; McCormick, Presidential Game, 108; Sydnor, “One-Party Period,” 440; William G. Morgan, “The Decline of the Congressional Nominating Caucus,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 24 (1965): 246–47.

32. Saunders to Yancey, December 4, 1823, “Letters of Saunders,” 435; Webster to Mason, November 30, 1823, Webster, Papers, 1:337; Clay to Erwin, December 29, 1823, Clay to Brooke, January 22, 1824, HCP 3:602–3, 11:164; Clay to Stuart, December 19, 1823, Henry Clay Papers, Duke; Campbell to Campbell, January 27, 1824, Campbell Family Papers, Duke.

33. McDuffie to unknown recipient, December 26, 1823, “Correspondence of Calhoun, McDuffie, and Fisher,” 493–94; Brown, “Election of 1824,” 392–93; Johnson to Walworth, February 22, 1824, John Telemachus Johnson Papers; Mississippi State Gazette, March 13, 1824.

34. Barbour to Clay, December 4, 1823, Clay to Brooke, December 20, 1823, HCP 3:530–31, 546; Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 243; Campbell, “Spanish American Aspect,” 9–10; Hoskins, “Hispanic American Policy,” 470–71; Randolph B. Campbell, “Henry Clay and the Poinsett Pledge Controversy of 1826,” Americas 28 (April 1972): 429–30.

35. Webster to Everett, December 5, 1823, Webster, Papers, 1:338–39; Sylvia Neely, “The Politics of Liberty in the Old World and the New: Lafayette’s Return to America in 1824,” Journal of the Early Republic 6 (Summer 1986): 167; Remarks, January 20, 1824, Speech, January 23, 1824, HCP 3:597–99, 603–11; May, Monroe Doctrine, 236.

36. Clay to Harrison, March 10, 1824, Henry Clay Family Papers, LOC.

37. Wirt to Cabell, December 6, 1823, Cabell Papers; Brown to Price, December 23, 1823, February 4, 1824, May 23, 1824, Price Papers.

38. Johnson to Walworth, February 22, 1824, John Telemachus Johnson Papers.

39. Baker, “Washington National Road,” 443; Larson, Internal Improvement, 149.

40. AC, 18 Cong., 1 sess., 1022–30.

41. Ibid., 1296–1311; Randolph to Garnett, January 16, 1824, Randolph Papers, UVA; Russell Kirk, John Randolph of Roanoke: A Study in American Politics, with Selected Speeches and Letters (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1978), 172.

42. AC, 18 Cong., 1 sess., 1312–13.

43. McFarland and Neal, “Tariff Policies,” 25–28; Risjord, Old Republicans, 244; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 271.

44. Van Atta, “Western Lands,” 645, 649; Clay to Carey, January 2, 1824, HCP 11:166; Strahan et al., “Clay Speakership,” 576–78.

45. Speech, March 30–31, 1824, HCP 3:683–727.

46. Adams, Memoirs, 6:258.

47. Niles’ Weekly Register, April 24, 1824.

48. Charles M. Wiltse, “John C. Calhoun and the ‘A.B. Plot,’” Journal of Southern History 13 (February 1947): 46–61; Cobb to Jackson, February 23, 1824, Jackson and Prince Family Papers, UNC; R. Carlyle Buley, The Old Northwest: Pioneer Period, 1815–1840, 2 volumes (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1950), 2:16–17; William B. Hatcher, Edward Livingston: Jeffersonian Republican and Jacksonian Democrat (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1940), 307–8; Adams, Memoirs, 6:356–57; Clay to Brooke, May 28, 1824, HCP 3:767; Calhoun to Garnett, June 6, 1824, Calhoun, Papers, 9:139; Troup to Macon, June 15, 1824, Nathaniel Macon Papers, Duke.

49. Mangum to Polk, February 8, 1824, Brown-Ewell Family Papers, Filson; Haywood to Mangum, February 23, 1824, Mangum, Papers, 1:120; Mangum to Ruffin, January 20, 1824, Hamilton, Papers of Ruffin, 1:287; Clay to Bache, February 17, 1824, Clay to Blair, February 29, 1824, Clay to Erwin, June 19, 1824, HCP 3:645, 11:171.

50. McCormick, Presidential Game, 109–10; Robert P. Hay, “The Presidential Question: Letters to Southern Editors, 1823–24,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 31 (1972): 171.

51. Adams, Memoirs, 6:372; McCormick, Presidential Game, 121–22; Duckett, Forsyth, 32.

52. Ingham to Gaston, April 24, 1824, Gaston Papers; Robert P. Hay, “The Case for Andrew Jackson in 1824: Eaton’s Wyoming Letters,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 29 (1970): 146–51; Philo-Jackson (pseudonym), The Presidential Election, Written for the Benefit of the People of the United States but Particularly for Those of the State of Kentucky; Relating, Also, to the Constitution of the United States, and to Internal Improvements, sixth series (Frankfort, KY: unknown publisher, 1824), 18–19.

53. Cahawba Press and Alabama State Intelligencer, June 7, 1823.

54. Mangum to Cameron, December 10, 1823, Mangum, Papers, 1:83.

55. Saunders to Yancey, February 1, 1823, Yancey Papers.

56. Lenoir to Lenoir, February 16, 1824, Lenoir Family Papers, UNC.

57. Seawell to Ruffin, Thomas Ruffin Papers; Haywood to Mangum, February 23, 1824, Mangum, Papers, 1:120.

58. Johnston to Clay, August 30, 1824, HCP 3:820.

59. Clay to Johnston, June 15, 1824, ibid., 3:777.

60. Clay to Johnston, August 31, 1824, Clay to Porter, September 2, 1824, HCP 3:821–23, 825; Peter L. Bernstein, Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a Great Nation (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 296–97; Robin Kolodny, “The Several Elections of 1824,” Congress and the Presidency 23 (Fall 1996): 153.

61. Clay to Porter, September 2, 1824, Clay to Johnston, September 3, 1824, September 10, 1824, Johnston to Clay, September 4, 1824, September 11, 1824, Clay to Henry, September 14, 1824, HCP 3:825, 826, 829, 833, 836, 838; Remini, Van Buren and Democratic Party, 65.

62. Ruffin to Yancey, September 21, 1824, Dickins to Yancey, November 21, 1824, Yancey Papers; Lowrie to Gallatin, September 25, 1824, Adams, Gallatin, 602–3; Gallatin to Lowrie, October 2, 1824, Writings of Gallatin, 2:294; Providence Gazette, October 16, 1824; Charles Henry Ambler, Thomas Ritchie: A Study in Virginia Politics (Richmond: Bell Books & Stationery Company, 1913), 94–95; Clay to Hammond, October 25, 1824, HCP 3:870–72.

63. Clay to Crittenden, September 17, 1824, Clay to Johnston, September 19, 1824, October 2, 1824, Clay to Featherstonhaugh, October 10, 1824, HCP 3:842, 854, 11:180–82.

64. Argus of Western America, December 8, 1824; Donald J. Ratcliffe, The Politics of Long Division: The Birth of the Second Party System in Ohio, 1818–1828 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2000), 80, 105; Howard, “Indiana Newspapers,” 195, 206.

65. Ruffin to Yancey, December 3, 1824, Thomas Ruffin Papers.

66. Jefferson to Holmes, April 22, 1820, Merrill D. Peterson, editor, Jefferson: Writings (New York: Viking, 1984), 1434.

67. Madison shared Jefferson’s opinions about the current state of politics. Madison to Todd, December 2, 1824, Lucia Beverly Cutts, editor, Memoirs and Letters of Dolly Madison, Wife of James Madison, President of the United States (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1886), 167.

68. Memorandum, December 1824, Daniel Webster, The Private Correspondence of Daniel Webster, edited by Fletcher Webster, 2 volumes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1857), 1:371.

69. Clay to Brooke, November 26, 1824, HCP 3:888.

70. McCormick, Second American Party System, 116; “Correspondence of Calhoun, McDuffie, and Fisher,” 481; Thurlow Weed, Life of Thurlow Weed Including His Autobiography and a Memoir, 2 volumes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883–1884), 1:126–27; Remini, Van Buren and Democratic Party, 74–79; Glyndon G. Van Deusen, Thurlow Weed: Wizard of the Lobby (Boston: Little, Brown, 1947), 30.

71. “Correspondence of Calhoun, McDuffie, and Fisher,” 481; Remini, Van Buren and Democratic Party, 82; Wilentz, American Democracy, 250.

72. William to Yancey, December 6, 1824, Yancey Papers; Clay to Stuart, December 6, 1824, HCP 3:891.

73. Joseph G. Tregle, Jr., “Andrew Jackson and the Continuing Battle of New Orleans,” Journal of the Early Republic 1 (Winter 1981): 381; Clay to Ford, December 13, 1824, Clay to Brooke, December 22, 1824, HCP 3:896, 900; Saunders to Yancey, December 10, 1824, “Letters of Saunders,” 445.

74. McCormick, Second American Party System, 314; Clay to Brooke, December 22, 1824, HCP 3:900.

75. Martin Van Buren, The Autobiography of Martin Van Buren, edited by John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 145; Weed, Autobiography, 1:128.

76. Clay to Erwin, December 13, 1824, Clay to Leigh, December 22, 1824, HCP 3:895, 901.

77. Edgar Ewing Brandon, Lafayette, Guest of the Nation: A Contemporary Account of the Triumphal Tour of General Lafayette Through the United States in 1824–1825 as Reported by Local Newspapers, 3 volumes (Oxford, OH: Oxford Historical Press, 1950–1957), 1:34; Stanley J. Idzerda, Anne C. Loveland, and Marc H. Miller, Lafayette, Hero of Two Worlds: The Art and Pageantry of His Farewell Tour of America, 1824–1825 (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1989), 52, 54, 63.

78. Idzerda et al., Lafayette, 55; Lafayette to Clay, December 26, 1815, Address, December 10, 1824, Clay to National Intelligencer, February 23, 1852, HCP 2:112–15, 3:893, 10:954–55.

79. Mangum to Ruffin, December 15, 1824, Thomas Ruffin Papers.

80. Clay to McClure, December 28, 1824, HCP 3:906; McCormick, Presidential Game, 127; Adams, Memoirs, 6:446–47, 452–53, 455–57; Albert D. Kirwan, John J. Crittenden: The Struggle for the Union (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1962), 68–69; Paul C. Nagel, John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, a Private Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 292.

81. Southern Patriot and Commercial Advertiser, January 11, 1825; Paul F. Boller, Jr., Presidential Campaigns, from George Washington to George W. Bush (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 38; McLane to McLane, January 13, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC.

82. Clay to Adams, January 9, 1825, Adams to Clay, January 9, 1825, HCP 4:11.

83. The most complete explanation of Clay’s motives appears in a letter to fellow Kentuckian and future Jacksonian, Francis Preston Blair. Even though Clay obviously did not intend the letter for publication, he offered arguments to placate Kentucky over his decision to oppose Jackson in the House. See Clay to Blair, January 8, 1825, HCP 4:9–10.

84. McKee to Brown, January 26, 1825, Samuel Brown Papers, Filson; Green to Polk, January 29, 1825, Brown-Ewell Family Papers. For Jackson’s behavior in New Orleans, see Matthew Warshauer, Andrew Jackson and the Politics of Martial Law: Nationalism, Civil Liberties, and Partisanship (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2006).

85. Clay to Featherstonhaugh, January 21, 1825, Clay to Brooke, January 28, 1825, Clay to Blair, January 29, 1825, HCP 4:34, 45, 47.

86. William G. Morgan, “John Quincy Adams v. Andrew Jackson: Their Biographers and the ‘Corrupt Bargain’ Charge,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 26 (1967): 43–44.

87. Adams, Memoirs, 6:464–65; Brown, “Election of 1824,” 400.

88. McLane to McLane, January 2, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC.

89. Buchanan to Elder, January 2, 1825, Buchanan, Works, 1:120; Jackson to Coffee, January 6, 1825, Jackson, Papers, 6:7–8; Macon to Tait, January 9, 1825, Macon Papers; Mangum to Cameron, January 10, 1825, Cameron Family Papers, UNC.

90. Saunders to Yancey, January 11, 1825, January 18, 1825, “Letters of Saunders,” 449–50; Barry to Clay, January 10, 1825, Clay to Stuart, January 15, 1825, HCP 4:11–12, 19; Adams, Memoirs, 6:467–69, 473–78; McLane to McLane, January 13, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC; Taylor to Austin, January 23, 1825, Austin-Twyman Papers; Niles’ Weekly Register, January 25, 1825; Ware to Brown, January 29, 1825, Samuel Brown Papers.

91. Adams, Memoirs, 6:483; Philadelphia Columbian Observer, January 25, 1825; Logan to Tazewell, January 31, 1825, Tazewell Family Papers, LOV; Winyaw Intelligencer, February 5, 1825; Cobb to Jackson, February 6, 1825, Jackson and Prince Family Papers.

92. Clay to Gales and Seaton, January 30, 1825, Kremer’s Card, February 3, 1825, Clay to Erwin, February 25, 1825, HCP 4:48, 52, 82.

93. Massachusetts Spy and Worcester Advertiser, February 16, 1825; Adams, Memoirs, 6:494.

94. Appeal to the House, February 3, 1825, HCP 4:53–54.

95. McLane to McLane, February 5, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC; Providence Gazette, February 5, 1825; Clay to unknown recipient, February 4, 1825, Clay to Brooke, December 5, 1824, February 4, 1825, HCP 3:891, 4:55–6; Leigh to Lee, November 29, 1824, Benjamin Watkins Leigh Papers, VHS.

96. Adams, Memoirs, 6:495; William E. Foley, “The Political Philosophy of David Barton,” Missouri Historical Review 58 (1964): 287; Alan S. Weiner, “John Scott, Thomas Hart Benton, David Barton and the Presidential Election of 1824: A Case Study in Pressure Politics,” Missouri Historical Review 60 (July 1966): 481–83.

97. Weiner, “Election of 1824,” 486–87; Southern Patriot and Commercial Advertiser, February 16, 1825.

98. Van Buren, Autobiography, 151; McLane to McLane, February 9, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC.

99. Van Buren, Autobiography, 151–52; Boller, Presidential Campaigns, 38–39; McLane to McLane, February 11, February 12, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC; Forsyth to O’Connor, February 25, 1825, John Forsyth Letters, UGA.

100. Adams, Memoirs, 6:501.

101. National Intelligencer, February 11, 1825; Smith, Forty Years, 183.

102. Gibbs to Ball, February 16, 1825, John Ball Papers, SCHS.

103. Jackson to Lewis, February 14, 1825, Jackson, Papers, 6:29–30.

104. Clay to Brown, January 23, 1825, Clay to Brooke, February 14, 1825, February 18, 1825, Crittenden to Clay, February 15, 1825, Kendall to Clay, February 19, 1825, Creighton to Clay, February 19, 1825, Clay to Hubbard, February 25, 1825, HCP 4:39, 67–69, 73–74, 76–77, 82; New York Daily Advertiser, March 5, 1825; Adams, Memoirs, 6:505, 508–9; Webster to Mason, February 14, 1825, Mason to Webster, February 20, 1825, Webster, Papers, 2:23, 28; Brockenbrough to Ruffin, February 19, 1825, Francis G. Ruffin Papers, UNC.

105. Jackson to Lewis, February 14, 1825, Jackson, Papers, 6:29–30.

106. Louisiana Gazette, February 28, 1825, March 1, 1825.

107. Henry Stuart Foote, Casket of Reminiscences (Washington, DC: Chronicle Publishing Company, 1874), 27–28.

108. McLane to McLane, February 12, 1825, McLane Papers, LOC.

CHAPTER SEVEN
A Thousand Cuts

1. Clay to Whittlesey, March 26, 1825, HCP 4:178–79; Saunders to Yancey, February 22, 1825, Yancey Papers; Daily National Journal, March 9, 1825; Calhoun to Sterling, February 4, 1826, Calhoun, Papers, 10:72; Cocke to Gilmer, November 19, 1827, Tyler Family Scapbook, W&M.

2. Kremer to Jackson, March 8, 1825, Bassett, Correspondence, 3:281–82; Atmore to Bryan, January 14, 1826, John Heritage Bryan Papers, Duke.

3. Address to the People, March 26, 1825, HCP 4:143–65.

4. Clay to Todd, March 27, 1825, Eaton to Clay, March 28, 1825, March 31, 1825, Clay to Eaton, March 30, 1825, April 1, 1825, Clay to Brooke, April 6, 1825, HCP 4:189, 191–92, 196–202, 221.

5. The Microscope, March 19, 1825; Louisville Public Advertiser, March 16, 1825; Brooke to Forsyth, March 13, 1825, Brooke Family Papers, VHS; Blair to Clay, March 7, 1825, Armstrong and Potts to Clay, March 9, 1825, Scott to Clay, March 9, 1825, Marshall to Clay, April 4, 1825, Mercer to Clay, April 7, 1825, Clay to Gaines, April 29, 1825, HCP 4:91, 97–98, 212, 228, 309–10; Harrison to Este, March 3, 1825, Bruce Papers.

6. Clay to Brooke, April 6, 1825, Clay to Vance, April 19, 1825, Kendall to Clay, April 28, 1825, Clay to Brown, May 9, 1825, HCP 4:221, 269, 305–6, 335–36; Van Deusen, Clay, 196–97.

7. Clay to Brown, May 9, 1825, HCP 4:335–36; Erwin to Mentelle, July 23, [1823?], Henry Clay Family Papers, UKY.

8. Clay to Hammond, May 23, 1825, Clay to Southard, June 17, 1825, HCP 4:388, 408–9, 447; Augusta Chronicle, June 29, 1825; Davenport, Ante-Bellum Kentucky, 26; Friend, Maysville Road, 157; Railey, Woodford County, 184; Clay to Barbour, May 22, 1825, Papers of Henry Clay, UVA.

9. Dickson D. Bruce, Jr., The Kentucky Tragedy: A Story of Conflict and Change in Antebellum America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 128–30; Niles’ Weekly Register, July 28, 1825, November 18, 1826; Kendall to Clay, February 19, 1825, HCP 4:66, 77; Argus of Western America, January 19, 1825; Andrew Forest Muir, “Isaac B. Desha, Fact and Fancy,” Filson Club Quarterly 30 (October 1956): 319–21.

10. Frank F. Mathias, “Clay and His Kentucky Power Base,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 78 (Spring 1980): 126; Kendall to Clay, October 4, 1825, HCP 4:718–20; Doutrich, “1824 Gubernatorial Election,” 20–28; Buckner to Buckner, June 4, 1826, Buckner Family Papers, Filson.

11. Duralde to Clays, August 8, 1825, HCP 4:570–71.

12. Clay to Adams, June 28, 1825, July 21, 1825, Clay to Clay, August 24, 1825, Clay to Erwin, August 28, 1825, ibid., 4:489–90, 546, 589, 598; Adams, Memoirs, 7:46.

13. Adams, Memoirs, 7:46–48; Duralde to Clays, August 8, 1825, Clay to Clay, August 24, 1825, Clay to Erwin, August 28, 1825, HCP 4:571–71, 589–90, 598.

14. Clay to Bascom, August 30, 1825, Clay to Erwin, August 30, 1825, Clay to Parker, September 3, 1825, Webster to Clay, September 28, 1825, Clay to Brown, November 14, 1825, HCP 4:600, 601, 616, 698–99, 823.

15. Maureau to Clay, September 19, 1825, Eustis to Clay, September 20, 1825, ibid., 4:659, 665; Philadelphia Aurora and Franklin Gazette, October 20, 1825.

16. Clay to Mentelle, October 24, 1825, Clay to Brown, November 14, 1825, HCP 4:756, 822; Adams, Memoirs, 7:51–52; Brown to Price, December 12, 1825, November 23, 1826, Price Papers; Story to Denison, March 15, 1826, William N. Story, Life and Letters of Joseph Story, 2 volumes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1851), 1:495.

17. Paul C. Nagel, “The Election of 1824: A Reconsideration Based on Newspaper Opinion,” Journal of Southern History 26 (August 1960): 328; Benton, Thirty Years’ View; or, A History of the Working of the American Government for Thirty Years, from 1820 to 1850, 2 volumes (New York: D. Appleton, 1854–1856), 1:47; Larson, Internal Improvements, 149.

18. Peterson, Great Triumvirate, 146–47; Hammond to Clay, November 1, 1825, Creighton to Clay, November 14, 1825, HCP 4:780–83, 825; James E. Lewis, Jr., The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood: The United States and the Collapse of the Spanish Empire, 1783–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 199.

19. Adams, Memoirs, 7:61; Clay to Brown, December 12, 1825, Clay to Lafayette, December 13, 1825, HCP 4:895, 905–6; Kevin R. Gutzman, “Preserving the Patrimony: William Branch Giles and Virginia Versus the Federal Tariff,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 104 (Summer 1996): 352–53.

20. Clay to Hammond, December 10, 1825, HCP 4:891.

21. Samuel Flagg Bemis, The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, 10 volumes (New York: Pageant Book Company, 1958), 4:124–28; Paul A. Varg, United States Foreign Relations, 1820–1860 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1979), 64; Smith to Clay, June 25, 1825, Clay to Gallatin, February 24, 1827, HCP 4:468–75, 6:237; Gallatin, Diary, 267; Raymond Walters, Jr., Albert Gallatin: Jeffersonian Financier and Diplomat (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 330–31.

22. Adams, Memoirs, 7:59–60; Brown to Clay, September 13, 1827, HCP 6:1028.

23. Clay to Robertson, December 7, 1825, HCP 4:882–83; Lewis, Problem of Neighborhood, 193; John J. Johnson, A Hemisphere Apart: The Foundations of United States Policy Toward Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 126–27; Van Deusen, Clay, 202.

24. Bemis, Secretaries of State, 4:131–32, 137; Adams, Memoirs, 7:71.

25. Campbell, “Spanish American Aspect,” 10; Bemis, Secretaries of State, 4:137, 139.

26. Adams, Memoirs, 7:53; Campbell, “Spanish American Aspect,” 10; Lester D. Langley, Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States–European Rivalry in the Gulf–Caribbean, 1776–1904 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976), 47.

27. Campbell, “Spanish American Aspect,” 12; Jackson to Branch, Branch Family Papers, UNC; Clay to Webster, ca. January 31, 1826, Webster, Papers, 2:82–83; McCormick, Presidential Game, 120; Henry Adams, John Randolph (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1882), 285.

28. Hoskins, “Hispanic American Policy,” 475–76; Van Deusen, Clay, 208–9; Bemis, Secretaries of State, 4:149–53; Campbell, “Clay and Poinsett Pledge,” 438–39; Langley, American Mediterranean, 47.

29. Johnson, Hemisphere Apart, 39; Bemis, Secretaries of State, 4:133–34, 154; Clay to Adams, July 2, 1827, Clay to Brown, August 10, 1827, Clay to Adams, August 23, 1827, HCP 6:738, 871, 950–51; Adams, Memoirs, 7:277; J. Fred Rippy, Joel R. Poinsett, Versatile American (Durham: Duke University Press, 1935; reprint edition, New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 105–7, 121–25.

30. Eaton to Grundy, April 2, 1826, Felix Grundy Papers, UNC.

31. Reg. of Deb., 19 Cong., 1 sess., 2:401.

32. Clay to Brooke, March 10, 1826, HCP 7:154; Clay to Randolph, March 31, 1826, Jesup to Underwood, March 4, 1853, Clay Family Papers, LOC.

33. Adams, Randolph, 259; Randolph to Clay, April 1, 1826, Clay Family Papers, LOC; Benton, Thirty Years’ View, 1:70; Bruce, Randolph, 1:515.

34. Jesup to Tattnall, April 3, 1826, April 4, 1826, Tattnall to Jesup, April 3, 1826, Duel Terms, Clay Family Papers, LOC; Benton, Thirty Years’ View, 1:71–74.

35. Benton, Thirty Years’ View, 1:74.

36. Benton to Tucker, July 16, 1826, Clay Family Papers, LOC.

37. Van Buren, Autobiography, 204; Van Deusen, Clay, 221; Benton, Thirty Years’ View, 1:75.

38. Jesup to Underwood, March 4, 1853, Clay Family Papers, LOC.

39. Account by Seconds, April 10, 1826, Benton to Tucker, July 16, 1826, Jesup to Underwood, March 4, 1853, Clay Family Papers, LOC; Van Deusen, Clay, 222; Benton, Thirty Years’ View, 1:75–76.

40. Montpelier Vermont Watchman and State Gazette, May 2, 1826; Louisville Public Advertiser, April 26, 1826.

41. McLeod to McLeod, September 1826, McLeod Family Papers, VHS.

42. Jackson to Buchanan, April 6, 1826, Jackson to Houston, December 15, 1826, Jackson, Papers, 6:163, 243.

43. Edward Pessen, Jacksonian America: Society, Personality, and Politics (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1979), 179; John M. Belohlavek, George Mifflin Dallas: Jacksonian Patrician (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977), 26.

44. Buchanan to Jackson, May 29, 1825, Jackson to Buchanan, June 25, 1825, Green to Buchanan, October 12, 1826, Buchanan, Works, 1:138–40, 217; Buchanan to Jackson, September 21, 1826, Jackson, Papers, 6:212–13; Memorandum, May 20, 1826, Bassett, Correspondence, 3:301. Duff Green had family ties in Kentucky and in fact was related to Humphrey Marshall, a connection that might at least partially explain his strong animosity to Clay. See W. Stephen Belko, The Invincible Duff Green: Whig of the West (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006), 14–15.

45. Buchanan to Green, October 16, 1826, Buchanan, Works, 1:218–19.

46. Jackson to Beverley, June 5, 1827, Jackson, Papers, 6:330–31; Report of interview, ca. April 15, 1827, Clay, Papers, 6:448–49; Watkins to Gurley, May 1, 1827, Gurley Family Papers, Tulane.

47. Clay to Hammond, June 25, 1827, Clay to “the Public,” July 4, 1827, Clay to Bealle, July 9, 1827, HCP 6:718–19, 728–30, 11:206.

48. Jackson to Buchanan, July 15, 1827, Jackson, Papers, 6:359–60; Buchanan to Lancaster Journal, August 8, 1827, Buchanan to Jackson, August 10, 1827, Buchanan, Works, 1:263–67, 269.

49. Estill to Barbour, August 26, 1827, Tyler Family Scrapbook; Clay to Southard, August 12, 1827, Maury to Clay, August 14, 1827, Webster to Clay, August 22, 1827, Clay to Blackford, August 24, 1827, Clay to Dallam, September 1, 1827, Ingersoll to Clay, October 6, 1827, HCP 6:891, 902, 949, 957–58, 985, 1118; McLaughlin to Ruffin, August 20, 1827, Hamilton, editor, Papers of Ruffin, 1:402; Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801–1829 (New York: Macmillan, 1959), 42.

50. Kendall to Clay, January 21, 1825, March 23, 1825, October 4, 1825, Clay to Kendall, October 18, 1825, Blair to Clay, January 24, 1825, Clay to Blair, December 16, 1825, HCP 4:35, 41, 136, 719, 747, 11:193; Donald B. Cole, A Jackson Man: Amos Kendall and the Rise of American Democracy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004), 97; Kendall to Flugel, April 4, 1839, Kendall Papers.

51. Kendall to Clay, March 23, 1825, October 4, 1825, December 25, 1825, Clay to Kendall, October 18, 1825, excerpt from Argus of Western America, HCP 4:136, 718–20, 746–48, 943, 6:1131–32; Elbert B. Smith, Francis Preston Blair (New York: Free Press, 1980), 30; Kirwan, Crittenden, 76; Daniels, “Kendall,” 55; Donald B. Cole, Martin Van Buren and the American Political System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 156.

52. Clay to Clay, February 22, 1827, Crittenden to Clay, November 15, 1827, HCP 6:222, 1264–65. A story, perhaps apocryphal, made the rounds of Washington that after Blair had gone public with his support for Jackson in 1828, he and Clay ran into each other outside a Frankfort, Kentucky, tavern. Clay immediately extended his hand and said, “‘How do you do, Mr. Blair?’” Blair stammered a bit and then extended his own hand, replying, “‘Pretty well, I thank you sir. How did you find the roads from Lexington here?’” Clay answered, “‘The roads are very bad, Mr. Blair, very bad, and I wish, sir, that you would mend your ways.’” Story from Perley’s Reminiscences, 1:104.

53. Clay to Blair, January 8, 1825, HCP 4:9.

54. Blair to Clay, October 3, 1827, November 14, 1827, Clay to Blair, October 11, 1827, October 19, 1827, ibid., 6:1106–7; Webster to Mason, January 9, 1828, Webster, Papers, 2:275; Niles’ Weekly Register, January 5, 12, 1828.

55. Marshall to Clay, January 5, 1828, Madison to Clay, January 6, 1828, Ogden to Clay, January 8, 1828, Clay to Crittenden, February 14, 1828, Clay to Brooke, February 22, 1828, HCP 7:12, 14, 18, 94–95, 113; Cole, Kendall, 106; Clark, Kentucky, 150; Mathias, “Kentucky Power Base,” 130–31; Webster to Mason, January 9, 1828, Webster, Papers, 2:275.

56. Kendall to Clay, February 6, 1828, May 28, 1828, October 1, 1828, Todd to Clay, February 18, 1828, Blair to Clay, March 4, 1828, Marshall to Clay, May 1, 1828, Clay to Harvie, June 5, 1828, HCP 7:81, 104, 139–40, 254–55, 306–7, 327–31, 480; Adams, Memoirs, 8:28.

57. Clay to Erwin, June 19, 1824, April 21, 1827, August 4, 1827, Erwin to Clay, May 21, 1827, Clay to Everett, May 2, 1827, Receipt from Decatur, June 5, 1827, Decatur to Clay, September 15, 1827, Clay to Adams, July 7, 1828, HCP 3:781, 6:471, 507, 576, 649, 849, 1038–39, 7:375.

58. Barraud to Baker, 1828, Barraud Family Papers, W&M; Clay to Crowninshield, March 18, 1827, Speech, June 20, 1827, Porter to Clay, November 22, 1827, HCP 6:320, 700–703, 1303–4.

59. Glyndon G. Van Deusen, The Jacksonian Era, 1828–1848 (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), 33; William Seale, The President’s House: A History, 2 volumes (Washington, DC: White House Historical Association, 1986), 1:172–73.

60. Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 10; Clay to Everett, May 22, 1827, Clay to Connant, October 29, 1827, Clay to Brooke, November 24, 1827, HCP 6:580, 1197, 1312; Barbour to Stuart, December 16, 1827, Papers of Alexander H. H. Stuart, UVA; Polk to Jackson, April 13, 1828, Jackson, Papers, 6:444–46; Harry L. Watson, Jacksonian Politics and Community Conflict: The Emergence of the Second Party System in Cumberland County North Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 152; Warshauer, Jackson and the Politics of Martial Law, 58–59.

61. Van Deusen, Clay, 227–28; Norma Basch, “Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828,” The Journal of American History 80 (December 1993), 891, 896; Clay to Hammond, December 23, 1826, Hammond to Clay, January 3, 1827, HCP 5:1023–24, 6:5; Jackson to Call, May 3, 1827, Jackson, Papers, 6:315–16; United States Telegraph, July 7, 1827.

62. Houston to Jackson, January 5, 1827, Hayne to Jackson, June 5, 1827, Jackson, Papers, 6:256–57, 332–33; Eaton to Jackson, January 21, 1828, Bassett, Correspondence, 3:389–90; Clay to Erwin, August 4, 1827, Johnston to Clay, September 13, 1827, HCP 6:850, 1030.

63. Whittlesey to Clay, March 13, 1827, Sergeant to Clay, August 23, 1827, Johnston to Clay, September 13, 1827, Rochester to Clay, October 9, 1827, Clay to Webster, October 25, 1827, HCP 6:300, 1030, 1130, 1187; Major Wilson, “Republicanism and the Idea of Party in the Jacksonian Period,” Journal of the Early Republic 8 (Winter 1988), 439; Van Deusen, Jacksonian Era, 29; Holt, American Whig Party, 8–9.

64. Porter to Clay, February 27, 1827, Brown to Clay, May 12, 1827, HCP 6:245–46, 544–47.

65. Lynn Hudson Parsons, The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 138; Clay to Brooke, January 18, 1828, February 2, 1828, March 1, 1828, Brooke to Clay, February 28, 1828, HCP 7:45, 73, 124, 135; Clay to Marshall, April 28, 1828, John Marshall Papers, W&M; Sweeny to Hooe, October 29, 1828, Papers of John Hooe, UVA.

66. Hammond to Clay, August 29, 1827, Fendall to Clay, September 1, 1827, Crittenden to Clay, September 6, 1827, Randolph to Clay, September 12, 1827, Clay to Randolph, September 15, 1827, HCP 6:974, 987, 1010, 1025, 1033; Cabell to Mercer, September 27, 1827, Cabell Papers.

67. Dangerfield, Era of Good Feelings, 405–6; Van Deusen, Clay, 215; Pickering to Randolph, April 12, 1828, Randolph Papers, UVA; Baxter, American System, 63–64; Daniel Feller, The Jacksonian Promise: America, 1815–1840 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 72.

68. Dangerfield, Era of Good Feelings, 405–9; Branch to Jackson, May 23, 1828, Jackson, Papers, 6:459–60; Hayne to Jackson, September 3, 1828, Bassett, Correspondence, 3:432–35.

69. Hammond to Clay, August 10, 1827, Clay to Trumbull, December 27, 1827, Clay to Featherstonhaugh, February 18, 1828, HCP 6:877, 1384–85, 7:102; Van Deusen, Clay, 216.

70. New York Times, July 9, 1911; Clay to Erwin, February 1, 1827, Clay to Sloane, May 20, 1827, Clay to Southard, July 9, 1827, Clay to Dallam, September 1, 1827, Brown to Clay, September 6, 1827, Clay to Adams, September 24, 1827, Clay to Henry, September 27, 1827, Clay to Brown, October 28, 1827, Speech in Baltimore, May 13, 1828, Clay to Hammond, May 31, 1828, Speech in Virginia, summer 1828, Clay to Southard, July 2, 1828, Speech at Cincinnati, August 30, 1828, HCP 6:155, 572–73, 754, 985, 1007, 1063, 1073–76, 1194, 7:272–73, 314, 348–49, 373–74, 448–51; Adams, Memoirs, 7:113, 115, 291, 358.

71. George Ticknor, Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor, 2 volumes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909), 1:381.

72. Adams, Memoirs, 7:439, 517.

73. Adams, Memoirs, 7:517; Clay to Adams, May 8, 1828, Physick and Chapman to Clay, May 11, 1828, HCP 7:262, 270.

74. Johnston to Clay, May 9, 1828, HCP 7:263.

75. Clay to Crittenden, January 25, 1827, Van Rensselaer to Clay, March 17, 1827, Hammond to Clay, March 28, 1827, Clay to Hammond, April 21, 1827, Learned to Clay, September 27, 1827, Street to Clay, October 8, 1827, Clay to Adams, May 8, 1828, Clay to Southard, July 2, 1828, ibid., 6:118, 315, 372, 473, 1077–81, 1125–26, 7:262–63, 374; Adams, Memoirs, 6:547.

76. Clay to Webster, June 13, 1828, Erwin to Clay, July 9, 1828, HCP 7:350, 377–78.

77. Erwin to Mentelle, October 27, 1827, Clay Family Papers, UKY; Erwin to Clay, July 17, 1827, Clay to Erwin, September 4, 1828, Clay to Breckinridge, October 1, 1828, HCP 6:799, 7:456, 478.

78. Rochester to Clay, October 12, 1827, Clay to Brooke, November 24, 1827, HCP 6:1141, 1311–12; Wilson, “Idea of Party,” 439–41; David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, “‘Not a Ragged Mob’: The Inauguration of 1829,” White House History 15 (Fall 2004): 17.

79. Whittlesey to Clay, August 15, 1828, Clay to Wattles, November 10, 1828, Clay to Beatty, November 13, 1828, HCP 7:429, 534, 536.

80. Clay to Beatty, November 13, 1828, ibid., 7:536.

81. Clay to Sloane, November 12, 1828, ibid.; Heidler and Heidler, “Inauguration of 1829,” 18.

82. Clay to Brooke, November 18, 1828, HCP 7:541.

83. Niles to Clay, November 22, 1828, Clay to Niles, November 25, 1828, ibid., 7:544–45, 548.

84. Clay to Beall, November 18, 1828, Clay to Beatty, November 22, 1828, ibid., 7:544, 11:214; Smith, Forty Years, 246, 249.

85. Clay to Barbour, December 29, 1828, Clay Papers, UVA; Adams, Memoirs, 8:78, 82.

86. Clay to Webster, November 30, 1828, Crittenden to Clay, December 3, 1828, Clay to Brooke, December 29, 1828, January 10, 1829, HCP 7:552–53, 554, 575, 595; Bates to Bates, January 4, 1829, Edward Bates Papers, VHS.

87. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 150–51, 154; Robertson to Cabell, February 26, 1829, Cabell Papers.

88. Smith, Forty Years, 256, 259; Adams, Memoirs, 8:95.

89. Clay to Plumer, February 23, 1829, HCP 7:626; Memoir of Great-granddaughter, Clay-Russell Papers.

90. Davis to Bancroft, January 29, 1826, Webster, Papers, 2:81.

91. Smith, Forty Years, 277.

92. Ibid., 211, 246; Brown to Clay, May 12, 1827, HCP 6:545.

93. Smith, Forty Years, 277–78.

94. Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 28–31; Clay to Brooke, February 21, 1829, Brooke to Clay, February 23, 1829, Clay to Caldwell, February 24, 1829, HCP 7:624–25, 626, 627; Niles’ Weekly Register, March 21, 1829; William T. Barry, “Letters of William T. Barry, 1806–1810, 1829–1831,” American Historical Review 16 (January 1911): 327.

95. Jackson to Coffee, March 19, 1829, Bassett, Correspondence, 4:13; Cambreleng to Van Buren, March 1, 1829, Van Buren Papers; Van Deusen, Jacksonian Era, 37–38; Cole, Van Buren, 204; Richard B. Latner, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979), 61; Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 206.

96. Boyle to Clay, October 1, 1825, Overton to Clay, January 30, 1827, Wharton to Clay, March 6, 1829, Clay to Wharton, March 24, 1829, HCP 4:704–6, 6:139, 8:2–3, 11:222; Smith, Forty Years, 303.

97. Adams, Memoirs, 8:103.

98. Heidler and Heidler, “Inauguration of 1829,” 15, 20–22.

99. Clay to U.S. Circuit Court, February 18, 1829, Condon to Clay, March 1, 1829, HCP 7:623, 632.

100. Jill LePore, A Is for America: Letters and Other Characters in the Newly United States (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 128–30; Terry Alford, Prince Among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Speech, January 20, 1827, Rahahman to Clay, April 6, 1829, Mechlin to Clay, April 22, 1829, HCP 6:92–94, 8:28, 34.

101. Clay to U.S. Circuit Court, February 18, 1829, Condon to Clay, March 1, 1829, Clay to Davis, July 8, 1829, Clay to Fendall, August 7, 1830, September 10, 1830, December 5, 1830, HCP 7:623, 631–33, 8:72, 253, 261–62, 309; Richard L. Troutman, “The Emancipation of Slaves by Henry Clay,” Journal of Negro History 40 (April 1955), 180–81. The 1869 census had Aaron and Lottie Dupuy living in Lexington.

102. Speech, March 7, 1829, HCP 8:4–5.