The Vedas (the word literally means ‘knowledge’) are the primary source of information about the ancient Vedic period (1700 bc–500 bc) in Indian history, and are believed to have been composed by 1200 bc–800 bc. The lyrical texts were passed on orally from generation to generation through memorisation and recitation until the time when they were written down. They contain hymns in praise of Aryan gods such as Indra, Surya, Agni and Varuna; rituals, spells, charms and magic formulae to guide priests; and general philosophical teachings. The main ritual referred to in the texts is sacrifice, which was at the core of Aryan religion. The Vedas also carry information on mathematics, science, traditional systems of medicine and yoga.
The Samhitas are the most ancient of the Vedas and consist of the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda. The Samhitas are followed by the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
The oldest and most significant text of the entire body of Vedic literature is the Rig-Veda (Hymns of Praise). It is a collection of 1,028 hymns spread over 10 books, the earliest originating in c.1200 bc. According to legend, the hymns of the Rig-Veda were delivered by Brahman himself to Aryan priests who then passed it down through the generations. One of the first hymns praises Agni, the God of Fire, while another hymn talks about the process of creation.
The Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and the Atharva-Veda came after the Rig-Veda and dealt with chanting, rituals and sacrifices, and magical incantations respectively. The Brahmanas gave extensive details of prayer and rituals and specified practices to be carried out by the wealthy and the elite members of society. The Aranyakas are forest texts, with knowledge that can only be learned in the secluded environment of forests. The Upanishads were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers, upa meaning ‘near’, ni meaning ‘down’ and shad meaning ‘sit’, hence their name. Composed between 800 bc and 200 bc, they are believed to have reshaped Hindu belief by instilling philosophical knowledge into Hinduism. They contain 200 works in prose and verse, and deal with religion, philosophy and the creation of the universe.