Sizing Up Ancient Civilizations: Athens and Rome

Civilization today owes a huge debt to ancient civilizations in Athens (Greece) and Rome. Although ancient, these civilizations were ahead of their times and very modern by any standards. They served as the models of modern democracy and continue to influence nearly every academic discipline, including philosophy, science, medicine, mathematics, law, architecture, and art. In this section, we take you on a virtual tour of ancient Athens and Rome to help you appreciate their living legacies.

Turning back the clock to ancient Athens

Athens wasn’t blessed with the natural resources typically required to become a center for culture and art. Greece is rocky with poor soil. The staple crop at the time was wheat, but growing conditions in Greece were far from ideal. Over time, grapes and olive trees replaced much of the wheat, which meant importing wheat and other goods not produced locally.

The rugged landscape made road building difficult, so travel by sea was simpler and faster. The Greeks focused on the sea, as fishermen and as traders. Wine and olive oil became important Greek exports for the entire Mediterranean. The Greek city states also created colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean where wheat could be grown successfully to ensure adequate supplies. They also had plenty of marble and clay to use for building materials along with copper and zinc and some gold and silver, which enabled them to fashion tools and weapons, construct buildings, and create beautiful sculptures. Trade and colonialism spread Athenian knowledge and ideals throughout the Mediterranean.

The Athenians developed democratic government. They had overthrown their kings early on, creating a government based on social class and property, where eventually even the smallest landowners had a say. The Athenian Assembly, open to all male citizens over 18 and land owners, met several times a month to discuss specific issues, from selecting political and military leaders to voting on laws and finances. The assembly had an additional, rather unique feature: Any citizen deemed to be too powerful or too much of a problem could be ostracized, expelled from Athens by an anonymous vote of the assembly. Judges and magistrates were chosen by lot and random selection from the upper classes, but at the end of their one-year term they had to justify their decisions to the assembly — an early form of checks and balances.

One Athenian leader, Pericles, summed it up this way:

Athens’ constitution is called a democracy because it respects the interests not of a minority but of the whole people. When it is a question of settling private disputes, everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question of putting one person before another in positions of public responsibility, what counts is not membership of a particular class but the actual ability which the man possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of service to the state, is kept in political obscurity because of poverty.

Athenian democracy was far from perfect. Only about 20 percent of Athens’s population had citizenship. Slaves composed a large part of the population, and women had no right to vote. Debtors and their families could be sold into slavery and lost all rights until the debt was repaid. Participants in the assembly could be paid expenses, but no salaries, limiting attendance to the wealthier class. Despite these limitations, it was a beginning.

example.eps Who was eligible vote in the Athenian assembly?

(A) everyone over the age of 18

(B) all males over the age of 18

(D) all citizens over the age of 18 who owned land

The correct answer is Choice (C), all male citizens over 18 who were landowners. Women had no rights outside the home, and as in modern times, 18 was the age when youth were admitted to adult duties and rights. The minimum qualification for male citizens over 18 to vote was a requirement to own property.

example.eps What led the Greeks to become traders?

(A) poor conditions for most agriculture

(B) the need to buy food they could not produce easily

(D) all of the above

The Greeks discovered that even with poor soils they could produce some crops very well, such as wine and olives. The only way to make that system pay off was to export these crops and use the revenue to pay for other goods they didn’t or couldn’t produce. Your best choice is Choice (D), all of the above.

Exploring the ancient Roman Empire

Roman civilization built on classical Greece and the Hellenic empire of Alexander the Great. Romans conquered an empire that lasted more than 500 years, longer than any other western European empire. Including the Eastern Roman Empire, the Roman Empire lasted an amazing 1,500 years. Although Greek civilization left behind theater, arts, democratic government, and philosophy, the Roman heritage is more practical. Roman roads crossed Europe, providing the first safe and rapid communications network from Britain to Greece and Rome to Spain. The Romans were great administrators, creating a legal code that is the foundation of modern law, and proved to be talented engineers and builders.

Ruling the day with Roman law

Roman law began with the Twelve Tablets, dating back to 449 BCE (see the nearby sidebar for more about BCE). These were written laws in the tradition of Greece and Babylon, defining legal rights and punishments, procedures, and duties. The laws were posted in the Roman forum for all to see.

The Romans believed in swift justice but also in terms people would consider strange today, as is demonstrated by the following example:

Tablet One 6-9:

When the litigants settle their case by compromise, let the magistrate announce it. If they do not compromise, let them state each his own side of the case, in the comitium of the forum before noon. Afterwards let them talk it out together, while both are present. After noon, in case either party has failed to appear, let the magistrate pronounce judgment in favor of the one who is present. If both are present the trial may last until sunset but no later.

Tablet Three:

One who has confessed a debt, or against whom judgment has been pronounced, shall have thirty days to pay it in. After that forcible seizure of his person is allowed. The creditor shall bring him before the magistrate. Unless he pays the amount of the judgment or someone in the presence of the magistrate interferes in his behalf as protector the creditor so shall take him home and fasten him in stocks or fetters. He shall fasten him with not less than fifteen pounds of weight or, if he chooses, with more. If the prisoner chooses, he may furnish his own food. If he does not, the creditor must give him a pound of meal daily; if he chooses he may give him more.
On the third market day let them divide his body among them. If they cut more or less than each one’s share it shall be no crime.

example.eps What was the Roman punishment for an unpaid debt?

(A) public humiliation in stocks

(B) a court order to pay

(D) death

The debtor was certainly put in stocks, but not as a public humiliation, Choice (A). The Court did order repayment, but only allowed three days for payment to be made, Choice (B). There was no court-ordered regulated payment plan, Choice (C). If the debtor made no repayment within three days, the penalty was death, Choice (D); Tablet 3, paragraph 2 spells that out. The debt holders literally got their pound (or more) of flesh.

Roman law developed to include both fixed written laws and common law, which is based on precedent and tradition. That structure allowed laws to evolve as attitudes changed. Roman culture also showed the beginnings of a division of laws into criminal and commercial; in the case of Rome, laws were divided between those that involved the state and those for individuals, which included criminal, contract, and civil law. They also had laws limiting terms in office for elected officials, laws regulating inheritance and debt, and even procedures for the right of appeal of death sentences. These laws, and a later collection of them called the Justinian Code, became the foundation of the European legal code. Most significantly, as trade recovered after the collapse of the Roman Empire, merchants discovered that Roman contract law was a far better tool than the tribal traditions they had inherited.

Building up Roman construction

Roman building skills were based on two life-changing inventions: the arch and concrete. The Romans took the concept of the arch and applied it in new ways. They used it to span large spaces without the need for pillars. Because the arch could support more weight than a flat ceiling, the Romans were able to build much larger structures. Egyptian and Greek temples needed pillars every few feet, but Romans were able to create bridges with large spans and buildings with large, unobstructed interior spaces. When arches are combined, they create a barrel vault, like the tunnel entrance to a theater in Pompeii in Figure 11-1. Rotating the arch around a common center creates a dome, something totally impossible before this innovation.

*Photo courtesy of Achim Krull, 2012*

Figure 11-1: Tunnel entrance to a theater in Pompeii.

Romans also improved on concrete, a vital building material. It was strong and lasted far better than modern concrete, as witnessed by the Roman structures still standing 2,000 years later. (Good luck saying that about your driveway in a few thousand years.) Combining arch technology and the ability to pour concrete into forms allowed Romans to build huge domed buildings like the Pantheon and the Coliseum.

example.eps What is the significance of the arch in Roman architecture?

(A) Romans created buildings with large open interior spaces.

(B) They explain how the pyramids were built.

(D) all of the above.

Choice (A) is the best answer based on the text. Choice (B) is wrong because the text mentions nothing about pyramids, and arches didn’t play a role in the architectural design or construction of the pyramids. Choice (C) may be partially correct but it’s not the best answer.

Exploring Interactions among Population, Environment, and Development

The population of any species depends on the resource base available. In a well-established ecosystem, populations of all plants and animals remain relatively stable. Predators keep the populations of their prey in check, and food supplies and disease tend to prevent overpopulation of any one species. Human populations are subject to the same rules and regulations imposed by ecosystems, but humans have managed more effectively than most other beings to change their environments and to move when their environments become uninhabitable. The following sections introduce some ways of looking at population development.

Malthus: Regulating population growth to preserve the food supply

Thomas Malthus wrote in 1798 that population growth increased exponentially (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and so on) while food availability increased only arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on). That meant humans would outgrow the food supply, and the world would ultimately descend into a struggle for survival over limited resources. He had no faith in human ability to regulate its own fertility and was opposed to birth control. He argued the only way to avoid such a fate was strict regulation on reproduction, including marrying later in life.

His ideas were justified at that time. Industrialization had allowed a population boom while reducing the number of people available to grow crops. With industrialization also came improvements to living conditions, especially sanitation. As a result, the infant mortality rate among the population dropped dramatically while the birthrate remained steady. The result was a population boom.

Rostow: All the development’s a stage

One model of development, the demographic transition model, was proposed by American economist Walter Rostow. He divided societal and economic development into five stages:

Traditional (Stage One): People are either nomadic herders or subsistence farmers, with limited urbanization and a cultural and societal development similar to that of medieval Europe. This stage is characterized by a high birthrate, high total fertility rate, high infant mortality rate, and a high death rate, with an overall relatively short life span.
Preconditions for takeoff (Stage Two): In this stage, society has accumulated enough surplus wealth and scientific knowledge to enable development. Farming has improved, as has education. Birthrates and total fertility rates remain high, but a slight drop in death rates and infant mortality rates occurs, causing population growth. This stage would apply to much of Europe in the 1600s.
Takeoff (Stage Three): This category is the beginning of an industrial revolution, similar to English society in the early 1800s. A few key industries lead to a rapid growth of production. Goods become cheaper and widely available. People migrate en masse from the countryside to the cities, and employment changes from largely agricultural or artisanal to mechanized agriculture and factory-based mass production. Society is disrupted as farmers and specialized craftspeople lose employment. At the same time, factory workers are poorly paid and live in appalling urban conditions. At this stage, birthrates and total fertility remain high, but death and infant mortality rates continue to drop, and life expectancy increases. The population boom continues.
Drive to maturity (Stage Four): This stage is a long period of economic development. Mechanization and technology spread into all levels of society. The economy is based on the production and sales of large volumes of industrial goods. As production increases dramatically, the benefits begin to reach the lowest as well as the middle and upper classes. The need for workers brings universal education, and the literacy rate of the population increases. The greater wealth also brings improvements in sanitary conditions, one of the biggest factors in lowering infant and maternal mortality, as well as increasing longevity. At this point the birthrates and total fertility rates drop quickly; however, the infant mortality rates drop, so rapid population growth continues.
The age of high consumption (Stage Five): During this period, industrial production shifts away from heavy manufacturing and extractive industries (such as mining) to service industries. Financial industries, mass media, and government activities increase dramatically. Socially and economically, this stage represents Europe and North America after World War II. Improvements to healthcare have caused maternal and infant mortality rates to bottom out, and the total fertility rate drops to replacement level (discussed in the following section). Longevity increases, and population growth slows. The material standard of living for all classes has improved substantially.

example.eps In which of Rostow’s stages of development would the United States have been at the time of the Civil War?

(A) traditional

(B) preconditions for takeoff

(D) drive to maturity

The most applicable stage is Choice (C), takeoff. The country as a whole was past the first two stages of development; it had developed an industrial base, mining, and banking. Urbanization increased, and a massive influx of immigrants came to the northern cities. It wasn’t quite at stage four, where even the lower classes were benefiting from increased production.

example.eps In which of Rostow’s stages of development would the Plains Indians have been in the 1860s?

(A) traditional

(B) preconditions for takeoff

(D) drive to maturity

The Plains Indians were largely nomadic tribes that lived off the land. Though they had an extensive and developed culture and tradition, their economic development didn’t include permanent settlements. That excludes them from the third and fourth stages of the Rostow model (takeoff and drive to maturity, Choices (C) and (D)). For stage two (preconditions for takeoff), the society would have to have a degree of scientific development and surplus wealth. Neither of these was part of the Plains Indians’ society, so Choice (B) is incorrect. That means the correct answer is Choice (A).

All of these stages depend on the resources available to society and how that society uses those resources. In Great Britain, the precondition for takeoff included iron ore, a readily available supply of coal, and the knowledge to use coal to make steel. Virtually all developed societies went through a similar model as they became wealthier and experienced an intellectual boom. Research into technologies and medicine, especially those needed for colonialism and warfare, continued to improve the life of the domestic population. During the period of mass consumption, the 1950s to 1980s, access to goods and services for all classes improved dramatically. Education and healthcare were widely available, subject only to individual financial constraints. Socially, people began a debate about the role of government in looking after the interests of all levels of society. Various movements to protect the interests of the working class became more influential.

China: Bearing fertility and replacement rates in mind

Rostow’s model didn’t contemplate one further stage. He expected population growth rates to slow, and the birthrate to level off at replacement level. However, today in many developed countries, the total fertility rate (the number of children a woman is expected to have in a lifetime, or TFR) and birthrate are below the replacement level. To maintain a population, each man and woman must have a child to replace them when they die. The replacement level TFR is about 2.1. In many European countries, the United States, and Canada, the TFR has fallen below 2.0. In some cases, including Germany and Norway, the TFR has dropped below 1.7. Unless supplemented by immigration, those populations are destined to shrink.

In a world facing global warming, pollution, extinction of numerous species, and competition for resources that are being depleted (including nonrenewable resources such as oil and gas), you may think that the prospect of a smaller human population is a good thing. However, dwindling populations face serious problems, such as not having a sufficient number of younger workers to support an aging population or a bloated government. In many cases, countries must increase immigration to maintain a stable economy, but immigration poses challenges when cultures and religions clash over values.

The People’s Republic of China (Communist China), went through all Rostow’s stages of development (see the preceding section) and this additional one. Before the communist revolution, China remained largely at stage one of development, traditional. It was an agrarian (farming) society made up predominantly of peasant farmers and a few very wealthy individuals. Farming involved much manual labor and produced only limited surpluses. The birthrate was high, but so was the mortality rate, and population grew relatively slowly. After the communists took over, Mao Zedong worked aggressively to address the grievances of the peasants. Land was redistributed and corruption curtailed. Improvements to education and healthcare followed. The standard of living and health improved, but the high birthrate and population growth continued.

From 1959 through 1961, China experienced a massive famine. Estimates of deaths vary wildly, but the death toll is believed to be in the range of 30 million people. After the famine, Mao believed an increase in the population would help lead to industrialization. The birthrate increased, and so did the population. By 1970, the TFR for China had climbed to just under 6 and continued to rise. The government realized this growth would bring about a new famine because the available land wasn’t enough to produce a sufficient amount of food. China introduced the one-child policy, limiting all families, with few exceptions, to only one child. By 1995, China’s TFR had dropped below replacement levels. Industrialization, improved agriculture, and an emphasis on trade have put China in Rostow’s fifth stage, drive to maturity. The rate of population growth has dropped from 2.8 percent in 1970 to 0.61 percent in 2015, with an estimated TFR of only 1.66 in 2018.

The one-child policy has been a success in that it reduced population growth faster than economic factors or social pressures alone. However, it’s also an example of unintended consequences. The normal statistical division between males and females is a slight preponderance of males, usually 106 males to 100 females. In China, many couples practice gender selection, with a preference for male children. As a result, in 2004, the division in China was 121 boys for every 100 girls. Although more families have sons to take care of them, their sons have fewer women available as mates. In addition, few children in China have siblings, making for a very large number of single-child homes. Nobody really knows the implication that this trend will have on China in the long term.

example.eps This chart displays the proportion of males to females at different ages in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 2015.

What is the proportion of males to females in the PRC in 2015 for people under 25, as compared to world averages?

(A) higher proportion of females

(B) higher proportion of males

(D) cannot determine from the graph

The correct answer is Choice (B). China has significantly more males than females, especially in the younger age groups. Chinese tradition requires elderly parents to live with their oldest son. With only one child allowed, that’s a problem.

Investigating Border Types and Conflicts

Borders cause no end of trouble. They seem like a good idea, indicating where one country’s holdings end and another’s begins, but problems arise when leaders disagree where exactly that line is. Natural borders are easy. They follow a river, a mountain range, a coastline, or some other physical feature that is easily identified. The people who live in states that border along the Mississippi know exactly when they enter or leave their state, at least on the river side. Natural borders have a further advantage: They are more easily defensible. Ancient Egypt was relatively safe from invasion, protected by desert on the west and south and the Red Sea to the east. Invading Italy required climbing over the Alps or sailing across the Mediterranean Sea first. Even lesser natural boundaries, such as the Rhine River, create defensible barriers.

Natural boundaries also divide cultures, which become nations. For example, people on the north side of the Alps spoke German, while those on the south side spoke Italian. The two cultures developed separately, intermingling when required but developing unique cultural identities and languages. The English Channel is a natural boundary between Britain and continental Europe, protecting the British Isles from invasion (with minor exceptions) and creating a culture and language different from those of the mainland.

Artificial borders can cause major geopolitical conflicts. Where you see a straight line on the map in Figure 11-2, you’re looking at an artificial border. The settlers in the original 13 colonies landed on the coast and gradually moved inland. Because the colonies were started separately, they needed boundaries to keep themselves apart. In some cases, the boundaries followed a river or lake. The northern boundary of New York State follows parts of the Saint Lawrence River and Lakes Ontario and Erie. But the straight lines are where some negotiators decided to say, “Let’s just call this the border.” If both parties agree, as in the case of state or provincial borders in North America, there’s no problem. Within the United States, the people on either side of the borders are the same, the culture is much the same, and so are the economies of adjacent states.

*John Wiley & Sons, Inc.*

Figure 11-2: Map of the 13 colonies.

Elsewhere, such as on the African continent, artificial borders have become a major problem. They were drawn by the colonial powers of the day to delineate areas from which competing colonial powers could extract resources. The borders ignored local ethnic, cultural, tribal, or linguistic groups. When the colonial powers left, the newly independent countries faced the problem of integrating people who may have been traditional enemies. The tragic genocide in Rwanda was caused in part by such ethnic differences. Divisions of countries in the Middle East followed a similar pattern. Areas were severed and made into independent countries without regard for tribal or religious associations. One result is that in countries such as Iraq, people of different branches of Islam live within the same borders. Strong religious tensions among these branches have made the creation of a unified country very difficult. Rebellions and civil uprisings along ethnic lines are a common occurrence.

example.eps This map combines a satellite view with a standard map outline to show the state of New Hampshire.

Judging by the image, which border is likely to be mostly a natural one?

(A) the border with Vermont

(B) the border with Maine

(D) none of the above

The border between New Hampshire and Maine is almost completely straight for most of its length. That means it’s probably an artificial border. The same can be said for the border with Maryland. That means Choices (B) and (C) are wrong. However, the border with Vermont is irregular, and a close look at the map tells you that the Connecticut River runs along that line. This boundary is a natural border following the Connecticut River. The correct answer is Choice (A).

Pondering the Population Puzzle

Several factors affect population growth, including migration and changes in the fertility rate. The following sections give you some insight into how these issues may crop up on the GED test.

Schooling yourself about education’s impact on the TFR

The good news is that the growth rate of the world’s population is slowing. The bad news is that it’s still growing. The total fertility rate (which we discuss in the earlier section “China: Bearing fertility and replacement rates in mind”) is steadily declining. In Rostow’s model (see “Rostow: All the development’s a stage” earlier in the chapter), the TFR declines as societies become more developed and switch to an industrial economy. Factors that encourage that drop are improved education and employment and a higher standard of living. When women are educated, they’re more likely to control the number of children they have. In a wage economy, income is also a deciding factor in the decision to have children. Prohibition and state control like China’s one-child policy slow population growth, as does economic well-being.

example.eps As women become better educated, what happens to the birthrate?

(A) The birthrate increases.

(B) The birthrate decreases.

(D) The birthrate fluctuates.

The best answer is Choice (B). Education is strongly linked to a lower birthrate in women of childbearing years. The other choices are simply wrong.

Consider the following charts.

example.eps To maintain a population at its current level, the population’s TFR must be 2.1. A mother and father must each be replaced, and a certain number of additional births must occur to make up the shortfalls due to infant mortality and other casualties. The first chart shows changes in growth rate to a certain population from 1985 to 2025. The second chart shows the world’s total fertility rate. If the trend continues as shown, when is the total fertility rate likely to reach replacement level?

(A) 2015

(B) 2020

(D) Sometime after 2040

You need to mentally project and extend the trend line. The line shows a decline, but that decline is slowing. Where the line ultimately ends is immaterial. You need to project when it would reach the 2.1 level. The line also shows the data for 2015, 2020, and 2025. For those dates the TFR hasn’t yet reached replacement levels, so Choices (A), (B), and (C) are incorrect. Therefore, your best answer is Choice (D).

Making sense of migration

Whenever possible, people have tried to improve their living conditions. The Europeans who came to North America initially came here to explore and for adventure, seeking wealth. Those who followed came to make new lives for themselves. The French who settled in New France and Louisiana, the Spaniards in Mexico and California, and the English and Scots all along the Atlantic Coast all came to settle. When tens of thousands of Irish came here during the potato famine they were hoping for a better life in a new country. When Europeans left after World Wars I and II to come to North America they were looking for a better life.

When immigrants come to a new country, they bring with them their language, their customs, and many things about their culture. Whether through their music or their food, their skills or their attitudes, they affect the way of life in the country they come to.

The triggers of migration often are fear and desperation. When people flee from Central America to the United States or from North Africa and the Middle East to Europe, they’re generally desperate. They sacrifice everything and put their lives at risk to escape. The illegal migration so common today is caused in part by immigration restrictions. The developed countries of the world are reluctant to accept immigrants from the less-developed regions. The fear is that immigrants will become a burden to society or, because they’re so different, never become true members of the receiving society. People always fear “the other.”

The vast numbers of refugees created by civil wars in rebellions in the Middle East and North Africa have indeed become an economic and political problem for Europe. Most of these refugees arrive with nothing, not even a local language, and do become at least temporarily a burden. A further question for the recipient countries is that the refugees often come with totally different cultural, ethical, and religious outlooks. Countries are often concerned over whether the immigrants will ever fit in.

America has long prided itself on being a melting pot, where migrants arrive and eventually blend in with the existing population. In the process, a little bit of “the other” rubs off on America, creating a vibrant society. The question that arises today is to what extent the melting pot is still working. Some ethnic communities in the United States (and in other countries) resist integration, remaining in distinct ethnic enclaves with their own cultures and languages rather than merging with the existing national culture.

France, Britain, Sweden, and Germany have all experienced difficulties with the assimilation of migrants. That struggle has created an inevitable backlash and social unrest as the migrants become the new have-nots in society. Integration is a growing issue.

example.eps Why do people emigrate?

(A) fleeing famine or war

(B) economic improvement