The southern part of the Indian subcontinent was ruled by royal dynasties in relative peace and stability, even as north India was being conquered by foreign invaders. This region, with the Deccan Plateau at its core, stretches from the Vindhya range of mountains to Kanyakumari at the tip of India, and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east. Trade with the Roman Empire and Arab merchants was a major source of revenue for the southern kingdoms, whose strategic location put them in greater contact with foreign lands.
While the Satavahanas (also known as Andhras) dominated the Deccan Plateau, further south in Tamil Nadu, power was shared by the three warring kingdoms of Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas, after the decline of the Pallava dynasty. The Pandyas had control of Madurai, the Cheras controlled the south-western coast and the Cholas dominated Thanjavur. Tamil was the main language of these Dravidian rulers, and Tamil literature and poetry blossomed under their patronage.
The Tamil kingdoms are known for their magnificent temples with idols of the gods cast in gold and silver, and embedded with jewels, as well as their palace culture, complete with musicians and dancers, known as devadasis, to invoke the gods. Hinduism was widespread in the south, but there were pockets of Christianity too, beginning in the 1st century when Jesus’ disciple St Thomas landed on the Malabar Coast and brought the message of Christianity to India.
The Pallavas established their capital at Kanchipuram by 325 and ruled the south for at least 500 years. Kanchipuram was called the Golden City for its temples, numbering over 100. It was also an important centre of Hindu and Buddhist culture. The Pallavas are best known for their patronage of Dravidian architecture, a splendid example being the Seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram, the main seaport of their empire.
It was during this period that religious fervour reached its peak, and Hinduism saw a shift from the worship of Vedic gods to devotion to the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. At around this time, renowned Kerala philosopher Adi Shankaracharya founded the Vedanta School of thought that encouraged debate on the Vedas and propagated the philosophy of non-duality, or attaining the Supreme Consciousness (brahman) by detaching oneself from the material plane (maya or illusion). The Pallava kingdom was involved in constant battle with the Chalukyas of Badami, but it was at the hands of the Chola kings that it suffered defeat in the 9th century.
The Chola dynasty gained prominence at the end of the 9th century after it overthrew the Pallava rulers. The Cholas reached the pinnacle of their power under Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014) and Rajendra I (1014–1042). Raja Raja l brought stability to the kingdom and extended its power with the conquest of neighbouring Kerala and northern Sri Lanka. His successor, Rajendra, took over the entire island of Sri Lanka and occupied areas in Burma, Malaya and Sumatra. The Chola years were marked by the blossoming of literature and the arts, particularly temple architecture. Raja Raja l built enormous temple complexes at Thanjavur, the capital of the kingdom, with each temple associated with a fascinating legend. The Brihadeeswara temple, dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, is unmatched in its size and splendour. The temple, with its massive gateways, its paintings of Shiva and the monolith of Shiva’s steed, the Nandi bull, is an invaluable cultural legacy of the Chola kingdom.
The temple complexes became small townships where daily life and religious rituals were entwined. By the 13th century, the kingdom was in decline, and the dynasty ended in 1279.
Temple of Srirangam
An interesting legend surrounds the temple of Srirangam, the largest and among the grandest temples in India. It is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, who is enshrined in the temple reclining on a massive serpent. It is said that while the sage Vibhisana was carrying an idol of Vishnu to Sri Lanka, he placed it on the ground for a few minutes in Tiruchirappali to rest. When he tried to pick it up, it appeared stuck to the ground. Thus, a temple came up on that site.
The Chera kingdom extended over the Malabar Coast, Karur, Coimbatore and Salem, in present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The dynasty was founded by Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan in the 9th century, but it was his son, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan, who made the kingdom powerful and extended its reach in southern India. Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, mentioned in the great Tamil epic Silappadigaram, is considered the greatest Chera ruler.
The unique matrilineal family structure of the Nair class prevalent in Kerala came into existence during the Chera rule. Under this system, the wife and daughter inherited the family property, instead of the son. Trade with Persia, Arabia and even China thrived during the Chera reign with textiles, perfumes, camphor and even elephants being exported. The dynasty lasted until the 12th century, when the Hoysalas emerged, and power shifted from the Kerala and Tamil Nadu region to present-day Karnataka.
The Pandyas occupied the present-day Madurai and Thirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu, and a part of old Travancore. They were skilled in trade and grew in prosperity and influence to become the dominant southern power in the 13th century. Madurai was the capital of the kingdom and the centre of Tamil culture. Poetry received royal patronage in the Pandyan kingdom, and numerous assemblies of poets were held in Madurai to promote this literary pursuit. The earliest Tamil grammatical treatise, Tolkappiyam, is believed to have been written during the Pandyan reign.
The Pandyan supremacy was shortlived. Attacked by Turkish armies in the 14th century, the Pandyas were finally absorbed by the Vijayanagara Empire, renowned for the development of music, art and literature during its rule. Vijayanagar (City of Victory), in present-day Karnataka, was the capital of the empire that lasted from 1336–1565, reaching its peak of wealth and power during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529). The city was built around the original religious centre of the Virupaksha temple at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Brothers Harihara and Bukka Raya
The origin of the Vijayanagara Empire is under debate. One theory suggests that it was established by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka Raya. They were taken prisoner by Muhammad bin Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty, who ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. The brothers converted to Islam while in custody. Later they were sent to the south to quell a rebellion and took the opportunity to seize the territory and establish their supremacy over it. They then converted back to Hinduism.