CHAPTER
5
Cookbooks and Menus
“In fact, women formally constructed their matrilineal
genealogies and their relationships to one another in their cookbooks, binding together the different generations.”
–JANET THEOPHANO, 2002
Have you ever thought about the cookbooks on your shelf? They may have been given to you as gifts. Perhaps they were passed down from family members, or maybe you purchased them yourself. The cookbook has evolved from its beginnings as a domestic handbook to glossy, heavily photographed books with creative recipes that transport the reader to a different locale.
Cookbooks are one of the most popular genres of books sold.1 Enter any bookstore and you will find dozens of shelves and complete sections devoted to cookbooks written by numerous types of authors—celebrity chefs with their own television empires, restaurant chefs sharing recipes, compilation books filled with recipes from contributors, and cookbooks from grocery stores. Given the star power of many of the authors, it’s not surprising that modern cookbooks are often purchased as entertainment items instead of reference material. Many cookbook enthusiasts read a cookbook cover to cover rather than just use it as a reference work. Today you can find cookbooks for ethnic groups, religious groups, dieters, vegetarians and vegans, devotees of unusual foods and ingredients (like the cookbook I bought at an aquarium on cooking with seaweed), and those devoted to only one type of food such as cheeses or sandwiches. It’s easy to take their format, their colorful pictures, and their tempting recipes for granted.
As you look through your own family’s collection of cookbooks, you will notice that they provide information about how to prepare and cook certain ingredients along with ideas for meal planning and entertaining. While vintage mass-market cookbooks provide some ideas of what foods were available and what people ate when the book was published, they may not be accurate representations of what people actually did eat. Just as you probably have cookbooks on your shelf that contain recipes you would never actually cook, the same would have been true of our ancestors. Cookbooks often taught an ideal that was not always practiced by the women who owned them. When looking at old cookbooks for clues to what your ancestor ate, remember that some recipes show the author’s creativity rather than what real people actually ate. But they’re still good ways to get an idea of food trends and available foods of a time period.
A HISTORY OF COOKBOOKS
Americans have always had access to cookbooks, though the first one written by an American wasn’t published until 1796. Prior to that Americans had two choices for acquiring cookbooks. They could purchase cookbooks from England, including The Compleat Housewife; or Accomplished Gentlewoman’s Companion by Eliza Smith (1730), The Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse (1747), and The Frugal Housekeeper: or, Complete Woman Cook by Susannah Carter (1772). While these would have been helpful in the colonies, they would have lacked an important component, namely an explanation of how to cook foods native to this new land.
The second option for colonials was to compile recipes. While colonial cooks could purchase cookbooks from England, they most likely compiled their own collections in notebooks filled with blank pieces of paper. Known as manuscript cookbooks, these books were works in progress where cooks made comments, updates, and added information that may not have been focused solely on cooking. Recipes added to the pages were created by the cook, her family, and her friends. These manuscript cookbooks “became a record of the individuals to whom they were connected through kinship and through other alliances.”2
As you study cooking through the ages, you will find manuscript cookbooks being used by women in the early twentieth century as they attend cooking classes and document their own recipes as well as those from their social circle. This tradition continued throughout the twentieth century as women documented recipes on 3 × 5 recipe cards for personal use and to give to others. Maybe you have a recipe box filled with recipes from relatives, friends, and your own kitchen. In some ways the manuscript book tradition continues with the advent of community cookbooks compiled with recipes from a community of women. In the twenty-first century the manuscript cookbook tradition continues but has gone digital and moved online in the form of blogs. The internet lets cooks from around the world share recipes with each other with just the click of a mouse.
The first cookbook written by an American for an American audience was American Cookery, or the Art of Dressing Viands, Fish, Poultry, and Vegetables, and the Best Modes of Making Puffs-Pastes, Pies, Tarts, Puddings, Custards, and Preserves, and All Kinds of Cakes, From the Imperial Plumb to Plain Cake, Adapted to This Country, and All Grades of Life by Amelia Simmons, published in 1796. While not much is known about Simmons, we do know that, like many authors of her time, she borrowed recipes from other cookbooks. But her cookbook was the first to include foods native to America and is thought to be the first to “record recipes for pumpkin pie, Indian pudding, cramberry [sic] tart and Indian slapjacks.”3
In addition to providing recipes, American Cookery also explained how to choose meat, produce, and other foodstuffs and, when necessary, how to butcher meat. There are detailed instructions on killing and preparing a turtle, a popular soup ingredient even into the modern day. While most of the foods mentioned in Simmons’s book are ones modern Americans would be familiar with like beef, turkey, lamb, oysters, onions, and carrots, other foods would not be standard fare served in today’s American kitchens, such as turtle, eel, or peacock.
The format of the book would also be unfamiliar to modern cooks, for example, a recipe for bread pudding:
BREAD PUDDING
One pound soft bread or biscuit soaked in one quart milk, run thro’ a sieve or cullender, add 7 eggs, three quarters of a pound sugar, one quarter of a pound butter, nutmeg or cinnamon, one gill rose-water, one pound stoned raisons, half pint cream, bake three quarters of an hour, middling oven.4
Today’s recipes include a title, introduction, serving size, ingredient list, complete directions (including cooking time, temperature, and exact measurements), and notes. Historical recipes, like this one for bread pudding, read more like a narrative. Some measurements are given, but not for every ingredient. There are also no instructions on how to cut or mix the ingredients, what to cook them in, and at what temperature to cook them.
Recipe writers in the eighteenth and parts of the nineteenth century assumed their readers would have some skills that would inform the way they followed the recipe. Christopher Kimball illustrates this point in his 2010 book Fannie’s Last Supper. He describes his process of cooking a calf’s head for mock turtle soup. The first batch he made tasted horrible, and he realized that the Victorian-era recipe he was following didn’t include some of the details needed to properly prepare and cook the head—specifically removing the brains, a step that a cook in the Victorian era would just know.5
COOK, CLEAN, AND COMFORT
Since their beginnings, cookbooks have been a resource to consult for recipes. But early cookbooks also served as household manuals full of housekeeping tips and medicinal remedies, information that a homemaker would need. According to author Mary Barile, “Cookery books, imported or homemade, represented more than recipes to colonial women; they were important links with home [and] sometimes the only sources available for domestic and medicinal information.”6
Cookbooks included recipes for folk remedies, antidotes to ingested poisons, and advice for taking care of children, the sick, and injured. This information was typically found in the back of the book, after all of the food recipes. This information became very important to women in the late nineteenth century when many households moved west to areas far from their support system including family, friends, and doctors.
Products of their era, the titles of some of these medicinal recipes may seem strange to us now. Consider such remedies as For a Felon (ointment for sores), Calendula Salve for Caked Breast (for mothers who are sore from breast-feeding), and Cure for a Wen (wens are boils or cysts).
The recipe for Hot Drops, an all-round cure, uses alcohol as a major part of the curative, similar to many medicinal recipes found in older cookbooks.
HOT DROPS
One gallon of best brandy, one pound gum myrrh, quarter pound of powdered cayenne pepper; shake every day for a week or so.
Dose- Half a teaspoonful stirred into a little sugar, pour on to it, one cup boiling water; drink hot. Be sure to mix the liquid with the sugar, before pouring on the water. These drops are good for almost everything, a gallon is none too much to prepare at one time. The best household remedy that there is; it has been used for fifty years in a New England family. – Mrs. Evelyn Whiting, Marblehead, Mass.7
Cookbooks also included tips to help with the running of a household including housecleaning and laundry. They included recipes for household cleaners, stain removers, and hand and laundry soap. The following recipe was for cleaning clothes:
SOAP BARK FOR CLEANING DRESS GOODS
Get ten cents worth of bark, steep it into one gallon of water, wash the goods in that water same as you would clothes; steep same bark over to rinse in; takes out all grease stains, makes goods look like new; dampen and press. – Mrs. W. H. Eldred, Chicago8
A DASH OF PRACTICAL ADVICE
Mock recipes, not to be confused with recipes for ingredient substitutions also labeled as mock recipes, are recipes for living and were used in cookbooks throughout the twentieth century. Their goal was to offer advice on domestic issues in a non-preaching sort of way. You’ll find many of the same mock recipes repeated in numerous cookbooks. They teach everything from how to live a better life to how to treat your spouse. One of the most popular has been the recipe for How to Cook a Husband.
How to Cook a Husband
A good many husbands are ruined by mismanagement. Some women go about as if their husbands were bladders, and blow them up. Others keep them constantly in hot water; others let them freeze by their carelessness and influence. Some keep them in a stew by irritating ways and words. Others roast them. Some keep them in a pickle all their lives. It cannot be supposed that any husband will be tender and good managed in this way, but they are really delicious when properly treated. In selecting your husband you should not be guided by the silvery appearance, as in buying mackerel, nor by the golden tint, as if you wanted salmon. Be sure and select him yourself, as the tastes differ. Do not go to the market for him, as the best are always brought to your door. It is far better to have none unless you patiently learn how to cook him. A preserving kettle of the finest porcelain is best, but if you have nothing but an earthenware pipkin it will do, with care. See that the linen in which you wrap him is nicely washed and mended, with the required number of buttons and strings nicely sewed on. Tie him in the kettle by a strong silk cord called comfort, as the one called duty is apt to be weak. They are apt to fly out of the kettle and be burned and crusty on the edges, since, like crabs and lobsters, you have to cook them alive. Make a clear, steady fire out of love, neatness and cheerfulness. Set him as near this as seems to agree with him. If he sputters and fizzes do not be anxious; some husbands do this til they are quite done. Add a little sugar in the form of what confectionaries [sic] call kisses, but no vinegar or pepper on any account. A little spice proves them, but it must be used with judgment. Do not stick any sharp instruments into him to see if he is becoming tender. Stir him gently; watch the while, lest he lie too close and flat to the kettle, and so become useless. You cannot fail to know when he is done. If thus treated you will find him very digestible, agreeing nicely with you and the children, and he will keep as long as you want, unless you become careless and you set him in too cold of a place.9
Cookbooks have really been encyclopedias of wisdom. Whether they provide recipes for cooking and nourishing a family, tips on how to keep your home and laundry clean, how to cure what ails your family, or advice for living, cookbooks have always been more than reference books; they are everyday guides to life.
THE MODERN COOKBOOK
Flip through several different modern cookbooks and you’ll see there is a standard formula for how recipes are written. This wasn’t always the case. As previously mentioned, when cookbooks were first introduced, recipes were presented in whatever format the author or publisher chose. They also lacked standard measurements, meaning a pinch in one cookbook did not always equal a pinch in another cookbook.
Cooking took a turn at the height of the Industrial Revolution. It was a time when scientific discoveries and advances were greatly influencing daily life in everything from work to housekeeping. New technologies saved time and labor, especially around the house, but these inventions also isolated women in their homes.10 Women began using new kitchen technologies and gadgets like “iron cookstoves, eggbeaters, and methods for canning and food preservations.”11 Science seemed to be improving everything, so it seemed natural to take a scientific approach to food and cooking.
The domestic science movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries wasn’t only about improving recipes and the taste of recipes but about changing the way families ate.12 Cooking schools opened to teach domestic science and became popular with women of all economic and social backgrounds. The Boston Cooking School was just one of many domestic science schools to open during this time, but one of its principals, Fannie Farmer, changed the way women cooked at home.
Farmer wrote The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book in 1896. In addition to recipes, it included information on nutrition and measurements, and education on food preparation and cooking techniques. Her inclusion of level measurements allowed cooks to create recipes consistent with what the recipe author intended. Farmer also is often credited with creating some of the standard recipe writing formulas still used today. Her recipes follow a format easily recognizable to a modern cook.
GERMAN TOAST
3 eggs
½ teaspoon salt
2 tablespoons sugar
1 cup milk
6 slices stale bread
Beat eggs slightly, add salt, sugar, and milk; strain into a shallow dish. Soak bread in mixture until soft. Cook on a hot, well-greased griddle; brown on one side, turn and brown on other side. Serve for breakfast or luncheon, or with a sauce for dessert.13
As the twentieth century progressed, new domestic experts, created or sponsored by large corporations, also offered advice to women through radio programs, newspaper columns, and correspondence programs. The most famous was the fictitious Betty Crocker. These experts touted the benefits of electrical appliances and other kitchen technologies, and taught women how to use them. They also marketed new prepackaged foods and food mixes, and provided recipes for using these new types of food.
Some of the most influential cookbooks of the mid-twentieth century were Betty Crocker’s Picture Cook Book, The Joy of Cooking by Irma S. Rombauer and Marion Rombauer Becker, and Mastering the Art of French Cooking by Julia Child, Louisette Bertholle, and Simone Beck. Betty Crocker’s cookbook contains cooking tips, clear directions, and illustrations to help cooks perform more difficult tasks like preparing a chicken for roasting.14 The Joy of Cooking began as a self-published work written by a mother and daughter and evolved into many editions. The last edition celebrates the seventy-fifth anniversary of the book. Julia Child sought to bring French cooking to American women; her dream resulted in a book, the first cooking show on television, and her place as the precursor of today’s celebrity chefs.
COMMUNITY COOKBOOKS
Most people familiar with community cookbooks think of comb-bound volumes, but they can also be hardcover, coil-bound, or even stapled at the spine, all depending on the age and printing method chosen. These community cookbooks gained popularity as fundraisers to help women support causes they valued. While women had limited political and financial means, one way they could contribute to a cause was by submitting recipes to a cookbook that could then be sold to raise money.
The community cookbook, also known as the charity cookbook or fundraising cookbook, first emerged during the American Civil War. A Poetical Cook-Book by Maria J. Moss, published in 1864, helped raise funds for the sanitary commission and its work helping Union soldiers. While Moss’s book is the first recorded community cookbook, the idea of women contributing to cookbooks was not a new one. Women had always collected recipes from family and friends for their own private manuscript cookbooks. It was just the first time that the idea was transformed into a way to raise funds.15
Cookbooks were written to help raise funds for the Presbyterian Church, Methodist Church, Methodist Episcopal Church, Baptist Church, and Episcopal Church as well as the “Brethren Church, Business and Professional Women, Catholic Church, cemetery associations, children’s charities, Christ Church, Christian Church, Christian Temperance Union, Confederate Relief, Congregational Church, D.A.R., Dorcas Society, Eastern Star, Epworth League, fairs and expositions, granges, home economics and domestic science organizations, Homes for the Friendless, hospitals, Jewish charities, King’s Daughters, libraries, Lutheran Church, Moravian Church, Quaker groups, Reformed Church, Sanitary Commission…, schools, sororities, Trinity Church, Unitarian Church, United Daughters of the Confederacy, Universalist Church, vegetarian groups, Women’s Exchange, Women’s Relief Corps and G.A.R., women’s suffrage proponents, and YMCA and YWCA.”16
Since then, community cookbooks have continued to be written and published by groups as varied as church women’s organizations and auxiliaries, schools, hospitals, suffrage organizations, community groups, schools and colleges, women’s groups, libraries, and historical and genealogical societies.
While most community cookbooks are published once or reprinted a few times, a few became so popular that they served generations of readers. The Settlement Cook Book, first published in 1901, was compiled by a committee of women who had been teaching new immigrants the “American way,” including how to cook. That book has been updated and republished many times and has sold more than two million copies.17 While the names of the women are not included with each recipe, names are published on the title page of the original volume.
Although not typically used as a genealogical source, these cookbooks do serve as a resource to place a woman in a particular locality at a specific time. Increasingly, historians are recognizing the value these cookbooks bring to understanding the lives of women. Cookbook expert Janice Bluestein Longone says of these cookbooks, “They also record historical, philosophical, and religious aspects of their compilers and thus of their country.”18
Community cookbooks contain valuable family history information that can help you re-create your ancestor’s community. Like many genealogical sources, community cookbooks are at the very least a “names list.” They provide a name and a place. Community cookbooks vary on what information can be found in the cookbook. The standard is to have pages of recipes with the name of the woman who submitted each recipe. In earlier cookbooks, that name might include Mrs. and a husband’s name or initials, leaving only unmarried women with their full names included. Many cookbooks also include additional information ranging from a photograph of the recipe contributor to family history information explaining the significance of the recipe to the family. Depending on the group organizing the cookbook, you can find occupations, personal histories, and even clues to ethnic backgrounds. Advertisements from local businesses helped offset the printing cost of the cookbook and provide nice details about what was available to your ancestor. These advertisements serve almost as a city directory, allowing you to reconstruct your ancestor’s community. Additionally, some cookbooks include information about the group that the book is raising money for. For example, cookbooks produced by church groups may contain church histories, names of ministers, and information on church auxiliaries and missions.
Another reason community cookbooks are so important to researching your family history is they represent food that real people ate. If you have ever donated a recipe to a community cookbook, it was most likely a family favorite or one you thought your friends would enjoy. The same was true for your ancestors. These are recipes that women in the community were proud of and used themselves, recipes they wanted to share with others, recipes that serve as reminders of their lives.
These cookbooks reflect what the families in your ancestor’s community really ate. They included ingredients available to their region. Depending on the place and era, hunting or raising small animals may have been the preferred way to obtain protein, especially in difficult financial times. The gathering of rabbits, squirrels, and pigeons, for instance, was an easy and inexpensive way to feed a family. Many of these cookbooks have an underlying theme of feeding families on a budget or with what is available.
These recipes would take into consideration any food restrictions adhered to because of religion. When you are preparing recipes from an ancestor’s community cookbook, you will be eating the food they likely ate on a regular basis.
Chapter six provides detailed information on where and how to find community cookbooks.
YOUR ANCESTORS DINED OUT?
MENUS
Eating out is second nature in modern American culture. A Pew Research study found that a third of Americans eat out less than weekly, a third say they eat out weekly, and the final third say they eat out twice a week or more.19 While most of us eat out quite frequently, we probably can remember a time when eating out for our family was rare and considered a treat. Although for your own family, eating out may not have been the norm, that doesn’t mean that our ancestors never ate out. While restaurants in France in the eighteenth century catered to those in higher classes, early American restaurant food was served in taverns and inns to customers who were often men who were boarders, traveling through, or left to their own devices. These establishments provided a limited menu and served meals at set times.
Some of the more famous long-standing restaurants are found in New York City. Early residents ate at taverns and even oyster houses, but things changed when Delmonico’s opened in 1837. Delmonico’s originally opened as a pastry shop in 1827, and evolved into a restaurant after a fire destroyed the block where it was located. The menu from Delmonico’s in 1838 was eleven pages long and included French dishes with their English translations. Delmonico’s was a departure from other restaurants at this time and, like those early French restaurants, catered to a more exclusive clientele. But the restaurant also was different in how it did business. Diners could dine whenever they wished and didn’t have to wait for a set hour, which was the custom for other places serving food such as city hotels and diners. The restaurant became the place to eat in New York City during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Delmonico’s became so well-known that other restaurants started using the Delmonico name to cash in on its good reputation.
To get a sense of what other New York restaurants were serving during this time period, consider the September 8, 1856, menu from Congress Hall in Saratoga Springs, New York. The menu consisted of:
Soup
Vermicelli
Fish
Baked Bass, port wine sauce
Lobster
| Boiled | Cold Dishes |
| Leg of Mutton, caper sauce | Westphalia Ham, glace |
| Chicken | Tongue, glace |
| Corned Beef | |
| Ham |
| Entrees | Roast |
| Planquette de Veal aux capers | Beef |
| Young Chickens | Lamb, mint sauce |
| Macaroni a la Neapolitan | Mutton |
| Ragout of Mutton aux vegetables | Loin of Veal |
| Eels | |
| Omelettes |
| Vegetables | Pastry |
| Boiled Potatoes | Green Apple Pie |
| Mashed Potatoes | Peach Pie |
| Rice | Raspberry Pie |
| Mashed Turnips | Blackberry Pie |
| Tomatoes | Tapioca Pudding, Butter Sauce |
| Cabbage | Ice Cream |
| Squash | |
| Onions | Dessert |
| Green Corn | Almonds |
| Filberts | |
| Raisons | |
| Melons |
Beverages were also a part of the meal. This included a large menu of alcoholic drinks.20
Genealogist and culinary librarian Christine Crawford-Oppenheimer writes that it “was not until after the Civil War that people began to eat out for pleasure. By the end of the 1800s, most large cities had many restaurants.”21
As the twentieth century approached, dining choices were enhanced by delis, cafeterias, automats, specialty restaurants featuring one type of food, and department stores.
Restaurant fare changed with the times and economic circumstances. Consider a later New York City menu, printed on the window of the Blossom Restaurant in Manhattan. Menu fare included soup and beans for
5 cents, pigs feet and kraut for 10 cents, and three large pork chops for
30 cents.22
In the early twentieth century, Americans started eating out more. As automobile ownership became more widespread, so too did the idea of eating out. Duncan Hines, now known more as a cake mix brand, was a real person whose book Adventures in Good Eating was sold to over 900,000 Americans.23 Hines was a printing salesman, and his frequent travels meant eating out regularly in restaurants throughout the United States. His recommendations initially given to friends and acquaintances grew into a book that included five thousand restaurants in 1946 and was consulted by not only those who bought it but millions of others as well.24 After World War II, as automobile ownership increased and people used their cars to go to work, travel to see family and friends, and go on family vacations, the need for eating out increased even more.
This transition to eating out more often included the origins of the fast-food industry, one best memorialized in a drive-in restaurant located in San Bernardino, California, that served hamburgers, fries, and milkshakes. Dick and Mark McDonald’s restaurant featured car-hop service and 15 cent hamburgers. That restaurant, McDonald’s, and a host of other fast-food chains have changed the way Americans eat and how they access inexpensive, fast food.
See chapter six for ways to find menus from your ancestors’ eras and hometowns.
Notes
» 1 Mary Barile, Cookbooks Worth Collecting (Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1994), 22.
» 2 Janet Theophano, Eat My Words: Reading Women’s Lives Through the Cookbooks They Wrote (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 13.
» 3 Mary Barile, Cookbooks Worth Collecting (Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1994), 32.
» 4 Amelia Simmons, American Cookery, or the Art of Dressing Viands, Fish, Poultry, and Vegetables, and the Best Modes of Making Puff-Pastes, Pies, Tarts, Puddings, Custards, and Preserves, and All Kinds of Cakes, From the Imperial Plumb to Plain Cake, Adapted to This Country, and All Grades of Life (Albany: Charles R. & George Webster, 1796), 27.
» 5 Christopher Kimball, Fannie’s Last Supper: Re-creating One Amazing Meal From Fannie Farmer’s 1896 Cookbook (New York: Hyperion, 2010), 46.
» 6 Mary Barile, Cookbooks Worth Collecting (Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1994), 30.
» 7 Mrs. J. Magie, Milwaukee Cook Book (Milwaukee: Riverside Printing Co., 1894), 354.
» 8 Ibid., 354.
» 9 “How to Cook A Husband,” Pacific Monthly IV (1900): 287.
» 10 Susan Marks, Finding Betty Crocker: The Secret Life of America’s First Lady of Food (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 12.
» 11 Mary Barile, Cookbooks Worth Collecting (Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1994), 38.
» 12 Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Modern Library, 2001), 8.
» 13 Fannie Merritt Farmer, The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1896), 69.
» 14 Mary Anna DuSablon, America’s Collectible Cookbooks: The History, the Politics, the Recipes (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1994), 113.
» 15 Mary Barile, Cookbooks Worth Collecting (Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co., 1994), 66.
» 16 Janice Bluestein Longone, “Tried Receipts: An Overview of America’s Charitable Cookbooks” in Recipes for Reading: Community Cookbooks, Stories, Histories, ed. Anne L. Bower (Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 21.
» 17 Michigan State University Libraries, “Feeding America: The Settlement Cook Book,” Michigan State University, http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_52.cfm (accessed October 12, 2011).
» 18 Janice Bluestein Longone, “Tried Receipts: An Overview of America’s Charitable Cookbooks” in Recipes for Reading: Community Cookbooks, Stories, Histories, ed. Anne L. Bower (Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 28.
» 19 Paul Taylor, Cary Funk, and Peyton Craighill, “Eating More; Enjoying Less,” Pew Research Center, http://pewresearch.org/pubs/309/eating-more-enjoying-less (accessed October 12, 2011).
» 20 “Bill of Fare [held by] Congress Hall [at] Saratoga Springs,” The New York Public Library Flickr stream, http://www.flickr.com/photos/nypl/3990003689/in/photostream/ (accessed October 12, 2011).
» 21 Christine Crawford-Oppenheimer, “Spice up Your Family History with Menus,” Everton’s Genealogical Helper (December 2001): 18.
» 22 Berenice Abbott, “Blossom Restaurant, 103 Bowery, Manhattan,” The New York Public Library Flickr stream, http://www.flickr.com/photos/nypl/3110620430/ (accessed October 12, 2011).
» 23 Phyllis Larsh, “Duncan Hines. He is the traveler’s authority on where to eat,” Life, July 8, 1946, 16–17.
» 24 Ibid.