Notes

A note on the notes: Because of the immense number of quotations and sources in need of citation, I have inserted endnotes at thematic breaks and transitions in the text.

Prologue: A Passage to Glory

1. Jared Sparks, The Life of John Ledyard, the American Traveller (Cambridge: Hillard and Brown, 1828), pp. 1–70. Helen Augur, Passage to Glory: John Ledyard’s America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1946), pp. 142, 157–58, 173. Henry Beston, The Book of Gallant Vagabonds (New York: George H. Doran, 1925), p. 23. Laurie Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage: An American Adventurer on Captain James Cook’s Final Expedition (New York: Holiday House, 2002), p. 203 (“the greatest traveler”). See also Clanance Ashton Wood, “Southhold’s John Ledyard” and “John Ledyard the Traveler,” longislandgenealogy.com/Ledyard/one.htm.

2. John Ledyard, A Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean (Hartford: Nathaniel Patten, 1783), pp. 33 (“dancing through life”), 72, 85, 157. Kenneth Munford, John Ledyard: An American Marco Polo (Portland: Binfords and Mort, 1939), p. 300. Beston, Book of Gallant Vagabonds, p. 43. James Zug, American Traveler (New York: Basic, 2005), p. 152. Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage, pp. 5, 59, 143, 197–98. S. G. Mantel, Explorer with a Dream, John Ledyard (New York: Julian Messner, 1969), pp. 121–23. Thomas Jefferson, Autobiography (New York: Capricorn, 1959), p. 80. Lawlor, Magnificent Voyage, p. 199 (“my brother”). See also Stephen D. Watrous, ed., John Ledyard’s Journey through Russia and Siberia, 1787–1788: The Journal and Selected Letters (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1966), and the website Mutual Perceptions—Travel Accounts, memory.loc.gov/intldl/mtfhtml/mfpercep/perceptledyard.html.

3. Henry Beaufoy, “Some Accounts of Mr. Ledyard’s Method of Traveling,” Ladies’ Magazine, July 1792 (“manliness of his person”). Zug, American Traveler, p. 216 (“An American face”). Larzer Ziff, Return Passages: Great American Travel Writing, 1780–1910 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2000), p. 36. Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, pp. 290, 293 (“My path will be”), p. 303. Augur, Passage to Glory, p. 268 (“Behold, I afford a new character”). Zug, American Traveler, pp. 173 (“I…do not think”), 220.

1. A Mortal and Mortifying Threat

1. Evan Thomas, John Paul Jones: Sailor, Hero, Father of the American Navy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), pp. 30–34. James A. Field Jr., America and the Mediterranean World, 1776–1882 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 30–31. A. L. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, 1800–1901 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), pp. 1–2. Michael L. S. Kitzen, Tripoli and the United States at War: A History of America’s Relations with the Barbary States, 1785–1805 (Jefferson: McFarland, 1962), p. 10. Thomas A. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations with the Middle East, 1784–1975 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1977), pp. 1–2. David H. Finnie, Pioneers East: The Early American Experience in the Middle East (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 244–45 (“Go where you will”). A. Uner Turgay, “Ottoman-American Trade during the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Ottoman Studies 3, no. 1 (1982): 193–94.

2. Richard B. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A Diplomatic History (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 2004), pp. 5–6, 17–20. Robert Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 4–5, 23, 36, 41–42, 74. Sir Godfrey Fisher, Barbary Legend: War, Trade and Policy in North Africa, 1415–1830 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1957), pp. 290–91. Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York: Basic, 2002), pp. 6–8. Maria Martin, History of the Captivity and Sufferings of Maria Martin (Philadelphia: Jacob Meyer, 1811), p. 37. Questions have been raised about the veracity of Martin’s account, though her descriptions of the ordeals of captivity in North Africa accord with those of many other former prisoners. See James R. Lewis, “Savages of the Seas: Barbary Captivity Tales and Images of Muslims in the Early Republic,” Journal of American Culture 13, no. 2 (Summer 1990): 68.

3. Joseph Wheelan, Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror, 1801–1805 (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003), p. 36. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, pp. 33–34 (“We had already lost five”). Charles A. Goodwin, Narrative of Joshua Gee of Boston, Mass., While He Was Captive in Algeria of the Barbary Pirates, 1680–1687 (Hartford: Wadsworth Atheneum, 1943), pp. 1–29. Simon Smith, “Piracy in Early British America,” History Today 46 (May 1996).

4. Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774–1789, ed. Paul Smith (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1995): Pierse Long to John Langdon, Aug. 6, 1786, p. 433. Alexander DeConde, A History of American Foreign Policy (New York: Scribner, 1971), pp. 21, 41 (“The Americans cannot protect”). The Revolutionary War Diplomatic Correspondences of the United States. ed. Francis Wharton (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1889): Salva to Franklin, April 1, 1783, p. 357. Bradford Perkins, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 1, The Creation of a Republican Empire, 1776–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 33 (“No nation can be trusted”), 46, 69. Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776–1815 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995), p. 3.

5. E. Dupuy, Américains et Barbaresques (Paris: R. Roger et F. Chernoviz, 1910), p. 8 (“to use its best offices”). The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 10, ed. Albert Smyth (New York: Haskell House, 1970): Franklin to Robert Livingston, July 7, 1783, p. 71 (“If there were no Algiers”). See also The Papers of George Mason, 1725–1792, ed. Robert Rutland (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1970): George Mason to Hunter, Allison and Company, Aug. 8, 1783, pp. 788–89. Louis B. Wright and Julia H. Macleod, The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton’s Struggle for a Vigorous Policy against the Barbary Pirates, 1799–1805 (New York: Greenwood, 1945), p. 15. Seton Dearden, A Nest of Corsairs (London: Butler and Tanner, 1976), p. 151. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, pp. 218–19 (“there is no advantage”).

6. Paul Baepler, ed., White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1999), pp. 77–80. Stephen Clissold, The Barbary Slaves (London: Paul Elek, 1977), p. 3 (“They made signs”). A. B. C. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli: The Birth of the U.S. Navy and Marines (New York: Morrow, 1991), p. 26. H. G. Barnby, The Prisoners of Algiers: An Account of the Forgotten American-Algerian War, 1785–1797 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1966), pp. 2–3. Gardner W. Allen, Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1905), pp. 8–9 (“sabers grasped”). Donald Barr Chidsey, The Wars in Barbary: Arab Piracy and the Birth of the United States Navy (New York: Crown, 1971), p. 7.

7. The Letters of Richard Henry Lee, ed. James Ballagh (New York: Macmillan, 1914), vol. 2: Lee to Thomas Shippen, Oct. 14, 1785, p. 392 (“Curse and doubly curse”); Lee to Samuel Adams, Oct. 17, 1785, p. 396. John Jay Papers: 1968, 13031, Jay to William Bingham, Feb. 12, 1785; Jay to Bowen, May 24, 1786. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers, ed. Dudley Knox, 6 vols. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1939), vol. 1: O’Brien, Coffin, and Stevens to Thomas Jefferson, June 8, 1786, p. 2. David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), p. 352. Barnby , Prisoners of Algiers, pp. 3–9, 25–26. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. xiv–xv. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 13, 25, 21–22 (“perfectly dark”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 25–26, 69. A Journal of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss (Newburyport: Angier March, 1798), pp. 17 (“Now I have got you”), 20, 24, 33. DeConde, History of American Foreign Policy, p. 41 (“It will not be”). Lawrence A. Peskin, “The Lessons of Independence: How the Algerian Crisis Shaped Early American Identity,” Diplomatic History 28, no. 3 (June 2004): 299–300 (“The Algerians are cruising”). Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Mariner Books, 1997), p. 37.

8. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Ford (New York: Putnam, 1970): Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10–11 (“We ought to begin”). Allen, Our Navy, p. 37 (“It will procure us”). See also Thomas Jefferson Papers: Gerard W. Gawalt, “America and the Barbary Pirates: An International Battle Against an Unconventional Foe,” on memory.loc.gov/ammem/mtjhtml/mtjprece.html (“temper of my countrymen”). DeConde, History of American Foreign Policy, p. 83 (“sink us under them” and “erect and independent attitude”). Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx. The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Vintage, 1998), p. 26 (“combined great depth”), and Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Vintage, 2002), pp. 233–42. William M. Fowler, Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783–1815 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), p. 5. I am aware of the controversy surrounding Jefferson’s relationship with Sally Hemmings; geneticists have determined that Thomas Jefferson was almost certainly the father of Hemming’s son, Eston.

9. The Emerging Nation: A Documentary History of the Foreign Relations of the United States under the Articles of Confederation, 1780–1789, vol. 2, ed. Mary Giunta (Washington, D.C.: National Historical Publications and Records Commission, 1996): Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, Feb. 6, 1785, p. 543. The Papers of George Washington, ed. W. W. Abbit (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1995): Lafayette to Washington, Jan. 13, 1787, p. 514. Lafayette in the Age of the American Revolution, vol. 5, ed. Stanley Idzerda and Robert Crout (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1983): Lafayette to Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin, April 8, 1785, p. 315.

10. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Ford: Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10–11 (“The states must see”). The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Andrew A. Lipscomb (Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1905): Jefferson to John Page, Aug. 20, 1785, p. 91 (“Honour as well as”). John Jay Papers: Jay to Jefferson, Adams, and Franklin, March 11, 1785 (“the Influence of…Courts”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 23.

11. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to William Carmichael, Nov. 4, 1785, p. 194 (“His manners and appearance”). Barnby , Prisoners of Algiers, p. 75 (“I hope never to see”). Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, pp. 37–38, 217–19. Ray Irwin, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with the Barbary Powers, 1776–1816 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1970), pp. 49–50.

12. Emerging Nation, vol. 1: John Adams to John Jay, Feb. 17, 1786, p. 96. The John Jay Papers: 4605, Jay to Congress, Aug. 2, 1787. Walter Livingston Wright, “American Relations with Turkey to 1831” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1928), pp. 1–2 (“pestilence and war”). Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 8, 14–16. McCullough, John Adams, pp. 352–53. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 36–37.

13. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 4–5 (“the Dignity of Congress”). The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1959): Adams to Jefferson, July 13, 1786, p. 139. Emerging Nation, vol. 1: Letter from John Adams to John Jay, June 27, 1786, p. 207; vol. 2: John Adams to John Jay, Dec. 15, 1784, p. 513 (“unfeeling tyrants”). McCullough, John Adams, p. 366 (“We ought not to fight”).

14. Emerging Nation, vol. 3: Jefferson and Adams to John Jay, March 28, 1786, pp. 135–36 (“It was…written”) . Adams-Jefferson Letters: Adams to Jefferson, June 6, 1786, p. 133. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Ford: Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, Aug. 11, 1786, pp. 264–65 (“an angel sent on this business”). Writings of Benjamin Franklin: Franklin to William Carmichael, March 22, 1785, pp. 301–2. McCullough, John Adams, p. 354. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 7–10. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 30–31. Allison, Crescent Obscured, p. 12 (“a universal and horrible War”).

15. Revolutionary War Diplomatic Correspondences of the United States: Franklin to Congress, May 26, 1779, pp. 192–93. Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 3, Diary 1782–1804 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, Belknap Press, 1961), entries for March 19 and March 20, 1785, pp. 174–75. John Jay Papers: 3891, Jay to Congress, March 22, 1786. Emerging Nation, vol. 1: John Adams to John Jay, Feb. 16, 1786 (“Innocence and the Olive Branch”), p. 95. Jerome B. Weiner, “Foundations of U.S. Relations with Morocco and the Barbary States,” Hespris-Tamuda [Morocco] 20–21 (1982–83), pp. 165–82. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 32–33, 40. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 27–30. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 8–9. The text of the treaty is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, ed., The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, vol. 1, European Expansion, 1535–1914, 2d ed. (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1975), pp. 103–5.

16. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Jefferson to Humphreys, Aug. 14, 1786, p. 400 (“public treasury”). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799, vol. 38, ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1938): Washington to Lafayette, March 25, 1787, p. 185 (“the highest disgrace”); Washington to Lafayette, Aug. 15, 1786, p. 521 (“Would to Heaven”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 21. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, p. 10. U.S. Naval History: The Reestablishment of the Navy, 1787–1801, on http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/bibli04/bibli04a.htm. The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, ed. John Kaminksi and Gaspare Saladino (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 2001): Russell to Adams, p. 47 (“Without a national system”). Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 44 (“Our sufferings”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 33 (“See what dark prospect”).

17. Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution: Speech by James Madison before the Virginia Constitutional Convention, June 12, 1788, p. 1206. Writings of George Washington: Washington to Lafayette, Aug. 15, 1787, p. 260. Letters of Delegates to Congress: Virginia Delegates to Edmund Randolph, Nov. 3, 1787, p. 539. James Madison, Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 (Athens: Ohio Univ. Press, 1966), p. 549. Perkins, Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, p. 69. See also Julia H. Macleod, “Jefferson and the Navy: A Defense,” Huntington Library Quarterly 8 (Feb. 1945): 154.

18. Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, pp. 47, 160, 567 (“preposterous”), 1126 (“May not the Algerines”), 1417 (“our sailors…in Algiers”). The Debate on the Constitution, ed. Bernard Bailyn (Washington, D.C.: Library of America, 1993): Hugh Williamson’s Speech, Nov. 8, 1787, p. 233. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826, ed. James Morton Smith (New York: Norton, 1995): Jefferson to Madison, May 8, 1784, p. 314; Madison to Jefferson, Oct. 8, 1788, p. 555; Jefferson to Madison, Jan. 12, 1789, p. 583.

19. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, The Federalist Papers (Cutchogue, N.Y.: Buccaneer Books, 1992), pp. 49-50 (“federal navy…of respectable”), 207–8 (“maritime strength” and “the rapacious demands”). John Jay Papers: 4572, Jay to Congress, May 29, 1786; 10876, Jay to Lafayette, Oct. 28, 1786; 4605, Jay to Congress, Aug. 2, 1787. Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. 65 (“The more we are ill-treated”). See also George Pellew, American Statesmen: John Jay (Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1890), p. 239.

20. Mary Chrysostom Diebels, Peter Markoe (1752–1792): A Philadelphia Writer (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1944), pp. 1–3, 16, 50–61. Peter Markoe, The Algerine Spy in Pennsylvania; or, Letters Written by a Native of Algiers on the Affairs of the United States in America, from the Close of the Year 1783 to the Meeting of the Convention (Philadelphia: Prichard and Hall, 1787), pp. 25–30, 78–79, 104–5 (“totally ruined” and “plundered without”), 113–14. Bailey, Diplomatic History of the American People, p. 65. See also Lotfi Ben Rejeb, “Observing the Birth of a Nation: The Oriental Spy/Observer Genre and Nation Making in Early American Literature,” in Abbas Amanat and Magnus T. Bernhardsson, eds., The United States and the Middle East: Cultural Encounters (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 2002), pp. 253–89.

21. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Jefferson to the Senate and the House of Representatives, Dec. 30, 1790, p. 22; Edward Church to Thomas Jefferson, Oct. 12, 1793, p. 45. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to the Board of Treasury, May 16, 1788, p. 11 (“sea-dogs”); Jefferson to John Jay, Aug. 11, 1788, p. 121 (“that pettifogging nest”). Ellis, American Sphinx, p. 162 (“Algerine”). Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 9–10 (“suspended between indignation”).

22. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to John Paul Jones, June 1, 1792, p. 355; Jefferson to Thomas Barclay, June 11, 1792, p. 367. Charles Stuart Kennedy, The American Consul: A History of the United States Consular Service, 1776–1914 (New York: Greenwood, 1990), p. 29 (“as a great People”). Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Ford: Jefferson to James Monroe, Nov. 11, 1783, pp. 10–11 (“John Paul Jones”).

23. Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Lipscomb: Jefferson to Thomas Barclay, June 11, 1792, p. 367. John Jay Papers: 5052, Temple to Jay, June 7, 1786. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, ed. Harold Syrett, 27 vols. (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1961–87): Hamilton to William Seton, April 22, 1794, vol. 16, p. 312. The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, ed. Charles King (New York: Putnam, 1894): John Alsop to Rufus King, Dec. 15, 1793, p. 505. Irwin, Diplomatic Relations of the United States, p. 80.

24. Writings of George Washington, vol. 33: Washington to Jonathan Trumbull, Aug. 20, 1793, p. 125; President’s Sixth Annual Address to Congress, Dec. 13, 1793, p. 166 (“If we desire”).

25. Annals of the Congress of the United States: Third Congress (Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1849), pp. 433, 434 (“Bribery alone,” “a Secretary of [the] Navy,” and “we are no match”), 436 (“Our commerce is”), 439 (“at war with”), 447–48 (“pusillanimous measures”). Craig L. Symonds, Navalists and Antinavalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the United States, 1785–1827 (Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1980), pp. 27–37. See also The Papers of Josiah Bartlett, ed. Frank Mevers (Hanover: Univ. Press of New England, 1979): Paine Wingate to Josiah Bartlett, Feb. 24, 1794, p. 403.

26. Papers of Alexander Hamilton: John Quincy Adams to Hamilton, Dec. 5, 1795, vol. 17, pp. 420–21; Edmund Randolph to Hamilton, William Bradford, and Henry Knox, vol. 16, pp. 498–99. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Samuel Calder to David Pearce, Dec. 4, 1793, p. 57; George Washington to Congress, Feb. 8, 1795, p. 93; Joel Barlow to Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140–41. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 31, 141 (“stigma on the American”). Frances Diane Robotti and James Vescovi, The USS Essex and the Birth of the American Navy (Holbrook, Mass.: Adams Media Corp., 1999), p. 12. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 7. Allen, Our Navy, p. 51 (“If I were to make peace”).

27. Among the gifts given Tunis by the United States were “1 Fusee, 6 feet long, mounted with gold set with diamonds; 4 set with gold mounting, ordinary length; 1 pr. of pistols mounted with gold, set with diamonds; 1 poniard, enameled, set with diamonds; 1diamond ring; 1 gold repeating watch, with diamonds, chain the same, 6 pieces of brocade of gold; 30 pieces superfine cloth of different colors; 6 pieces Satin, different colors.” See Irwin, Diplomatic Relations of the United States, pp. 100–1. Republic of Letters: Madison to Jefferson, Feb. 21, 1796, pp. 921–22; Jefferson to Madison, April 17, 1796, pp. 931–32. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Barlow to Jefferson, March 18, 1796, pp. 140–41; O’Brien to Jefferson, Jan. 12, 1797, pp. 192–93 (“25 chests of tea”); Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 18, 1797, p. 208 (“To what height”); Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 24, 1797, p. 209 (“You are a liar”). Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 30–32. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 23–24, 53–54 (“Our people have conducted”), 56–57. Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers, pp. 304, 318. Foss, Journal of the Captivity, p. 123 (“No nation of Christendom”). Milton Cantor, “Joel Barlow’s Mission to Algiers,” Historian 25 (1963). See also Library of Congress Country Studies, “Algeria, Relations with the United States,” memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+dz0025).

28. Royall Tyler, The Algerine Captive; or, The Life and Adventures of Doctor Updike Underhill, Six Years a Prisoner among the Algerines (Hartford: Peter B. Gleason, 1816), pp. 196, 239. Anonymous, The American in Algiers; or, The Patriot of Seventy-six in Captivity (New York: J. Buel, 1797), p. 16 (“Does Columbia”). Susanna Rowson, Slaves in Algiers; or, The Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia: Wrigley and Berriman, 1794), p. 48 (“What, give it up”).

29. James Leander Cathcart, Tripoli (LaPorte, Ind.: Herald Print, 1901): Cathcart to Pickering, Aug. 16, 1799, p. 67. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Barlow to Jefferson, Aug. 24, 1797, p. 209. Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 2–3.

2. The Hostile and Ethereal Orient

1. Abbas, Hamdani, “Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 99, no. 1 (1979) pp. 43 (“As…enemies), 44 (“all the gain”). Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies (London: Penguin, 2007), pp. 60–62, 87–88, 100. George Sandys, Description of the Ottoman Empire (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1973), p. 36. Philip L. Barbour, The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), pp. 45–49. Timothy Worthington Marr, “Imagining Ishmael: Studies of Islamic Orientalism from the Puritans to Melville” (Ph.D. diss., Yale Univ., 1997), pp. 1–2, 30–33, 70 (“an emissary of Satan”), 87–89. Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2002), pp. 12–13, 73–74. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. xiv-xviii, 45–46, 61–64. Josiah Strong, “Anglo-Saxon Predominance (1891),” http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/strong.html (“The Eastern nations sink”). Translating the Untranslatable: A Survey of English Translations of the Quran, http://www.quranicstudies.com/article32.html. A. J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted (New York: Macmillan, 1955), pp. 7 (“so viewing thine enemies”), 8 (“contradictions, blasphemies”), 10 (“attack the Koran”). Humphrey Prideaux, The True Nature of Imposture Fully Displayed in the Life of Mahomet (Fairhaven, Vt.: James Lyon, 1798), p. 108.

2. Henry Hugh Brackenridge and Philip Freneau, Father Bombo’s Pilgrimage to Mecca, 1770, ed. Michael Davitt Bell (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Library, 1975), pp. 7 (“to change thy religion”), 92 (“I prostrated myself”). Ros Ballaster, Fabulous Orients: Fictions of the East in England, 1662–1785 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005), pp. 8, 33, 54–56, 72, 77. Alain Grosrichard, The Sultan’s Court: European Fantasies of the East (London: Verso, 1998), p. 79. Mohammed Sharafuddin, Islam and Romantic Orientalism: Literary Encounters with the Orient (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994), pp. xxv–xxvi, 64, 107. Ben Rejeb, “Observing the Birth of a Nation,” pp. 256–57. Claude Étienne Savary, Letters on Egypt, Containing a Parallel between the Manners of Its Ancient and Modern Inhabitants (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1787). Irwin, For Lust of Knowing, p. 109 (“the present terror”). Constantin-François Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, pendant les années 1783, 1784, et 1785 (Paris: Desenne et Volland, 1787).

3. Daniel Beaumont, Slave of Desire: Sex, Love, and Death in 1,001 Nights (Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 2002), p. 42. Husain Haddawy, trans., The Arabian Nights (New York: Norton, 1990), pp. xv–xvii. Novelists Magazine 18 (Containing The Arabian Nights Entertainment) (London: Harrison, 1785). Adele L. Younis, “The Arabs Who Followed Columbus,” Arab World 12, no. 3 (March 1966). Excerpt from The Arabian Night Entertainment: Consisting of One Thousand and One Stories, the First American Edition, Freely Transcribed from the Original Translation by Galland (Baltimore: H. & P. Rice and J. Rice, 1794). Susan Nance, “Crossing Over: A Cultural History of American Engagement with the Muslim World, 1830–1940” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of California, Berkeley, 2003), p. 25. See also the Arabian Nights Resource Center, http://www.crock11.freeserve.co.uk/arabian.htm.

4. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. J. P. Mayer, trans. George Lawrence (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 536. Edward McNall Burns, The American Idea of Mission: Concepts of National Purpose and Destiny (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1957), p. 125. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience (New York: Random House, 1965), pp. 219, 264. William H. Goetzmann, New Lands, New Men: America and the Second Great Age of Discovery (New York: Viking, 1986), pp. 1, 5, 14. Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (1920; reprint, New York: Henry Holt, 1947), pp. 2, 30, 37, 38.

5. Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, p. 305 (“Alexandria at large”). P. J. Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Sadat (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 30–38. Samir Khalaf, Persistence and Change in 19th Century Lebanon (Beirut: American Univ. of Beirut, 1979), pp. 16–31. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 21–39, and The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (New York: Modern Library, 2003), pp. 64–65.

6. Augur, Passage to Glory, pp. 265, 276 (“The Mahometans [are] a superstitious”), 277–80. Zug, American Traveler, p. 222 (“infinitely below”). Sparks, Life of John Ledyard, pp. 306, 307 (“This was about” and “nothing merits more”), 309, 310 (“very, very humiliating”), 314–15. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 139–40 (“dust, hot”). See also Robert D. Kaplan, The Arabists: The Romance of an American Elite (New York: Free Press, 1993), pp. 16–17.

7. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 140 (“a bilious complaint”). Wood, “John Ledyard the Traveler,” (“full and perfect health”). Significant disagreement surrounds the date of Ledyard’s death. Augur places it on March 4, 1789, and Dr. Wood on Jan. 17. Sparks, the official biographer, speculates that the time was late Nov. 1788 On the basis of Ledyard’s last letter to Jefferson, I have remained with Sparks’s date, albeit without certainty.

8. “An Egyptian Anecdote,” Ladies’ Magazine, April 1793 (“although generally tender”); “An Account of Egypt and Alexandria,” Feb. 1793 (“absorbed in surprise”). Augur, Passage to Glory, p. 282 (“That Man”). J. Fred Rippy, Joel R. Poinsett: Versatile American (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1935), pp. 27–29. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 14 (“long red pantaloons”). George Barrell, Letters from Asia: Written by a Gentleman of Boston, to His Friend in That Place (New York: A. T. Goodrich, 1819), p. 35 (“having perused”). Bruce G. Tigger, “Egyptology, Ancient Egypt, and the American Imagination,” in Nancy Thomas, ed., The American Discovery of Ancient Egypt (New York: Abrams, 1995), pp. 21–22. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 7 (Washington, D.C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1903), p. 78. Ziff, Return Passages, p. 53 (“Ledyard was a great favourite”).

3. A Crucible of American Identity

1. Thomas Harris, The Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, United States Navy (Philadelphia: Carey Lea and Blanchard, 1837), pp. 37, 45 (“You pay me tribute”). Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 70–72. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 48–50. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 56. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 75, 80–81. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 31 (“To save the peace), 32–33 (“mortifying degradations”), 35–36. Richard Zacks, The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805 (New York: Hyperion, 2005), pp. 13–15, 24.

2. Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (New York: Morrow Quill, 1977), pp. 429–36. Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 260–74. Henry A. S. Dearborn, The Life of William Bainbridge, Esq., of the United States Navy (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1931), p. 20. Barnby, Prisoner of Algiers, pp. 37, 84. Henry S. Osborn, Palestine, Past and Present (Philadelphia: James Challen and Son, 1859), p. 505. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 114–15. Lewis, Crisis of Islam, p. 66 (“heavenly bodies”). Turgay, “Ottoman-American Trade,” p. 205.

3. Glenn Tucker, Dawn like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth of the U.S. Navy (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), pp. 15–18. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 31–32 (“Had we 10 or 12”), 34 (“Did the United States know”), 37–41, 42 (“Capitaines Vilon”). Allen, Our Navy, pp. 85–86. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 115–16. Bainbridge letter to Stodder, in Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 76. Harris, Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, p. 60.

4. Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 28, 1801, pp. 1193–94 (“enemy to all these” and “send the powder”). Thomas Jefferson Papers: Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, June 11, 1801 (“There is no end”). The Writings of Albert Gallatin, ed. Henry Adams, vol. 1 (New York: Antiquarian Press, 1960): Gallatin to Jefferson, Dec. 1802, pp. 104–5. Kenneth J. Hagan, This People’s Navy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 55 (“deeply affected”). Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Cathcart to Dale, Sept. 17, 1801, Cathcart to Madison, April 18, 1802, p. 127 (“to buy peace”).

5. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 49 (“sinking, burning”). Herbert E. Klingelhofer, “Abolish the Navy!” Manuscripts 33, no. 4 (Fall 1981): 279–83. Macleod, “Jefferson and the Navy,” p. 170. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 89–90 (“a delay on your part”), 94, 112–13. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 31–36. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), p. 98.

6. The Enterprise was commanded by Lt. Andrew Sterrett. See Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: National Intelligencer, Nov. 18, 1801, p. 539. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 89–91 92–93, 97–101. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 78–79, 91–93. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Dale to Cathcart, Aug. 25, 1801, p. 560 (“amuse”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 79. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 49. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, pp. 13–14.

7. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Dale to the Acting Secretary of the Navy, July 30, 1801, p. 535 (“the whole tribe”). Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents, 1789–1829, ed. Noble Cunningham (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1978), vol. 1: Letter from John Stratton, April 22, 1802, p. 281. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 96 (“Shall we buy”). For a fuller discussion of the constitutional aspects of Jefferson’s policy toward North Africa, see Robert F. Turner, “The War on Terrorism and the Modern Relevance of the Congressional Power to ‘Declare War,’” Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 25 (2002). See also Gordon Silverstein, Imbalance of Powers: Constitutional Interpretation and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997), and David N. Mayer, “By the Chains of the Constitution: Separation of Powers Theory and Jefferson’s Conception of the Presidency,” Perspectives on Political Science 26 (1997).

8. Republic of Letters: Madison to Jefferson, March 17, 1802, p. 1265; Jefferson to Madison, March 22, 1802, p. 1267; Madison to Jefferson, July 22, 1802, p. 1231. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 89–93, 109–10, 130–31. Thomas Jefferson Papers: Jefferson to Albert Gallatin, March 28, 1803. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 2: Murray to Captain Richard Morris, Aug. 20, 1802, p. 242; Excerpt from the Journal of Henry Wadsworth, Feb. 26, 1803, p. 437 (“Twas good sport”); vol. 3: Captain Murray to Congressman Joseph Nicholson, Nov. 5, 1803, p. 201. Cathcart, Tripoli, p. 111 (“venal wretch”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 88, 90, 99. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, pp. 14–15 (“best exertions”).

9. The Republic of Letters: Madison to Jefferson, July 22, 1802, p. 1231; Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 17, 1802, p. 1264; Jefferson to Madison, March 19, 1803, p. 1266. Life and Correspondence of Rufus King: King to Madison, July 19, 1802, p. 149 (“Our security”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 65 (“rest the safety”), 113. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 3: Preble to the Secretary of the Navy, Sept. 22, 1803, p. 70 (“The Moors”); Preble to Cathcart, March 18, 1804, p. 501. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 112–13 (“his savage highness”).

10. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 3: Bainbridge to James Simpson, Aug. 29, 1803 (“I sincerely hope”); John Ridgeley to Susan Decatur, Nov. 10, 1826, p. 425. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 100. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 114, 121. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 147–48 (“It is with deep regret”), 152–53, 164–65. Zacks, Pirate Coast, p. 48 (“Gift of Allah”). Harris, Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, pp. 81, 92. Mohamed El Mansour, “The Anachronism of Maritime Jihad: The U.S.–Moroccan Conflict of 1802–1803,” in Jerome Bookin-Weiner and Mohamed El Mansour, eds., The Atlantic Connection: 200 Years of Moroccan-American Relations, 1786–1986 (Rabat: Edino Press, 1990).

11. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 3: Preble to the Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 10, 1803, pp. 256–57 (“Would to God”). James Tertius De Kay, A Rage for Glory: The Life of Commodore Stephen Decatur (New York: Free Press, 2004), pp. 38 (“We are now about”), 56. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 157, 160–73 (“The flames…ascending”). Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 102. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 121, 123, 136. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 60.

12. MML: William Eaton, Interesting Detail of the Operations of the American Fleet in the Mediterranean, Communicated in a Letter from W. E. Esq. to His Friend in the County of Hampshire (Springfield, Mass.: Bliss & Brewer, 1804), p. 7 (“bayonet, spear”). De Kay, Rage for Glory, p. 67 (“Some of the Turks”). Allen, Our Navy, pp. 181–85, 192–94, 214, 217. Niles’ Weekly Register, March 7, 1812, p. 12 (“done more for the cause”). Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 78–79, 91–93. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 142, 156. Harris, Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, p. 116. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 60 (“The most bold”) . Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 3: Preble to the Secretary of the Navy, Feb. 19, 1804, p. 439 (“spend [his] life”); John Hall to William Burrows, Dec. 7, 1803, p. 254 (“eight oz. of bread); vol. 4: Preble to the Secretary of the Navy, Sept. 18, 1804, p. 301 (“I cannot but regret”). Jonathan Cowdery, American Captives in Tripoli (Boston: Belcher & Armstrong, 1806), pp. 13, 17 (“Such attempts served”).

13. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 4: Diary of Surgeon Jonathan Cowdery, entry for Aug. 10, 1804, pp. 64–65. Thomas A. Bryson, Tars, Turks, and Tankers: The Role of the United States Navy in the Middle East, 1800–1979 (London: Scarecrow, 1980), p. 14. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 176–77, 203–9, 217–18. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, p. 22 (“like so many planets”). Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 123. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 149, 172, 221 (“You have done well”).

14. Writings of Albert Gallatin: Gallatin to Jefferson, Aug. 16, 1802, pp. 88–89; Gallatin to Jefferson Jan. 18, 1803, 116. Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, April 27, 1804, pp. 1324–25 (“the most serious one,” “begging alms,” and “beat…[the Algerians’] town”). Thomas Jefferson Papers, Princeton Univ.: Jefferson to Robert Smith, April 27, 1804. Allen, Our Navy, p. 197. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 1: Cathcart to Dale, Sept. 17, 1801, p. 572; Cathcart to Madison, April 18, 1802, p. 127. Nathan Schachner, Thomas Jefferson: A Biography (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1951), pp. 685–86.

15. William Eaton Papers (WEP) (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library). Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis: William Eaton [no recipient], Feb. 21, 1799, p. 37 (“No man will”); roll 1: Eaton to Pynchon, Oct. 12, 1799 (“a man not overly”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 177–78 (“a great bulldog”). Kitzen, Tripoli and the United States at War, pp. 25–26. Wright and Macleod, First Americans in North Africa, p. 19.

16. WEP, Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis: Remarks &c made at Algiers: Feb. 13, 1799, p. 28 (“Universal God”); William Eaton to “Honorable Secretary of the United States,” April, 1799, 117 (“land of rapine,” “Genius of my country!” and “There is but one”); Eaton to General Smith, Aug. 19, 1802 (“Are we then”); Continued Communications from Tunis in Barbary: Eaton to Cathcart, Aug. 8, 1802, p. 237 (“[The] Government may as well”). Zacks, Pirate Coast, p. 31 (“a fiddle bow”). Wright and Macleod, First Americans in North Africa, pp. 20–21, 49–50. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 41–42. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 68–69. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 168, 177.

17. WEP, Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis: Eaton to William Smith, Nov. 13, 1800 (“a cowardly Jew”); Eaton to General Smith, Aug. 19, 1802; Madison to Eaton, Aug. 22, 1802 (“zeal…and calculations”); William Eaton Journal, Sept. 4, 1804, p. 59 (“A whipt Spaniel!”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 54, 94–95, 183. Eaton to William Smith, May 24, 1801 (“buy[ing] oil of rose”).

18. Eaton, Interesting Detail of the Operations, p. 29 (“sun-brown children”). See also R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, 1559–1853 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1952), p. 405. WEP, Continued Communications from Tunis in Barbary: Eaton to the Department of State, Sept. 5, 1801; Eaton to Samuel Lyman, Oct. 12, 1801; Eaton to Mr. James Uphorn, Aug. 11, 1802; Eaton to Hamet Dec. 14, 1804 (“God ordained”). Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 28, 1801, p. 1193. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 88. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 57–66, 110–12, 187, 217.

19. Zacks, Pirate Coast, pp. 184 “(Cash…is the only”), 188. WEP, William Eaton Journal, March 20, 1805, p. 20 (“o’er burning sands”); William Eaton Journal, March 30, 1805, p. 25 (“They have no sense”); Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis: Eaton to the Governor of Derne, April 26, 1805 (“Let no difference”). Allen, Our Navy, pp. 229–32, 235–39, 243–44. Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 258. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 53–54.

20. Republic of Letters: Madison to Jefferson, July 25, 1806, p. 1427; Madison to Jefferson, July 28, 1806, p. 1429; Madison to Jefferson, Sept. 4, 1806, p. 1438; Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 16, 1806, p. 1439. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, p. 116. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 55 (“Georgia, a Greek”). Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 253 (“so unusually honorable”).

21. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 2: Madison to Lear, July 14, 1805, p. 485. WEP, Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis: Eaton to the Secretary of State, May 7, 1800; Eaton to Mr. Appleton, Feb. 18, 1800 (“covered with blood”); William Eaton to Com. Rodgers, on board the U.S. frigate Constellation, off Derne: June 13, 1805 (“uttering shrieks”). Zacks, Pirate Coast, p. 175. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, pp. 235–37, 239, 244, 253. Harris, Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, p. 123.

22. WEP, Hamet Bashaw Caramali to Eaton, June 29, 1805; Eaton to the President of the United States, Feb. 12, 1808 (“Honor recoils”). Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, Aug. 2, 1806, pp. 1431–32. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 252–53, 256 (“You have acquired”).

23. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 221. Thomas Jefferson Papers: Jefferson’s Report to Congress, Dec. 3, 1805.

24. Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 1, 1807, p. 1494 (“to secure peace”). Perkins , Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, pp. 145–46. Robotti and Vescovi, USS Essex, pp. 145–46. Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, p. 202. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 57. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 277 (“Should our differences”), 279 (“My policy”). An Affecting Narrative of the Captivity and Suffering of Thomas Nicholson Who Has Been Six Years a Prisoner among the Algerines (Boston: N. Coverly, 1818), pp. 5–6, 11.

25. Jonathan D. Sarna, Jacksonian Jew: The Two Worlds of Mordecai Noah (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), pp. 13–27, 28 (“It might be well”), 29–33. Isaac Goldberg, Major Noah: American-Jewish Frontier (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1936), pp. 76–80, 117–26. See also Mordecai Manuel Noah, Correspondence and Documents Relative to the Attempt to Negotiate for the Release of the American Captives at Algiers Including Remarks on Our Relations with that Regency (Washington, D.C.: n.p., 1816). “Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: Mordecai Manuel Noah,” http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/loc/noah.html. For David Franks, see Frederick C. Leiner, The End of Barbary Terror: American’s 1815 War against the Pirates of North Africa (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006), p. 30.

26. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 283–84, 286–87, 289 (“swept from the seas” and “dictated from the mouths”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 58 (“liberal and enlightened”). Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, pp. 27–28 (“powder as tribute”). Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, pp. 46–47, 68–69 (“serious disasters”). William Shaler, Sketches of Algiers (Boston: Cummings, Hillard, 1826), pp. 38 (“worthless a power”), 101 (“Islamism”), 126–27, 167–68. For the Madison-dey correspondence see Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, pp. 206–7. On the personality and foreign policy views of James Madison, see J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1983), p. 506. Drew R. McCloy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 18, 22, 26. Robert A. Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1990), pp. 2, 18–20, 25–26.

27. Niles’ Weekly Register, April 15, 1815 (“The name of an American”); Oct. 15, 1815 (“energy which liberty”). Marshall Smelser, The Democratic Republic (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 60. Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, p. 28. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 33, 201–6. Allen, Our Navy, p. 295 (“It was not to be”). Irving Brant, James Madison, vol. 6 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961), p. 398. Dennis Caplan, “John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and the Barbary Pirates: An Illustration of Relevant Costs for Decision Making,” Issues in Accounting Education 18, no. 3 (2003). James Ellison, The American Captive; or, The Siege of Tripoli: A Drama in Five Acts (Boston: Joshua Belcher, 1812). Joseph Hanson, The Musselmen Humbled; or, A Heroic Poem in Celebration of the Bravery Displayed by the American Tars, in the Contest with Tripoli (New York: Southwick and Hardcastle, 1806).

28. Jefferson to Adams, May 27, 1813, in Adams-Jefferson Letters, p. 325. See also Adams-Jefferson Letters: John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, June 11, 1813, pp. 328–29. WEP, Eaton to General Bradley, Jan. 15, 1810 (“I am closely besieged”). William Harlan Hale, ‘“General’ Eaton and His Improbable Legion,” American Heritage 11, no. 2 (Feb. 1960): 106. Whipple, To the Shores of Tripoli, p. 280. Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 205–6. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 336. Allen, Our Navy, pp. 265–66.

29. Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars, vol. 3: Statement by Mordecai Noah, Nov. 8, 1826, p. 232. John Martin Baker, A View of the Commerce of the Mediterranean (Washington, D.C.: Davis and Force, 1819), p. 67. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 2. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 32–33 (“What a reproof”), 119, 258. Smelser, Democratic Republic, p. 313.

4. Illuminating and Emancipating the World

1. Levi Parsons, The Dereliction and Restoration of the Jews: A Sermon, Preached in Park-Street Church Boston, Sabbath, Oct. 31, 1819, Just before the Departure of the Palestine Mission (Boston: Samuel T. Armstrong, 1819). Levi Parson, The Memoir of Rev. Levi Parsons, comp. Daniel Oliver Morton (New York: Arno Press, 1977), p. 219 (“The spirit of the missions”). Alvan Bond, Memoir of the Rev. Pliny Fisk (New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 63, 96–97 (“And now, behold”). Marty E. Martin, Pilgrims in Their Own Land: 500 Years of Religion in America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), pp. 146–47. Clifton Jackson Phillips, Protestant America and the Pagan World: The First Half Century of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810–1860 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1969), p. 135. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 150–51. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 13–16. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 21. Instructions to Fisk and Pliny, in Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 93.

2. Barbara W. Tuchman, Bible and Sword: England and Palestine from the Bronze Age to Balfour (New York: Ballantine, 1956), pp. 80 (“the genius and history”), 81, 124–25. Edward Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea, vol. 1 (Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1841), p. 46. Yona Malachy, American Fundamentalism and Israel: The Relation of Fundamentalist Churches to Zionism and the State of Israel (Jerusalem: Graph Press, 1978). Everett Emerson, Puritanism in America, 1620–1750 (Boston: Twayne, 1977), pp. 71–72, 90–92. Cecelia Tichi, “The Puritan Historians and Their New Jerusalem,” Early American Literature 6 (1971). John Davis, The Landscape of Belief: Encountering the Holy Land in Nineteenth-Century American Art and Culture (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1996), p. 14 (“Jerusalem was”). Shalom Goldman, ed., Hebrew and the Bible in America: The First Two Centuries. (Hanover: Brandeis Univ. Press and Dartmouth College, 1993), pp. xv–xxii, 105, and God’s Sacred Tongue: Hebrew and the American Imagination (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2004), p. 29 (“[In] New England”).

3. Burns, The American Idea of Mission, pp. 5, 11, 18, 31, 261. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 12, 28–29. Willard Sterne Randall, Alexander Hamilton: A Life (New York: Perennial, 2003), p. 18. Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York: Penguin, 2004), p. 18 (“entirely out of the ordinary”). Davis, The Landscape of Belief, p. 15 (“instead of the twelve”). Conrad Cherry, ed., God’s New Israel: Religious Interpretations of American Destiny (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 40 (“City on the Hill”), 62–71, 82–85. Jon Meacham, American Gospel: God, the Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation (New York: Random House, 2006), pp. 79–84.

4. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 10. Bond, Memoir of the Rev. Pliny Fisk, p. 111 (“The Christian…ought”). Tocqueville, Democracy in America, pp. 418–19. Phillips, Protestant America, p. 8 (“We have now entered”), 12 (“the tabernacle of God”). Perkins, Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, p. 4 (“an object so valuable “). Cherry, God’s New Israel, p. 65 (“a great…design”). See also Brooke Allen, “Our Godless Constitution,” Nation, Feb. 3, 2005.

5. Kenneth Latourette, Missions and the American Mind (Indianapolis: National Foundation Press, 1949), pp. 28 (“Though you and I”), 31–34. Phillips, Protestant America, p. 20. Walter Russell Mead, Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 151–52. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 19 (“Only the extension”). Rao H. Lindsay, Nineteenth Century American Schools in the Levant: A Study of Purposes (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan School of Education, 1965), pp. 61–63, 67. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 50 (“the groans” and “Zion will now”), 114–15.

6. Israel Finestein, “Early and Middle 19th-Century British Opinion on the Restoration of the Jews: Contrasts with America,” in Moshe Davis, ed., With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2: Themes and Sources in the Archives of the United States, Great Britain, Turkey and Israel (New York: Praeger, 1986), pp. 74–77, 79–80. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 34, 37. Martin, Pilgrims in Their Own Land, pp. 181–82. Tuchman, Bible and Sword, p. 121 (“transport Izraell’s sons”). Lester I. Vogel, To See a Promised Land: Americans and the Holy Land in the Nineteenth Century (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 125–26. Cherry, God’s New Israel, p. 91 (“the return of the twelve”). Marr, “Imagining Ishmael,” pp. 32–33, 35 (“When that empire falls”), 37–40, 61.

7. Niles’ Weekly Register Nov. 9, 1816, p. 168. Naomi Shepherd, The Zealous Intruders: The Western Rediscovery of Palestine (London: Collins, 1987), p. 39. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 5–8. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 281. Elias Boudinot, A Star in the West; or, A Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel, Preparatory to Their Return to Their Beloved City, Jerusalem (Trenton, N.J: Fenton, Hutchinson, and Dunham, 1816), p. 43. Michael Schuldiner and Daniel J. Kleinfeld, The Selected Writings of Mordecai Noah (London: Greenwood, 1999), p. 127 (“a hundred thousand”).

8. Twenty cities in the United States are named for Smyrna, which is twice mentioned in the New Testament (see Revelations 1:10–11 and 2:8). Papers of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (PABCFM), 5/515/0039, Mission to the Jews, vol. 3: Journal of Eli Smith, Jan. 23, 1827 (“There seems to be”). Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 13–14 (“Do nothing rashly”), 17, 23. Parsons, Memoir, pp. 222 (“With the spirit”), 240 (“The permission to”). Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 151 (“wear a turban”).

9. PABCFM, 5/515/0039, Mission to the Jews, vol. 3: Journal of Eli Smith, Dec. 12, 1826 (estimation of Jerusalem’s Jewish population). Rev. Harvey Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions (New York: Scribner, 1854), p. 734. Parsons, Memoir, pp. 263, 363 (“no place in the world”), 385 (“The door is already”), 390 (“the present commotions”). Moshe Davis and Yehoshua Ben-Arieh, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 5, Jerusalem in the Mind of the Western World, 1800–1848 (New York: Praeger, 1997), pp. 95–96, 144. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 24, 151–52. Joseph L. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810–1927 (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1969), p. 7 (“Thy spirit, Parsons”).

10. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 22 (“Suffer not your minds”). The Missionary Herald: Reports from Ottoman Syria, 1819–1870, vol. 1, ed. Kamal Salibi and Yusuf Khoury (Amman: Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, 1995): Journal of Jonas King, May 10, 1825, p. 405 (“the Arabs poured down”). Isaac Bird, Bible Work in Bible Lands (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1872), p. 15. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 154–55 (“He gave us”).

11. PABCFM, 5/515/0039, Mission to the Jews, vol. 3: Journal of Eli Smith, March 1, 1827 (“She was brought”); May 13, 1824; April 18, 1825 (“It is by no means”), Gridley to Anderson, Nov. 16, 1826 (“Scarcely ten”). Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions, p. 735 (“Druses, Maronites”). Burns, American Idea of Mission, p. 261. Shepherd, Zealous Intruders, p. 40. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 94–95, 103, 129 (“missionaries loaded with books”). Julius Richter, History of Protestant Missions in the Near East (New York: AMS Press, 1970), p. 187. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 28–29, 42. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 8.

12. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 25–26, 32–35, 37–39. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 98–99, 103. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 152, 171, 191–92.

13. George H. Scherer, Mediterranean Missions, 1808–1870 (Beirut: Bible Lands Union for Christian Education, n.d.), p. 7. Adnan Abu-Ghazaleh, American Missions in Syria: A Study in Missionary Contributions to Arab Nationalism in 19th Century Syria (Brattleboro, Vt.: Amana Books, 1990), pp. 20–21. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 21 (“Christian workers”). Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 18 (“day of small things”), 35–37, 38 (“a wide and effectual”), 42.

5. Confluence and Conflict

1. Pierre Crabites, Americans in the Egyptian Army (London: Routledge, 1938), p. 25 (“pale, delicate-looking”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 144–45, 146–47 (“to the prosperity”). Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 95–96. George Bethune English, A Narrative of the Expedition to Dongola and Sennaar under the Command of His Excellence Ismael Pasha Undertaken by Order of His Highness Mehemmed Ali Pasha Viceroy of Egypt (Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1823), p. 114 (“the land of the free”). George Bethune English, The Grounds of Christianity Examined by Comparing the New Testament with the Old (Boston: A.M., 1813), p. 113. George Bethune English, A Letter to the Reverend Mr. Cary Containing Remarks upon His Review of the Grounds of Christianity Examined by Comparing the New Testament with the Old by the Author of That Work (Boston: Printed for the Author, 1813), pp. 76 (“worship of angels”), 118 (“infernal wickedness”). George Bethune English, Letter Respectfully Addressed to the Reverend Mr. Channing Relative to His Two Sermons on Infidelity (Boston: Printed for the Author, 1813), pp. 9, 30.

2. English, Narrative of the Expedition to Dongola and Sennaar, pp. 18–20, 32 (“We are lost!”), 49, 59 (“luckless fornicators”), 61–62 (“monuments of his”). See also Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 147. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” p. 96 (“Obstinate hostility to the truth”). Adams-Jefferson Letters: Adams to Jefferson, March 10, 1823, p. 591.

3. Adams-Jefferson Letters: Adams to Jefferson, June 6, 1785, p. 133. Republic of Letters: Jefferson to Madison, April 15, 1804, p. 1309. Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 94–95. Barrell, Letters from Asia, pp. 13–14. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 118 (“bribery and brass”). Josiah Brewer, A Residence at Constantinople in the Year 1827, with Notes to the Present Time (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1830), p. 71. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 17–18. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 58–63. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 26–29, 30 (“Imaginary Protection”). Ades Nimet Kurat, “Archival Documents concerning Relations between Turkey and the United States of America,” Journal of Historical Research [Turkish] 5 (1964): 290 (“There is no benefit”).

4. John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American Experience (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 2004), p. 15. Mary W. M. Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1985), pp. 29–30, 38. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 119–20 (“preserve him”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 51–52. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 28, 78–81, 89. Kurat, “Archival Documents,” pp. 292 (“Though once only”), 308–9 (“Their cannon foundries”).

5. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, p. 10 (“fellow-citizens of Penn”). Myrtle Cline, American Attitude toward the Greek War of Independence, 1821–1828 (Atlanta: Higgins-McArthur, 1930), pp. 29 (“Sacred to the cause”), 63 (“My old imagination”), 98 (“Humanity, policy”). Edward Mead Earle, “Early American Policy Concerning Ottoman Minorities,” Political Science Quarterly 42 (March 1927): 45 (“purge Greece”), 46 (“how spontaneously”), 47, 55–56. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 121 (“see the language”). Little, American Orientalism, p. 12 (“Wherever the arms”). Thomas Robbins, Diaries, 1796–1854 (Boston: Thomas Todd, 1886): vol. 2, entry for April 11, 1829, p. 90. Samuel Gridely Howe, An Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution (New York: n.p., 1828), pp. 36–38.

6. Samuel Woodruff, Journal of a Tour to Malta, Greece, Asia Minor, Carthage, Algiers, Port Mahon, and Spain (Hartford: Cooke, 1831), p. 11. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 11–12 (“cherish[ed] sentiments”), 13–15. John Quincy Adams, The American Annual Register, 1827–1829 (New York: Blunt, 1830), pp. 269 (“fanatic and fraudulent,” “Ismael,” and “doctrine [of] violence”), 274 (“the subjugation of others”), 299 (“the natural hatred”), 303. Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York: Knopf, 1956), p. 388. See also American Philhellenes and the War for Independence, http://www.ahepafamily.org/d5/Grk%20Inde-mar02.htm.

7. Hargreaves, Presidency of John Quincy Adams, 86. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 96–97 (“You will inform me” and “American Mussulman”), 109–10 (“much engaged” and “his good offices”).

8. Bemis, John Quincy Adams, p. 468. Hargreaves, Presidency of John Quincy Adams, pp. 85–86, 121. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 53–56. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” pp. 109–10, 148 (“misconduct”). John Quincy Adams, Chronology, Documents and Bibliographical Aids (New York: Oceana Publications, 1970), p. 84 (“suffering Greeks”). Kurat, “Archival Documents,” p. 293 (“See how these Franks”).

9. For general histories of the reign and policies of Muhammad Ali, see Henry H. Dodwell, The Founder of Modern Egypt: A Study of Muhammad ‘Ali (1931; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1977), and Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984). See also Shimon Shamir, “Egyptian Rule (1832–1840) and the Beginning of the Modern Period in the History of Palestine,” in Gabriel Baer and Amnon Cohen, eds., Egypt and Palestine: A Millennium of Association (868–1948) (New York: St. Martin’s, 1984), pp. 214–31.

10. The Senate approved the treaty, but objected to the provision of warships. Jackson chose to ignore the Senate’s objections, and proceeded with arms sales to Turkey. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832, vol. 2 (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), p. 289 (“to leave no proper” and “the most friendly”). Kurat, “Archival Documents,” pp. 293–94. John M. Belohlavek, Let the Eagle Soar!: The Foreign Policy of Andrew Jackson (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1985), pp. 130–38. Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1993), p. 128. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 145–46 (“Americans will be”). Lester D. Langley, “Jacksonian America and the Ottoman Empire,” The Muslim World (Hartford: Duncan Black Macdonald Center, Hartford Seminary Foundation, 1978), pp. 46–49. Tungay, “Ottoman-American Trade,” pp. 208–11. Text of the U.S.-Ottoman Treaty can be found in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa, pp. 246–47.

11. In appreciation of the sultan’s purchases of his pistols. Samuel Colt presented him with a gold-plated revolver emblazoned with the images of George Washington and the Great Seal. The firearm, today valued at $5 million, is on display at New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” p. 138. Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State, 1801–1906. Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859. Microfilm 77, roll 162: John Forsyth to David Porter, May 16, 1837 (“improvement in seamanship”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 16, 163–65, 175. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 168–69 (“balls without gunpowder”), 189 (“chairs and tables”), 191, 229. Sarah Rogers Haight, Letters from the Old World by a Lady of New York (New York: Harper, 1840), p. 193. Nathaniel Parker Willis, Summer Cruise in the Mediterranean on an American Frigate (New York: Scribner, 1853), p. 277. Brewer, Residence at Constantinople, p. 72. See also Thomas A. Bryson, An American Consular Officer in the Middle East in the Jacksonian Era: A Biography of William Brown Hodgson, 1801–1871 (Atlanta: Resurgens, 1979), p. 42.

12. Edmund Roberts, Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat, in the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock, during the Years 1832–3–4 (New York: Harper, 1837) (courtesy of the New Hampshire Historical Society and the Tuck Library), pp. 343–45 (“the scene of”), 361 (“A strict lover”), 362–64. New England Merchants in Africa: A History through Documents, 1802–1865, ed. Norman Bennett and George Brooks (Boston: Boston Univ. Press, 1965): Edmund Roberts to Louis Mclane, May 14, 1834, pp. 156–57. Michael A. Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf: A History of America’s Expanding Role in the Persian Gulf, 1833–1992 (New York: Free Press, 1992), pp. 3–4. Among the coins presented to Sultan Sa’id was an extremely rare 1804 silver dollar now known as the Watters-Childs specimen, which last sold for $4.4 million. See http://www.geocities.com/
CollegePark/Union/8191/mcsh/
Omanncss.html and http://www.coinfacts.com/silver_dollars
/1804_dollars/1804_Draped
_Bust_Silver_Dollar.htm.

13. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 258 (“salutary effect”), 261 (“savage and uncivilized”). Missionary Herald, vol. 2: Letter from Eli Smith, Sept. 17, 1834, p. 431 (“multitude of Arab Christians”). John Israel and Henry Lundt, Journal of a Cruize in the U.S. Ship Delaware 74 in the Mediterranean in the Years 1833 & 34 (1835; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977). George Jones, Excursions to Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Balbec from the United States Ship Delaware , during Her Recent Cruise: With an Attempt to Discriminate between Truth and Error in Regard to the Sacred Places of the Holy City (New York: Van Nostrand and Dwight, 1836). See also “An Audience with Sultan Abdul Mejud,” by An American, Knickerbocker 19 (June 1842).

14. Frank E. Manuel, The Realities of American-Palestine Relations (1949; Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975), pp. 9–10. Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 86–89, 97–98. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 88. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 250–53 (“Our whole consular”). Luella J. Hall, The United States and Morocco, 1776–1956 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1971), pp. 90–91. Ruth Kark, “Annual Reports of the United States Consuls in the Holy Land as a Source for the Study of 19th Century Eretz Israel,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 131–32.

15. USNA, Dispatches from U.S. Ministers to Turkey, 1818–1906 (Microfilm M46): David Porter to Nicholas Navoni, Sept. 23, 1831. W. M. Churchill to the Secretary of State, Aug. 10, 1833. The Papers of Daniel Webster, ser. 3, Diplomatic Papers, vol. 1 (Hanover: Univ. Press of New England, 1983), pp. 23–24. David Long, Nothing Too Daring: A Biography of Commodore David Porter, 1780–1843 (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1970), pp. 17–21. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 3, 90. Archibald Douglas Turnbull, Commodore David Porter, 1780–1843 (New York: Century, 1929), pp. 250–51. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 151, 168 (“There is no part”), 174. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 83–85 (“the head and neck”), 88 (“Salaams are”), 91, 94.

16. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 165–67, 170, 174. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 68, 71–73, 94–95 (“Had I the talent”), 259. Kennedy, American Consul, pp. 92–95. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 3. Cary Corwin Conn, “John Porter Brown, Father of Turkish-American Relations: An Ohioan at the Sublime Porte, 1832–1872” (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State Univ., 1973), pp. 48–49.

17. The pardon came too late, however, for two of the Syrians Jews, who were tortured to death. See Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair: “Ritual Murder,” Politics, and the Jews in 1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997). Sarna, Jacksonian Jew, pp. 123–25. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 3, 90. Malachy, American Fundamentalism and Israel, pp. 23–25. Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State, 1801–1906. Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859. Microfilm 77, roll 162: John Forsyth to David Porter, Aug. 17, 1840 (“atrocious cruelties”).

18. Papers of Daniel Webster, pp. 273–74 (“Avoid doing anything”), 277–78 (“Frank residents of Beyrout”), 280. Stephen Vincent Benet, The Devil and Daniel Webster and Other Writings (New York: Penguin, 2000). Irving H. Bartlett, Daniel Webster (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 24, 44, 73, 85. Robert Seeger, And Tyler Too: A Biography of John and Julia Gardiner Tyler (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), pp. 104, 109. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 287–89, 350–51 (“A reading nation”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 94–95, 126–27 (“at their own risk”). Franklin Steiner, The Religious Beliefs of Our Presidents: From Washington to F.D.R. (New York: Prometheus, 1995), pp. 95–97.

6. Manifest Middle Eastern Destiny

1. Brewer, Residence at Constantinople, pp. 25, 65, 361, 370. Finnie, Pioneers East, 36–37 (“Our Pilgrim mothers”).

2. Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions, p. 737. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 50–51, 57, 171–72 (“I have not heard” and “roar of cannon”), 172–87. Missionary Herald, vol. 2: Journal of Mr. Thomson, April 16, 1834, p. 373 (“The Jordan”); Journal of Mr. Thomson [written in Nablus], April 23, 1834, p. 378 (“the wreck”); Whiting to Dodge, Nov. 17, 1834, p. 441. Davis, Landscape of Belief, p. 45. Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions, p. 737 (“not a single soul”). Yehoshua Ben-Arieh, Painting the Holy Land in the 19th Century (Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1997), p. 210. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 100–1. Bird, Bible Work in Bible Lands, p. 87 (“a land of devils”). See also Shamir, “Egyptian Rule,” pp. 214–31.

3. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 40–43 (“The Turks…exhibit”). Board report in Newcomb, Cyclopedia of Missions, p. 737. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 35–38, 39 (“gloomy, austere”), 42 (“The thought of their”), 124, 193–94. Brewer, Residence at Constantinople, pp. 383–84.

4. Horatio Southgate, Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia (London: Appleton, 1840), pp. 300–1 (“the first Americans”). Kaplan, Arabists, pp. 22–23 (“every species”), 24–25. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 79. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 208–9 (“I felt a stronger desire”), 216–17 (“The sick, the lame”), 196–97, 205-7, 214–15 (“his eye bright”).

5. Finnie, Pioneers East, 118–19, 205–9 (“Enfeebled health”), 238–39 (“Let us have”). Louisa Hawes, Memoir of Mrs. M. E. Van Lennep, by Her Mother (Hartford: Belknap and Hamersley, 1849), p. 325 (“I sometimes fear”). Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 73 (“The hour is near”). Hawes, Memoir of Mrs. M. E. Van Lemep, p. 325. Missionary Herald, vol. 2: Letter from Eli Smith, June 21, 1827, p. 247; Memoir of William Goodell, 1825, p. 431 (“a man’s hat”). The Reminiscences of Daniel Bliss (New York: Revell, 1920), p. 106 (“You Americans think”).

6. Robert T. Handy, The Holy Land in American Protestant Life, 1800–1948 (New York: Arno Press, 1981), 85-86 (“Whereas, but”). Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 56, 82–83, 121–22, 170–76. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 109 (“liberty, property”), 200–1 (“Not only do”). Stephen Penrose, That They May Have Life: The Story of the American University of Beirut, 1866–1941 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1941), p. 6.

7. Missionary Herald, vol. 2: Letter from Mr. Marsh, Feb. 25, 1851, p. 299. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 210 (“ought to know”), 250, 351 (“I do love”). Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 129 (“full extent” and “I am persuaded”). Phillips, Protestant America, p. 259. William Goodell, Forty Years in the Turkish Empire (New York: Robert Carter, 1883), p. 174 (“We have come”) For insights into missionary views of Islam and Muhammad, see Thomas Laurie, The Ely Volume; or, The Contributions of Our Foreign Missions to Science and Human Well-Being (Boston: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1881), pp. 320–22, and the anonymous Life of Mohammad (Bombay: American Mission Press, 1851). The semidiplomatic role of European missionaries is discussed in Derek Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 59.

8. Cyrus Hamlin, My Life and Times (Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1893), pp. 30, 62. Cyrus Hamlin, Among the Turks (New York: Robert Carter, 1878), pp. 57 (“a decided impression”), 62 (“rather leaky”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 99–108, 109 (“indomitably self-willed”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 297 (“querulous” and “despotic”), 347–48.

9. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 118–19. Latourette, Missions and the American Mind, p. 33. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 4. Lindsay, Nineteenth Century American Schools, p. 66. Phillips, Protestant America, p. 316. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 97–98. Mead, Special Providence, pp. 143, 146–48, 150–51. Lewis, Crisis of Islam, p. 67 (“This country is”). PABCFM: Eddy to the American Board, Sept. 7, 1867 (“There are no rail”). Benjamin Foster, “Yale and the Study of Near Eastern Languages in America, 1770–1930,” in Amanat and Bernhardsson, eds., United States and the Middle East, pp. 18 (“The countries of the West”), 19. Bruce Kuklick, Puritans in Babylon: The Ancient Near East and American Intellectual Life, 1880–1930 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 5, 20–22. John Thornton Kirkland, “Letter on the Holy Land,” Christian Examiner and General Review 23, no. 2 (1842): 261. Elizabeth Cabot Kirkland, Letters (Cambridge: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1905), p. 503 (“These worthy people”).

10. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, vol. 1, pp. 23–25, 75, 133 (“strangeness and overpowering” and “Although not given”). William Thomson, The Land and the Book; or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land, vol. 1 (New York: Harper, 1886), p. 6. Manuel, Realities, pp. 6–12. Ruth Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, 1832–1914 (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew Univ., 1994), pp. 84, 95, 127 (“There is no other”). Obenzinger, American Palestine, p. xvii. Vivian D. Lipman, “American-Holy Land Material in British Archives, 1820–1930,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, p. 28.

11. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, vol. 1, pp. 23–25, 75, 132, 162 (“stagnation and moral darkness”), 176, 262–63, 266–68, 350, 374 (“vast mass of tradition”). Edward Robinson, Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and Adjacent Regions: A journal of travels in the year 1852 (London: John Murray, 1856), p. 73. Shepherd, Zealous Intruders, pp. 80–83. Handy, Holy Land, pp. 2–19. Neal Asher Silberman, Digging for God and Country: Archeology and the Secret Struggle for the Holy Land, 1799–1917 (New York: Knopf, 1982), pp. 40–47. Davis, Landscape of Belief, p. 36 (“American science”).

12. William F. Lynch , Narrative of the United States’ Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea (Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1853) , pp. v (“teeming with sacred”), 18 (“hallowed by”), 76, 79 (“protection against”), 115 (“gun-shot wounds”), 119, 152 (“It must have been”), 230 (“wanderers in an unknown”), 259–60, 261, 284 (“The curse of God”), 293 (“in honour of), 287 (“the tents among”), 321 (“The thought of death”), 407. Edward P. Montague, Narrative of the Late Expedition to the Dead Sea (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1849), pp. 116, 121–22 (“We Yankee boys”), 149, 218–19 (“float with perfect ease”).

13. Lynch, Narrative of the United States’ Expedition, pp. 360 (“Fifty well-armed”), 415 (“destined to be”). American Geographical and Statistical Society, Report and Memorial on Syrian Exploration (New York: New York Univ., 1857), p. 7. Andrew C. A. Jampoler, Sailors in the Holy Land: The 1848 American Expedition to the Dead Sea and the Search for Sodom and Gomorrah (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2005), pp. 60, 142. See also Robert Edward Rook, “Blueprints and Prophets: Americans and Water Resource Planning for the Jordan River Valley, 1860–1970” (Ph.D. diss., Kansas State Univ., 1996), pp. 22–23.

14. Robbins, Diaries, 1796–1854, vol. 2, p. 573. Haight, Letters from the Old World, p. 110. George Bush, The Life of Mohammed: Founder of the Religion of Islam, and of the Empire of the Saracens (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1837), pp. 49 (“pseudo-prophet”), 160–61 (“man of superior”); The Valley of Vision (New York: Saxton and Miles, 1844), pp. 17 (“elevating”), 39 (“carnal inducements”), 41 (“It will blaze”), 56 (“link of communication”). Shalom Goldman, “Professor George Bush: American Hebraist and Proto-Zionist,” American Jewish Archives 43, no. 1 (1991): 58–69. “Bush on Ezekiel’s Vision,” Princeton Review 16, no. 3 (1844): 384. Elaine B. Prince, “The Patrilineal Descent of Vice-President Bush,” NEXUS: The Bimonthly Newsletter of the New England Genealogical Society 3 (1986): 124–25.

15. Truman G. Madsen, “The Holy Land and the Mormon Restoration,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 28–29. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. xvii, 116, 121, 126–27, 160 (“very weak minded”). Warder Cresson, The Key of David (Philadelphia: Self-published, 1852), p. 15 (“There is no salvation”). Frank Fox, “Quaker, Shaker, Rabbi: Warder Cresson: The Story of a Philadelphia Mystic,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 95 (1971): 147 (“I left the wife”), 157–63. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 170 (“capacity & probity”). Sarna, Jacksonian Jew, pp. 153–55. Selected Writings of Mordecai Noah, pp. 125–26. William Makepeace Thackeray, From Cornhill to Grand Cairo (London: George Routledge, 1888), pp. 225–26, 242 (“has no knowledge”).

16. Catherine A. Brekus, “Harriet Livermore, the Pilgrim Stranger: Female Preaching and Biblical Feminism in Early Nineteenth-Century America,” Journal of the Early Republic 65 (Sept. 1996): 389–404. Elizabeth F. Hoxie, “Harriet Livermore: Vixen and Devotee,” New England Quarterly 18 (March 1945): 41 (“Sick of the world”), 43 (“She is the most”). Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State, 1801–1906. Turkey. April 2, 1823–July 9, 1859. Microfilm 77, roll 162: Louis Lane to David Porter, April 28, 1834 (“high character”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 182–83 (“meet my lot”). Portraits of Lady Hester Stanhope can be found in Charles Lewis Meryon and Hester Lucy Stanhope, The Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope (London: H. Colburn, 1846). Michael Bruce, The Nun of Lebanon (London: Collins, 1951). “The Memoirs of Lady Stanhope,” Living Age 6, no. 69 (Sept. 6, 1845).

17. John T. Brown, ed., Churches of Christ (Louisville: John P. Morton, 1904), pp. 440–41 (“criminally modest” and “they could all”). James Turner Barclay, The City of the Great King; or, Jerusalem As It Was, As It Is, and As It Is to Be (Philadelphia: James Challen, 1857), pp. 608–10. Handy, Holy Land, p. 84 (“God hath not”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 107.

18. Clorinda Minor, Meshullam!; or, Tidings from Jerusalem: From the Journal of a Believer Recently Returned from the Holy Land (Philadelphia: Self-published, 1851), pp. 52 (“His time to favor”), 91, 114 (“Many Christians profess”). Catherine A. Brekus, Strangers and Pilgrims: Female Preaching in America, 1740–1845 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998), p. 53 (“The conviction of my soul”). Henry L. Feingold, Zion in America: The Jewish Experience from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Twayne, 1974), p. 199. Barbara Krieger, Divine Expectations: An American Woman in 19th Century Palestine (Athens: Ohio Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 38–39, 50, 113–16. Lipman, “American-Holy Land Material,” pp. 29–32.

19. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 280 (“the Modern Tabitha”). Tabitha—in Greek, Dorcas—was a righteous woman of Jaffa who, according to the New Testament (Acts 9:36–43), was resurrected after death by the apostle Peter. Yaron Perry, “John Steinbeck’s Roots in Nineteenth-Century Palestine,” Steinbeck Studies 15, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 51–52 (“our Hebrew friends”), 55. Abraham Karp, “The Zionism of Warder Cresson,” in Isadore Meyer, ed., Early Zionism in America (Philadelphia: American Jewish Historical Society, 1958), pp. 9–14. Warder Cresson Biography, http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/Cresson.html. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 132. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 281.

20. PABCFM, 5/546/16.8.1, Syrian Mission, vol. 7: Eddy to the American Board, Sept. 7, 1867 (“Europe is striving”). Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. 1, pp. 269 (“all-pervading”), 318 (“unquiet passions”); vol. 2, p. 622 (“strange unrest” and “in the midst”).

7. Under American Eyes

1. Stanley T. Williams, ed., Journal of Washington Irving, 1828 and Miscellaneous Notes on Moorish Legend and History (New York: American Book Co., 1937), pp. 21–34. William H. Hedges, The Old and New World Romanticism of Washington Irving (New York: Greenwood, 1986), pp. 20, 89–120. Philip Almond, “Western Images of Islam, 1700–1900,” Australian Journal of Politics and History 49, no. 3 (2003). Fuad Shaban, Islam and Arabs in Early American Thought: Roots of Orientalism in America (Durham, N.C.: Acorn Press, 1991), p. 32. Malini Johar Schueller, U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790–1890 (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1998), pp. 68–70. Ahmed Mohamed Metwalli, “The Lure of the Levant: The American Literary Experience in Egypt and the Holy Land, 1800–1865,” (Ph.D. diss., State Univ. of New York at Albany, 1971), p. 64 (“living in the Arabian”). Washington Irving and James Paulding, Salmagundi (Chicago: Belford, Clarke, 1807), pp. 34 (“positively assured”), 86 (“superlative ventosity”), 131 (“slangwhangging”). George S. Hellman, Washington Irving, Esquire: Ambassador at Large from the New World to the Old (New York: Knopf, 1925), pp. 155 (“A mighty potentate”), 207 (“a kind of Oriental”). Washington Irving, The Conquest of Granada (New York: Putnam, 1850), p. xx (“romantic adventures”). Washington Irving, Alhambra (Boston: Ginn, 1902), p. 90 (“naked realities”).

2. Barrell, Letters from Asia, p. 10. Wright, “American Relations with Turkey,” p. 155. Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 4, 12–13, 160–65. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 298. Joseph J. Malone, “America and the Arabian Peninsula: The First Two Hundred Years,” Middle East Journal 30, no. 3 (Summer 1976): 407. Isaac M. Fein, The Making of an American Jewish Community: The History of Baltimore Jewry from 1773 to 1920 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1971), pp. 24–25. Tigger, “Egyptology, Ancient Egypt,” pp. 21–22.

3. Papers of William H. Seward: “Governor Seward’s Journey from Egypt to Palestine,” New York Daily Tribune, Dec. 24, 1859, p. 5 (“There are no berths”). Metwalli, “Lure of the Levant,” p. 100. Prices to travel to the Middle East are listed in Warder Cresson, King Solomon’s Two Women and the Living and Dead Child or Messiah (Philadelphia: Self-published, 1852), pp. 343–44. John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land (New York: Harper, 1855), pp. 4, 17–18. James Ewing Cooley, The American in Egypt, with Rambles through Arabia Petra and the Holy Land during the Years 1839–1840 (New York: Appleton, 1842), pp. 16, 329. Wages in 1840 listed on “Senate Salaries since 1789,” www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/
common/briefing/senate_salaries.htm and “Documenting the American South,” http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/helper/helper.html.

4. David F. Dorr, A Colored Man round the World by a Quadroo n (N.p: Printed for the author, 1858), pp. 38 (“head-choppers”), 186. Cooley, American in Egypt, pp. 15 (“narrow, gloomy streets”), 16 (“Arabs, Armenians”), 262 (“ignorance and superstition”), 313 (“lunatics, idiots”). Stephens, Incidents of Travel, pp. 18 (“splendor and opulence” and “the dashing Turk”), 103 (“bigoted Musselmans”), 104, 120 (“false religion” and “haughty and deluded”). Haight, Letters from the Old World, pp. 30 (“I only saw”), 269 (“Mohammedanism”).

5. Cooley, American in Egypt, pp. 259 (“civilized nations”). Stephens, Incidents of Travel, pp. 174–75 (“When I heard”), 345 (“life hangs”). Haight, Letters from the Old World, pp. 45 (“penetrate the darkness”), 269 (“political crusade”), 270 (“kick the beam”). Walter Colton, Visit to Constantinople and Athens, vol. 2 (New York: Leavitt, Lord, 1836), pp. 105, 176–77 (“The same effort”), 181 (“Islamism”). Finnie, Pioneers East, pp. 155 (“There is a feeling”), 161. Valentine Mott, Travels in Europe and the East (New York: Harper, 1842), p. 269 (“His royal highness”). William H. Bartlett, The Nile Boat; or, Glimpses of the Land of Egypt. (London: Arthur Hall, Virtue, 1850), pp. 46 (“city of Saladin”), 135 (“Egypt, fallen”). Kirkland, Letters, pp. 480–81 (“a rich Jew”), 490 (“a man lying”).

6. Stephens, Incidents of Travel, pp. 146 (“yellow slippers”), 84–85 (“that precious fragment”), 216. Mott, Travels in Europe and the East, p. 327. Dorr, Colored Man round the World, pp. 123 (“I would have given”), 177 (“jingling and a screwing”). Willis, Summer Cruise, pp. 254 (“the camel-driver’s wife”), 268 (“a graceful creature”), 285. On nineteenth-century Western sexual fantasies of the Middle East, see Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979), pp. 119, 181–90.

7. Bayard Taylor, The Lands of the Saracen; or, Pictures of Palestine, Asia Minor, Sicily, and Spain (New York: Putnam, 1855), pp. 55 (“We kept our arms”), 56 (“heard the trumpets”). Finnie, Pioneers East, 181–83 (“plain man of steady habits”), 187. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 195–96. Stephens, Incidents of Travel, pp. 163 (“Can it be”), 188 (“witness of that great”), 318 (“I never saw”). Haight, Letters from the Old World, vol. 2, pp. 10 (“her friends have”), 130 (“How deplorable”). Cooley, American in Egypt, pp. 45 (“Surely the serpent”), 60 (“He that dippeth”). Dorr, Colored Man round the World, p. 187 (“not worth”). Mott, Travels in Europe and the East, p. 330 (“Nothing denotes”). Kirkland, Letters, p. 491 (“I wore my”).

8. Davis, Landscape of Belief, pp. 33, 42. The review of Cooley’s book can be found in United States Democratic Review 11, no. 50 (Aug. 1842): 219 (“a novelty quite unique”). Samuel Austin Allibone, A Critical Dictionary of English Literature, and British and American Authors (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1871), pp. 415 (“replete with information”), 754 (“precious volumes”). Cleveland Plain Dealer archive, Sept. 20, 1858, p. 3 (“graphic and racy”). “A Kentuckian in the East,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 6, no. 36, May 1853, p. 741. The Works of the Late Edgar Allan Poe, vol. 4 (New York: Arthur Gordon Pym, 1856), pp. 371–89. Washington Irving, Mahomet and His Successors (Chicago: Belford, Clarke, 1973), p. 200. J. Ross Browne, Yusef; or, The Journey of the Frangi: A Crusade in the West (New York: Harper, 1853), p. 177 (“Yes, sir”).

9. John Freeman, Herman Melville (New York: Macmillan, 1926), pp. 32–34, 63–65. Robert L. Gale, A Herman Melville Encyclopedia (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), pp. 106–7, 127, 143, 400. Herman Melville, Redburn (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1983), p. 10. Herman Melville, Moby Dick (New York: Hendrick’s House, 1952), p. 30. Obenzinger, American Palestine, p. 63. Herman Melville, Journals, ed. Howard C. Horsford and Lynn Horth (Chicago: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 56 (“Imagine an immense”), 58, 61 (“horrible grimy”), 62–63 (“Out of every”), 65 (“these millions”), 72–73 (“like a huge stick”), 75–76 (“Vapors below summits”). Herman Melville, White-Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-War (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990), p. 153. Metwalli, “Lure of the Levant,” p. 353. Dorothee Metlitsky Finkelstein, Melville’s Orienda (New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press, 1961), pp. 3, 165–67, 189, 192.

10. Warder Cresson, Jerusalem: The Center and Joy of the Universe (Philadelphia: Self-published, 1844), p. 23 (“God hath chosen”). Frank Fox, “Quaker, Shaker, Rabbi,” pp. 174, 182. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 127, 133 (“sawdust of Christianity”), 134–35. Warder Cresson biography on http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/Cresson.html (“settling forever”). Melville, White-Jacket, p. 153 (“peculiar chosen people”). Melville, Journal, pp. 83 (“It is against the will” and “Whitish mildew”), 85 (“An American turned Jew”), 87 (“confused and half-ruinous”), 90 (“No country” and “the color”), 91 (“Is the desolation” and “In the emptiness”), 94 (“preposterous Jew mania”).

11. Melville, Journal, pp. 81 (“exponent of her aspirations”), 92 (“broken-down machinist”), 93 (“H.M.: Have you settled”). Herman Melville, Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage to the Holy Land (Chicago: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1991), p. 413 (“in the name of Christ”). Finkelstein, Melville’s Orienda, pp. 60–61, 90. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 68–89. Walter Herbert, “The Force of Prejudice: Melville’s Attack on Missions in Typee,” Border States 1 (1973). Perry, “John Steinbeck’s Roots,” pp. 52–55, 60–61 USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from the U.S. Consuls. Alexandria, Egypt, vol. 2: Gorham to Brown, Jan. 17, 1858: Testimony of Mary Steinbeck, Jan. 18, 1858 (“Oh! Father” and “We sat half”); Testimony of Caroline Dickson, Jan. 18, 1858. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 133. Robert DeMott, “Steinbeck’s Other Family: New Light on East of Eden?” Steinbeck Newsletter 7, no. 1 (Winter 1994).

12. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Jerusalem, Palestine: De Leon to Bell, Jan. 27, 1858 (“prompt, stern”); De Leon to Cass, Feb. 22, 1858 (“unprotected heads”); De Leon to Cass, March 6, 1858 (“We regard the murder”); Gorham to Brown, Oct. 12, 1859; De Leon to Cass, July 28, 1860 (“It is the nature”). Edwin De Leon, Thirty Years of My Life on Three Continents (London: Ward and Downey, 1890), pp. 259 (“Are our countries”), 262 (“the Arab character”), 263 (“The audacity”). Feingold, Zion in America, p. 89. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt: The State Department to Edwin de Leon, April 16, 1858. Papers of William H. Seward, Reel 58: Trabulsi to Seward, Sept. [n.d.], 1859.

13. Harold W. Felton, Uriah Phillips Levy (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1978), p. 34. Samuel Sobel, Intrepid Soldier (Philadelphia: Cresset, 1980), pp. 17, 15 (“I would rather serve”), 21. Sanford V. Sternlicht, Uriah Phillips Levy: The Blue Star Commodore (Norfolk: Norfolk Jewish Community Council, 1961), p. 41. Donovan Fitzpatrick and Saul Saphire, Navy Maverick: Uriah Phillips Levy (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1963). Marc Leeson, Saving Monticello: The Levy Family’s Epic Quest to Rescue the House That Jefferson Built (New York: Free Press, 2001). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 292–93. Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf, pp. 6–8.

14. Douglas H. Strong, Dreamers and Defenders: American Conservationists (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1988), pp. 29–30. Life and Letters of George Perkins Marsh (New York: Scribner, 1888), p. 7. Jane Curtis, Will Curtis, and Frank Lieberman, The World of George Perkins Marsh (Woodstock: Countryman Press, 1982), pp. 65, 90, 102. David Lowenthal, George Perkins Marsh: Versatile Vermonter (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1958), pp. 120 (“wretched place”), 121–22, 126, 134–36, 178 (“the Comanches” and “strike with a salutary”). Rook, “Blueprints and Prophets,” pp. 34–35, 39–40. Melville, Journals, pp. 69–70. Ninth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.: Beverley Tucker, 1855), pp. 100 (“Ship of the desert”), 120.

15. Younis, “Arabs Who Followed Columbus,” p. 14. Felicity Allen, Jefferson Davis: Unconquerable Heart (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1999), p. 210. Odie B. Faulk, The U.S. Camel Corps (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 30, 49, 102 (“What are these”), 185–86 (“Napoleon, when”). The Papers of Jefferson Davis, ed. Lynda Crist and Mary Dix, vol. 6 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 26–27, 87 (“These tests fully realize”), 385, 387. Ben Macintyre, The Man Who Would Be King: The First American in Afghanistan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004), pp. 269–72. See also U.S. Camel Corps Remembered in Quartzite Arizona, http://www.outwestnewspaper.com/camels.html.

16. Khalaf, Persistence and Change, pp. 89–93. PABCFM: W. W. Eddy to Board, June 5, 1860. Henry Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria, vol. 1 (New York: Revell, 1910), pp. 175 (“terror-stricken, hungry”), 187–88 (“the blood at length”). Reminiscences of Daniel Bliss, pp. 142, 146, 152. Melvin Urofsky, The Levy Family and Monticello (Monticello: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, 2001), p. 83. Perry, “John Steinbeck’s Roots,” p. 70. Malini Johar Schueller, ed., David F. Dorr: A Colored Man round the World (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1999), p. xi.

8. Fission

1. Writings of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 10: Historicus to the Editor of the Federal Gazette, March 23, 1790, pp. 87–91. Ellis, Founding Brothers, pp. 81–119.

2. Lotfi Ben Rejeb, “America’s Captive Freemen in North Africa: The Comparative Method in Abolitionist Persuasion” Slavery and Abolition 9 (1988): 60–61 (“If many thousands”). Arthur Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 171 (“doubtless shudder”). Marr, “Imagining Ishmael,” p. 142 (“The American slaves”) and (“the injustice and cruelty”). The Family Letters of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Edwin Bettis and James Bear Jr. (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1966): Martha Jefferson to Thomas Jefferson, May 5, 1787, p. 39. Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution: Anonymous letter, Feb. 6, 1789, p. 872 (“six of one”). Tyler, Algerine Captive, pp. 98 (“like so many head”), 111 (“fly to”). Anonymous, American in Algiers, p. 24.

3. James Stevens, An Historical and Geographical Account of Algiers (Philadelphia: Hogan and McElroy, 1797), p. 235 (“the execrable practice”). WEP, Negociations of the United States with the Kingdom of Tunis, roll 2: “Remarks &c Made at Algiers,” Feb. 24, 1799, p. 38 (“Barbary is hell”). James Riley, Sufferings in Africa: Captain Riley’s Narrative (New York: Potter, 1965), pp. 445 (“the cursed tree”) 446–47 (“shiver in pieces”). Allison, Crescent Obscured, pp. 221–25. Gerald McMurty, “Influences of Riley’s Narrative upon Abraham Lincoln,” Indiana Magazine of History 30, no. 2 (June 1934): 136–38. Marr, “Imagining Ishmael,” pp. 151–53. Charles Sumner, White Slavery in the Barbary States (Boston: J. P. Jewett, 1853), pp. 11, 12–13.

4. Missionary Herald: Journal of Pliny Fisk, Mary 8, 1823, p. 156. Shaban, Islam and Arabs in Early American Thought. Albert J. Raboteau, “Black Americans,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 312–14. Stephen Olin, Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petra and the Holy Land (New York: Harper, 1844), p. 318 (“great national calamities”). Handy, Holy Land, p. xiii (“A keen observer”).

5. Ziff, Return Passages, p. 50. Mott, Travels in Europe and the East, pp. 390–91. Willis, Summer Cruise, pp. 282–83. Stephens, Incidents of Travel, p. 62. Cooley, American in Egypt, p. 349. Dorr, Colored Man round the World, p. 141.

6. FRUS, 1861: Brown to Aali Pacha, June 26, 1861, pp. 391–92 (“continue to cultivate”); Brown to Seward, July 17, 1861, p. 391 (“friendly sympathies”); Thayer to Seward, June 29, 1861; 1862: Message of the President to the Two Houses of Congress, Dec. 5, 1862, p. 5. Seward to Morris, April 1, 1862, p. 783 (“accustomed as they are”); 1863, vol. 2: Thayer to Seward, Nov. 5, 1862, p. 1101. Phillip Shaw Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1994), pp. 89–91, 218–19. Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (New York: Random House, 1968), pp. 281–83, 360. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 60–61. On the replacement of James Williams, see Senate Executive Journal, March 18, 1861, p. 310.

7. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Tangier, Morocco, vol. 8: De Long to Seward; Feb. 15, 1862 (“so called Southern Confederacy”); De Long to Seward; Feb. 20, 1862 (“American Citizens”); De Long to Commander of the Sloop of War “Tuscarosa,” Feb. 20, 1862 (“I want the presence”); De Long to Bargash, Feb. 26, 1862; De Long to Seward, Feb. 27, 1862 (“at least three thousand”); De Long to the French, Italian, Swedish, Spanish, and Portuguese Consuls in Tangier, March 1, 1862 (“If temporary civil war”); De Long to Seward, March 6, 1862 (“I have heard”); De Long to Seward, March 20, 1862 (“Moorish authorities”). FRUS, 1862: Bargash to De Long, Feb. 25, 1862, pp. 863–64. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, ser. 1, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1894), pp. 310–20, 358–60, 392, 668, 676–79. Raphael Simmes, Memoirs of a Service Afloat (Baltimore: Baltimore Publishing Co., 1887), pp. 334–35, 336 (“political ignorance”), 337–40. Jay Monaghan, Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1945), pp. 215–17. On the Tangier lighthouse convention, see Peter Larsen, Theodore Roosevelt and the Moroccan Crisis, 1904–1906 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984), p. iv.

8. FRUS, 1861: Thayer to Seward, July 20, 1861, p. 424; 1863, vol. 2: Thayer to Seward, Nov. 5, 1862, p. 1101; 1864, vol. 4: Thayer to Seward, Jan. 23, 1864, p. 405; Hale to Seward, Oct. 22, 1864, p. 408 (“generous contribution”); 1864, vol. 1: Message of the President to the Two Houses of Congress, Washington, Dec. 6, 1864, p. 4.

9. Studies in the National Military Victories of Egypt [Arabic]. Cairo: Ministry of Information, 1984, pp. 153–63. FRUS, 1865, vol. 3: Hale to Seward, Aug. 26, 1865, p. 329 (“What the Pacha”). Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 63–65. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 25–26. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 385. Arnold Blumberg, “William Seward and Egyptian Intervention in Mexico,” Smithsonian Journal of History 1 (Winter 1966–67): 31–34, 44–45. Howard Kerner, “Turko-American Diplomatic Relations, 1860–1880” (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown Univ., 1948), pp. 62–65.

10. Allen C. Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 434 (“How I should like”). USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt, vol. 78: Seward to Hale, Dec. 4, 1866; Seward to Hale, Jan. 23, 1867 (“considerate and friendly”). Osborn Oldroyd, The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln (1901; reprint, Union, N.J.: Lawbook Exchange, 2001), pp. 65, 232–35, 239, 266. Edward Steers, Blood on the Moon: The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001), pp. 231–32.

9. Rebs and Yanks on the Nile

1. Zachary Karabell, Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal (New York: Knopf, 2003), p. 184 (“Practically every”). David Christy, King Cotton (Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys, 1855), pp. 68–79. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 193–94 (“a Southern plantation”), 248–49. The goats given to Davis became the progenitors of prize Angora herds in Texas and Oregon; see Texas Department of Agriculture, http://www.agr.state.tx.us/education/
teach/mkt_fibernet.htm, and The First Farmers of Oregon, http://www.gesswhoto.com/centennial-farmers.html.

2. E. R. J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1820–1914 (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969), pp. 89, 105. Edward M. Earle, “Egyptian Cotton and the American Civil War,” Political Science Quarterly 41, no. 4 (Dec. 1926): 520–36. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt, vol. 78: William Seward to William Thayer, Dec. 16, 1862 (“The…increase of cotton”). FRUS, 1861: Thayer to Seward, July 20, 1861, p. 423; 1863, vol. 2: Seward to Morris, Dec. 13, 1862, pp. 1090–91. Vatikiotis, History of Egypt, pp. 73–77, 125–28. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 183–84. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 66–70.

3. Charles Dudley Warner, Mummies and Moslems (Toronto: Belford Brothers, 1876), p. 380. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 86–87 (“shorten by 2,000 leagues”), 219. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt: W. L. Marcy to Edwin de Leon, June 17, 1854 (“cheerfully received”). FRUS, 1861: Thayer to Seward, July 20, 1861, p. 424; 1862, vol. 2: Thayer to Seward, Nov. 5, 1862, p. 1101; 1864, vol. 4: Thayer to Seward, Jan. 23, 1864, p. 405; 1864, vol. 1: Message of the President to the Two Houses of Congress, Washington, Dec. 6, 1864, p. 4 (“Our relations with Egypt”); 1865, vol. 3: Hale to Seward, Dec. 22, 1864, p. 315.

4. Pierre Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army (London: Routledge, 1938), pp. 14, 39. Charles Chaillé-Long, My Life in Four Continents, vol. 1 (London: Hutchinson, 1912), pp. 17, 38, 231. William B. Hesseltine and Hazel C. Wolf, The Blue and the Gray on the Nile (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1961), pp. 4 (“a soldier of misfortune”), 5–11, 18–19, 29–41, 43–44. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 395–96.

5. John Marlowe, Spoiling the Egyptians (New York: St. Martin’s, 1975), pp. 104–17. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, p. 70.

6. James Morris Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917), pp. 268–69 (“That was about”), 270 (“An exact reproduction”). Chaillé-Long, My Life, pp. 20–22, 30–33. Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army, pp. 41–42, 44. Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 65–66 (“discretion, devotion”), 72–73, 93–94 (“The East with its”), 98–100, 150–51.

7. William Wessels, Born to Be a Soldier: The Military Career of William Wing Loring (Fort Worth: Texas Christian Univ. Press, 1971), p. 78–79. Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 19–20, 51 (“The limits”), 66–72, 87 (“the express right” and “The army here”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 392–93, 397. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, p. 81. Chaillé-Long, My Life, p. 35. Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer, pp. 271 (“I looked so much”), 287. See also Olive Risley Seward, ed., William H. Seward’s Travels around the World (New York: Appleton, 1873), pp. 545–46, 620. Ralph Kirshner, The Class of 1861: Custer, Ames, and Their Classmates after West Point (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 6, 167. Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, vol. 1 (New York: C. L. Webster, 1885), p. 181.

8. Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer, pp. 277–81, 291 (“Christian prejudices”). William Loring, A Confederate Soldier in Egypt (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1884), p. 69 (“the same barbarous”), 135 (“born of the sword”). Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 60 (“they are better”), 61–62, 64–65 (“Christian intolerance”), 89 (“The army, both officers”), 106, 116–17, 125–26. William Dye, Moslem Egypt and Christian Abyssinia (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), pp. 38–39, 45–46 (“imaginative soul”), 102.

9. Frederick J. Cox, “The American Naval Mission in Egypt,” Journal of Modern History 26, no. 2 (June 1954). Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 123–27, 130–34, 144–46, 147 (“In the philanthropist”), 220. Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army, pp. 74 (“Although I am prostrate”), 77, 81.

10. Charles Chaillé-Long, The Three Prophets: Chinese Gordon, Mohammed-Ahmed (El Maahdi), Arabi Pasha (New York: Appleton, 1884), pp. 25–27, and My Life, pp. 68, 91 (“Prostrate upon their faces,”), 94 (“number of warriors”), 97 (“The entire Nile”), 102–6, 158, 195 (“This young officer”). H. E. Wortham, Chinese Gordon (Boston: Little, Brown, 1933), p. 181. Godfrey Elton, Gordon of Khartoum (New York: Knopf, 1955), pp. 127, 135 (“on what he has done”). Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army, pp. 110–11 (“Give it to them”), 134–35, 151–62, 167–68 (“American pirate”), 167 (“My hair hung”), 185. See also David Icenogle, “The Expeditions of Chaille-Long,” http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/
197806/the.expeditions.of.chaille-long.htm, and “Americans in the Egyptian Army,” http://www.home.earthlink.net/
~atomic_rom/officers.htm.

11. William Loring, “The Egyptian Campaign in Abyssinia—From the Notes of a Staff Officer,” in Littell’s Living Age 34, no. 1729 (Aug. 4, 1877). Loring, Confederate Soldier in Egypt, p. 63 (“I need not repeat”). Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 176–82.

12. Loring, Confederate Soldier in Egypt, pp. 416 (“morally and physically”), 417 (“a splendid place”), 401 (“in any other army”), 419 (“The Egyptians not only”), 414 (“alive with the moving”), 420–21 (“hideous…howls”), 435 (“No sooner had he”). Chaillé-Long, My Life, p. 195. Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 184–86, 194–95 (“Loring has blockhouse”), 205, 211–13, 224–25. Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer, pp. 309–10. Dye, Moslem Egypt, pp. 167 (“as shriveled with lechery”), 139–40 (“They escaped”), 219–22, 235, 270–71, 369 (“surgeons and sheiks”), 371 (“one unsightly mass”), 483, 487–88.

13. FRUS, 1878: Farman to Evarts, July 3, 1878, pp. 922–23; Farman to Evarts, July 15, 1878, pp. 923–24. On the Ottomans’ purchase of Civil War surplus, see FRUS, 1877: Mr. Maynard to Mr. Evarts Constantinople, May 25, 1877, p. 572. James Raab, W. W. Loring (Manhattan, Kan.: Sunflower Univ. Press, 1997), pp. 833, 890. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 312, 422 (“a crime against humanity”). Loring, Confederate Soldier in Egypt, p. 448 (“During the ten years”). Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 213–14, 223, 229–30 (“The whole confounded”), 243–24 (“Egypt has been kind”), 251. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, p. 27. Wessels, Born to Be a Soldier, p. 94. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, p. 83 (“No intelligent foreigner”). Dye, Moslem Egypt, p. 1 (“They were men”).

10. The Trumpet That Never Calls Retreat

1. Edward Wilmot Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 6, 10 (“self-reliant, productive”), 13, 19–21, 186, 254. Edward Wilmot Blyden, The Elements of Permanent Influence: A Discourse Delivered at the 15th Street Presbyterian Church (Washington, D.C.: R. I. Pendleton, 1890) (“the spirit” and “Not the author”). Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 230–31 (“with an awe”). Yvonne Chireau and Nathaniel Deutsch, Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000), p. 15 (“I would earnestly”). Edith Holden, Blyden of Liberia (New York: Vantage Press, 1966), pp. 141–44. Hollis Lynch, “A Black Nineteenth Century Response to Jews and Zionism: The Case of Edward Wilmot Blyden, 1832–1912,” in Joseph Washington, ed., Jews in Black Perspective (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 43–45. See also “Edward Wilmot Blyden and Africanism in America,” http://www.columbia.edu/
~hcb8/EWB_Museum/EWB1.html, and George Bornstein, “A Forgotten Alliance: Africans, Americans, Zionists and Irish,” Times Literary Supplement, March 4, 2005, p. 13.

2. FRUS, 1862: Morris to Seward, Oct. 25, 1861, p. 787; Morris to Seward, Oct. 16, 1862, p. 791; 1864, vol. 4: Morris to Seward, May 21, 1863, p. 368. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 151 (“The providential history”), 170–76. Hanna F. Wissa, Assiout: The Saga of an Egyptian Family (Lewes, Sussex: Book Guild, 1994), pp. 93, 97, 105. Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria, p. 512 (“could place a Tammany”). Ellen Clare Miller, Eastern Sketches (New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 132–33. Missionary Herald, vol. 3 : Letter from Mr. Perkins, Dec. 26, 1862, p. 341 (“This great struggle”). Harry N. Howard, “President Lincoln’s Minister Resident to the Sublime Porte,” Balkan Studies 5 (1964): 205–6.

3. John A. DeNovo, American Interests and Policies in the Middle East, 1900–1939 (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1963), p. 15. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 34 (“Mohammedans, Muscovites”). Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 220–21 (“enjoy[ed] a liberty”), 272. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 146–47 (“We had the Gospel”), 219. The murderers of the two missionaries, the Reverends Merriam and Coffing, were later apprehended and executed. As a sign of gratitude, Secretary of State Seward presented the Ottoman grand vizier with a brace of silver pistols. See FRUS, 1863, vol. 2: Morris to Seward, April 30, 1863, p. 1094; 1864, vol. 4: Morris to Seward, Dec. 4, 1863, p. 373; Seward to Morris, Jan. 11, 1864, p. 366; Morris to Seward, April 14, 1864, pp. 381–82.

4. Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria, p. 597 (“semi-secular” and “letting in the light”). Taylor, Lands of the Saracen, p. 78. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, p. 145 (“From the same battlefields”). Finnie, Pioneers East, p. 134 (“more converts”). Henry M. Field, From Egypt to Japan, 19th ed. (New York: Scribner, 1905), p. 60 (“Christian Missions”).

5. John Freely, A History of Robert College (Istanbul: Y.K.Y, 2000), pp. 11–12. “The History of Robert College,” http://www.robcol.k12.tr/admin/headmaster/history.htm. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 355–56. Hamlin, My Life and Times, p. 286 (“The work has proved”), 446–49, 470–73. Marcia Stevens and Malcolm Stevens, Against the Devil’s Current: The Life and Times of Cyrus Hamlin (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 1988), pp. 246, 258 (“No one was about”), 269, 297–98, 330–31. Khalaf, Persistence and Change, p. 100.

6. Carleton Coon, ed., Daniel Bliss and the Founding of the American University of Beirut (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1989), pp. 35 (“Their faces”), 62–63, 67–68, 75 (“a home for jackals”), 79. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 161–62 (“necessary choice”). Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria, p. 595 (“the promised land”). Penrose, That They May Have Life, p. 23. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 357 (“a man white”).

7. Philip Hitti, Lebanon in History from the Earliest Times to the Present (London: Macmillan, 1962), pp. 450, 454, 462–67. Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1962), pp. 243, 246–49. Holden, Blyden of Liberia, pp. 143–44 (“to the day”). Elie Kedourie, “The American University of Beirut,” Middle Eastern Studies 3 (1966): 75. Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in History (London: Hutchinson’s Univ. Library, 1950), pp. 173–74. Abu Ghazaleh, American Missions in Syria, pp. 31, 41–42, 59, 67–68. George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), pp. 42–43. Missionary Herald: “Recent Intelligence” (Mr. Wolcott), Feb. 1841, p. 255. Daniel Bliss, Letters from a New Campus: Written to His Wife Abby and Their Four Children during Their Visit to Amherst, Massachusetts, 1873–1874 (Beirut: American Univ. of Beirut, 1994), pp. 159 (“Oh that all”), 280–81.

8. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt: William Seward to Charles Hale, Nov. 16, 1867. Glyndon Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 212–13. FRUS, 1864, vol. 4: Seward to McMath, Dec. 9, 1863, p. 410 (“exert all proper”).

9. A Maine Family’s History, http://www.calaisalumni.org/Maine/tales9.htm (“lips shut tight”). Reed M. Holmes, The Forerunners (Independence, Mo.: Herald, 1981), pp. 189 (“The great Restitution”). John Swift, Going to Jericho (New York: A. Roman, 1868), p. 201 (“Johnson’s patent”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 135. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 181 (“The reign of Christ”), 182–83. Shlomo Eidelberg, “The Adams Colony in Jaffa (1866–1868),” Midstream 3 (Autumn 1957): 52–53. Peter Amann, “Prophet in Zion: The Saga of George J. Adams,” New England Quarterly 37 (Dec. 1964): 481–86.

10. In his response to the Reverend Monk, Lincoln also mentioned that his chiropodist and close confidant, Isachar Zacharie, was a Jew who had “put me upon my feet” so often that he would gladly aid the doctor’s countrymen to “get a leg up” in moving to Palestine. Peter Grose, Israel in the Mind of America (New York: Knopf, 1983), pp. 25–26 (“There can be no”). See also Naphtali J. Rubinger, Abraham Lincoln and the Jews (New York: Jonathon David, 1962), p. 42, Bertram Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War (New York: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1951), p. 202, and Steiner, Religious Beliefs, pp. 110–45. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 203. Little, American Orientalism, p. 13 (“We know far more”). Henry White Warren, Sights and Insights; or, Knowledge by Travel (New York: Nelson and Phillips, 1874), p. 246 (“This is the first country”). John Russell Young, Around the World with General Grant: A Narrative of the Visit of General U. S. Grant, Ex-President of the United States, to Various Countries in Europe, Asia and Africa, in 1877, 1878, 1879 (New York: American News Co., 1879), p. 335 (“Somehow you always”).

11. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 83 (“shall yet be brought home”), 220 (“So much has”). Princeton Review 38, no. 4 (1866): 670–74. Warren, Sights and Insights, pp. 283–84 (“the greatest temptation”). Philip Schaff, Through the Bible Lands (New York: American Tract Society, 1878), pp. 233, 237, 249 (“squalid and forbidding”). David S. Landes, “Passionate Pilgrims and Others: Visitors to the Holy Land in the 19th Century,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 10–11. Henry A. Riley, The Restoration at the Second Coming of Christ: A Summary of Millenarian Doctrines (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1868), pp. 41–42 (“be gathered from”). Sarah Barclay Johnson, Hadji in Syria (New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 16 (“rightful owner”), 119 (“the Hebrew race”). William C. Prime, Tent Life in the Holy Land (New York: Harper, 1857), pp. 2 (“cast in holy radiance”), 99–100 (“imported by Jaffa”). Henry W. Bellows, Restatement of Christian Doctrines in 25 Sermons (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1869). Holmes, Forerunners, p. 19 (“The sons of Ephraim”).

12. Amann, “Prophet in Zion,” p. 486 (“he would rather”). Eidelberg, “Adams Colony in Jaffa,” pp. 55–60. Obenzinger, American Palestine, p. 183 (“The exhalations”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 281, 325 (“churches, hotels”). Holmes, Forerunners, pp. 119–21, 187 (“Put your faith”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 138 (“adventurer, a charlatan”), 139 (“our warmest friends”), 140–41, 144 (“a monster in human”), 145–46, 147 (“We the colony”). Henry W. Bellows, The Old World in Its New Face (New York: Harper, 1869), pp. 262–62 (“religious fanatic”). Charles Elliot, Remarkable Characters and Places in the Holy Land (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1867), p. 586 (“unprotected as they would be”). Swift, Going to Jericho, pp. 197–98 (“modern Mayflower”), 199–200 (“American eagle”), 201. On the death of Walter Cresson, see USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Jerusalem, Palestine: Page to Cass, Nov. 8, 1860.

13. National Library of Israel, Jerusalem, Manuscript Archive, Miscellaneous File 519: Petition of Colonists to Governor Chamberlain, Aug. 31, 1867. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt, vol. 4: William Seward to Charles Hale, Oct. 7, 1867; RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Beirut, Lebanon, vol. 5: Letter for Jaffa Colonists to Beauboucher, March 20, 1867 (“How can we confide”); Records of Foreign Service Posts: Jerusalem, Palestine. March 8, 1857–Dec. 21, 1869, vol. 24: Johnson to Beauboucher, Dec. 3, 1867. Lipman, “American-Holy Land Material,” pp. 32–33 (“The failure of the”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 140 (“pale faced”), 147 (“recede and become”), 149. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 184–85 (“American citizens”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 326 (“An Appeal!”). Eidelberg, “Adams Colony in Jaffa,” p. 61. Holmes, Forerunners, p. 226.

11. American Onslaught

1. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from the U.S. Consuls. Alexandria, Egypt, vol. 2: De Leon to Appleton, July 5, 1859. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 56, 59 (“The number of American”). Charles Dudley Warner, Mummies and Moslems (Toronto: Belford, 1876), p. 382 (“the perfumes of Arabia”). Jeffrey Alan Melton, Mark Twain, Travel Books, and Tourism: The Tide of a Great Popular Movement (Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2002), pp. 17, 18 (“nomadic era”). Kark, “Annual Reports,” p. 164 (“unfavorable for the foreigner”). The Memoirs of Rose Eytinge (New York: Frederick A. Stoker, 1905), p. 151 (“most irksome”). Schaff, Through the Bible Lands, p. 26. Goldman, God’s Sacred Tongue, pp. 160–61 (“The few Englishmen”). Field, From Egypt to Japan, pp. 7–8 (“Ah, you Americans”).

2. Warner, Mummies and Moslems, pp. 357 (“Antiquity” Smith), 411 (“the conclusive verdict”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 88 (“with few ideas” and “These cousins”), 91–92 (“miserable fellaheen”), 177. Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army, p. 65 (“They usually come” and “They often think”). Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer, p. 267. Young, Around the World, pp. 301–2 (“Powell Tucker,”). Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Edward Emerson, vol. 10 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), pp. 406, 407–8 (“The people…are”), 409 (“The lateen sail”). Frederick Douglass, Autobiographies (New York: Library of America, 1994), pp. 1006 (“combat American prejudice”), 1007 (“half brothers”).

3. Papers of William H. Seward , reel 58: Seward to Johnson, Sept. 28, 1859; “Governor Seward’s Journey from Egypt to Palestine,” New York Daily Tribune, Dec. 24, 1859, p. 5. Thornton Kirkland Lothrop, William Henry Seward (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1896), pp. 396–97. George E. Baker, ed., The Life of William H. Seward with Selections from His Works (New York: J. S. Redfield, 1855), p. 224 (“To the oppressed masses”). Frederic Bancroft, The Life of William H. Seward, vol. 2 (New York: Harpers, 1899), pp. 521–23. Walter LaFeber, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 2, The American Search for Opportunity, 1865–1913 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), p. 10. William H. Seward’s Travels around the World, pp. 525–32, 616 (“double thralldom”), 634–35 (“former chief minister”), 654–55 (“a remarkable rabbi”). USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt, vol. 78: Seward to Hale, Jan. 5, 1867. Olive Risley Seward, Around the World Stories (Boston: D. Lothrop, 1889), pp. 265–80, 281 (“It used to be”), 282 (“It is not enough), 283–86.

4. George B. McClellan, “A Winter on the Nile,” Scribner’s Monthly 13, no. 3 (Jan. 1877): 368–83; 13, no. 4 (March 1877): 670–77; “The Bombardment of Alexandria,” North American Review 142, no. 355 (June 1886): 593 (“so long as we”), 594 (“little but life”).

5. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt, vol. 2: Beardsley to Fish, Jan. 22, 1872. William T. Sherman Family Papers, CSHR9/59: Sherman to Thomas Sherman, March 29, 1872 (“Their Faith in Mohamet” and “the most repulsive”). Michael Fellman, Citizen Sherman: A Life of William Tecumseh Sherman (New York: Random House, 1995), p. 307 (“a hard-looking” and “undertake to move”). Morgan, Recollections of a Rebel Reefer, p. 266. Chaillé-Long, My Life, p. 231. Memoirs of Rose Eytinge, p. 201. J. C. Audenreid, “General Sherman in Europe and the East,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 47, no. 280 (Sept. 1873): 232, 234–35, 236, 240, 486–95.

6. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt, vol. 5: Farman to Evarts, Feb. 12, 1878. The Papers of Julia Dent Grant, ed. John Simon (New York: Putnam, 1975), pp. 220 (“One might easily think”), 221 (“We had only to clap”), 222–23, 224 (“One could not but”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 54–55 (“the most remarkable journey”). Young, Around the World, pp. 257 (“Welcome General Grant”), 299. Elbert Farman, Along the Nile with General Grant (New York: Grafton Press, 1904), pp. 26, 32–33, 92, 99. William McFeely, Grant (New York: Norton, 1981), pp. 466–67. Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S. Grant (New York: Random House, 1997), p. 454 (“It looks as if” and “I have seen”). Dye, Moslem Egypt, p. 491. Wessels, Born to Be a Soldier, pp. 80–81 (“Why there’s Loring”). Hesseltine and Wolf, Blue and the Gray, pp. 232–33 (“I wouldn’t sit down”).

7. Papers of Julia Dent Grant, p. 233 (“a gorgeous gleaming” and “a poor place”). Vogel, To See a Promised Land, p. 149. Young, Around the World, pp. 234–35, 329, 351. McFeely, Grant, p. 467. Perret, Ulysses S. Grant, p. 454. Steiner, Religious Beliefs, pp. 71–76. See also William N. Still, American Sea Power in the Old World: The United States Navy in European and Near Eastern Waters, 1865–1917 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980), p. 76.

8. References to “Cairo,” “Turk,” “Arab,” and “Arabian Nights” in Twain’s writing, can be located on Mark Twain and His Times, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/railton/about/srchmtf.html. Mark Twain website, http://www.boondocksnet.com/
twaintexts/letters/letter670607.html: Letter to Jane Clemens and Family, June 7, 1867 (“tired of staying”). “Mark Twain’s Correspondence with the San Franciso Alta California,” http://www.twainquotes.com/altaindex.html: April 9, 1867 (“Isn’t it a most attractive”). Dayton Duncan and Geoffrey C. Ward, Mark Twain: An Illustrated Biography (New York: Knopf, 2001), pp. 10, 48 (“the necessary stock “), 54 (“permanently miserable”), 60–61. Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad; or, The New Pilgrims’ Progress: Being Some Account of the Steamship Quaker City’s Pleasure Excursion to Europe and the Holy Land (Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader’s Digest Association, 1990), pp. 11 (“picnic on a gigantic,” “scamper about the decks,” and “green spectacles”), 17 (“The Synagogue”), 418 (“a funeral without”). Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens (New York: Harper, 1912), pp. 324–31.

9. Twain, Innocents Abroad, pp. 51 (“Tangier is a foreign”), 52 (“The emperor of Morocco”), 53 (“Christian dogs”), 54 (“thinks he has five” and “They slice around”), 56, 419 (“strange horde”), 424 (“Travel is fatal”).

10. Twain, Innocents Abroad, pp. 80–81 (“a short, stout”), 228 (“in all the outrageous”), 229 (“the three-legged woman”), 233, 239 (“nothing of romance”), 262 (“The picture lacks”), 290–91 (“an island of pearls”), 284, 289–90 (“wretched nest”), 303 (“couldn’t smile”), 351 (“To glance at”).

11. Twain, Innocents Abroad, pp. 302 (“The gods of my”), 306, 311, 317 (“If all the poetry”), 319–20, 324, 332 (“frescoed…with disks”), 342, 358, 361, 385, 391. Paine, Mark Twain, pp. 333-36, 337 (“Is it any wonder”), 338, 394 (“hopeless, dreary”). Justin Kaplan, Mr. Clemens and Mr. Twain (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1966), p. 52.

12. USNA, RG 84, Records of Foreign Service Posts. Cairo, Egypt, vol. 78: William Seward to Charles Hale, Oct. 30, 1867. Twain, Innocents Abroad, pp. 397–98 (“shamefully humbugged”), 401 (“Palestine is no more”), 406 (“American vandals”). Mark Twain website, http://www.boondocksnet.com/
twaintexts/letters/letter670607.html: Twain to the San Francisco Alta California, Jan. 8, 1868 (“Moorish haiks”). Paine, Mark Twain, p. 341 (“gospel of sincerity”). Kaplan, Mr. Clemens and Mr. Twain, p. 233. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. x (“right along with”), 188, 256.

13. “A Short History of the Shrine,” http://www.shrinershq.org/shrine/short history.html. Eric Davis, “Representations of the Middle East at American World Fairs, 1876–1904,” in Amanat and Bernhardsson, eds., United States and the Middle East, pp. 352–53, 354 (“the oldest people”), 355–58, 359 (“from Tangiers”).

12. Resurgence

1. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Damascus: Johnson to Seward, April 3, 1867 (“that Americans sympathize”); Governor General of Syria to Johnson, Oct. 3, 1868; Johnson to Seward, Oct. 10, 1868; Johnson to Seward, July 22, 1868; Johnson [L.] to Johnson [A], Oct. 31, 1868; Johnson to Seward, Nov. 12, 1868; Dillon to Johnson, Dec. 19, 1868; Johnson to Seward, Dec. 31, 1868. New York Times, Dec. 7, 1880.

2. FRUS, 1880: Evarts to Fairchild, March 12, 1880, pp. 893–94. USNA, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Tangiers: Cohen to Mathews, May 5, 1880 (“It is to America”); Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Jerusalem: Meizel, Alexander and Lipkin to deHass, May 3, 1877. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 29, 47. Brainerd Dyer, The Public Career of William M. Evarts (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1933), pp. 217–18. Cyrus Adler, Jews in the Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States (Baltimore: Friedenwald, 1906), pp. 39–45. Ron Bartur, “American Consular Assistance to the Jewish Community of the Land of Israel at the End of the Ottoman Period to the Outbreak of World War I, 1856–1914 [Hebrew]” (Hebrew Univ., 1984), p. 364 (“The stars and stripes”).

3. David Harris, Britain and the Bulgarian Horrors of 1876 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1939), p. 410 (“In Paniguischte”). New York Times, Sept. 9, 1876 (“the remains of babes”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 365–72. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 29–30. Sir Edwin Pears, Forty Years in Constantinople, 1873–1915 (New York: Appleton, 1916), pp. 16–18.

4. Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf, p. 311 (“There is no place”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 312 (“now gets its”). Jonathan Grant, “The Sword of the Sultan: Ottoman Arms Imports, 1854–1914,” Journal of Military History 66 (Jan. 2002), pp. 9–36. John Dunn, “Egypt’s Nineteenth-Century Armaments Industry,” Journal of Military History 61 (April 1997), pp. 231–54. Jeffrey D. Wert, General James Longstreet (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), p. 419. Marty H. Krout, ed., Lew Wallace: An Autobiography (New York: Harper, 1906), pp. 962–63. See also “Meet Lew Wallace: American Minister to Turkey, 1881–1885,” on http://www.ben-hur.com/meet_ambassador.html.

5. FRUS, 1877: Mr. Maynard to Mr. Evarts, Nov. 26, 1877, p. 141; 1878, Mr. Heap to Mr. Hunter, Jan. 25, 1878, pp. 929–31; 1879: Farman to Evarts, May 22, 1879, p. 1003 (“long remain”); Message of the President, Dec. 1, 1879, p. xiv (“a generous mark”); 1880, Farman to Evarts, May 5, 1880, pp. 1108–12. Elbert Eli Farman, “Negotiating for the Obelisk,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 24 (Oct. 1882): 882–83 (“The population,” “another souvenir,” and “It is not for”). Elbert Farman, Egypt and Its Betrayal (New York: Grafton Press, 1908), pp. 148–49, 166. Seaton Schroeder, Fifty Years of Naval Service (New York: Appleton, 1922), pp. 133–36, 140–43. Labib Habachi, The Obelisks of Egypt (Cairo: American Univ. in Cairo Press, 1984), pp. 176–78, 181–82. Bob Brier, “Saga of Cleopatra’s Needles,” Archaeology 55, no. 6 (Nov.–Dec. 2002): 48–51. Martina D’Alton, The New York Obelisk (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1993), pp. 2, 11 (“point the finger” and “It would be absurd”), 16–21, 63. James Field, “Near East Notes and Far East Queries,” in John Fairbank, ed., The Missionary Enterprise in China and America (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974).

13. Empires at Dawn

1. Conn, “John Porter Brown,” pp. 10–11. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Algiers, Algeria: Lee to French Consul, Feb. 20, 1830 (“the Frenchman”); Lee to Van Buren, July 15, 1830; Porter to Van Buren, Sept. 22, 1830. Haight, Letters from the Old World, pp. 260, 262. FRUS, 1882: Wallace to Frelinghuysen, Feb. 1, 1882, p. 501. Akira Iriye, From Nationalism to Internationalism: U.S. Foreign Policy to 1914 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 65 (“we cannot follow”). Potts, “National Boasting,” New York Times, Nov. 26, 1852. E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (New York: Pantheon, 1987), p. 59.

2. USNA, RG 59; Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Tunis: Fish to Hunter, April 22, 1881 (“It looks as though”); Fish to Hunter, May 5, 1881 (“In plain Anglo-Saxon”). David M. Pletcher, The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1962), pp. 224–25 (“Civilization gains”). General Lewal, “The French Army,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 82, no. 491 (April 1891): 657.

3. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo, Egypt: Beardsley to Page, April 24, 1874; Beardsley to Fish, Dec. 11, 1875. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 92, 108–9 (“What folly”), 120, 123. Adam Badeau, “The Bombardment of Alexandria,” North American Review 142, no. 355 (June 1886): 592. “American Trade Opportunities in Egypt Destroyed,” Los Angeles Times, July 26, 1882, p. 2 (“shameful act”). “A Mohammedan Revival,” New York Times, Sept. 22, 1881, p. 4 (“fanatic…Arabs “); “The Conquest of Egypt,” Sept. 15, 1882, p. 4 (“everlasting shame”); “The Bondage of Egypt,” Feb. 6, 1882, p. 4 (“taxation without representation”).

4. Chaillé-Long, My Life, pp. 245–48, 251, 259 (“In the sea”), 271 (“Men, women”), 302–3 (“We dominate”), 307 (“the Americans…who”). Still, American Sea Power, pp. 83–84, 85 (“I corralled”), 86–87. Frederick J. Cox, “Arabi and Stone: Egypt’s Military Rebellion, 1882,” Cahiers d’Histoire Egyptienne 8 (April 1956): 173–74. Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897, vol. 8, ed. James D. Richardson (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1917): Second Annual Address of Chester Arthur to Congress, Dec. 4, 1882, p. 126. FRUS, 1882: Sackville West to Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, Sept. 17, 1882, p. 325 (“sailors and marines”).

5. Farman, Egypt and Its Betrayal, pp. 286 (“evil genius”), 289 (“Shylock”), 290 (“aggressive European Powers”), 302 (“He was the idol”), 303 (“instigated by”). Egyptian State Information Service, “Orabi Pasha,” http://216.239.41.104/search?
q=cache:O8sDNNWobzsJ:www.sis.gov.eg/
calendar/html/c1310397.htm+orabi
&hl=en&start=2. For a reference to the Arabic roots of the name “‘Urabi,” see Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1980), p. 601.

6. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Wolf to Blaine, Sept. 12, 1881 (“act cautiously”); Wolf to Blaine, Sept. 15, 1881 (“Here on this”); Wolf to Blaine, Oct. 29, 1881 (“the natives and owners”); Wolf to Blaine , Nov. 11, 1881 (“in no way”); Urabi to Wolf (n.d.) (“management and wisdom”); Wolf to Frelinghuysen, March 21, 1882 (“There is scarcely”). Esther L. Panitz, Simon Wolf: Private Conscience and Public Image (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 71–78. Selected Addresses and Papers of Simon Wolf (New York: Bloch, 1926), pp. 15–16. Simon Wolf, The Presidents I Have Known from 1860–1918 (Washington, D.C.: Byron S. Adams, 1918), pp. 124–30.

7. Cox, “Arabi and Stone,” pp. 155–58. Charles P. Stone, “Stone Pacha and the Secret Dispatch,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 8, no. 29 (March 1887): 95. Fanny Stone, “The Diary of an American Girl in Cairo during the War of 1882,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 28, no. 2 (June 1883): 29 (“quietly eating”), 43 (“death to the Christians”), 38 (“There never lived”), 34 (“be brave”), 45 (“For once”). Crabitès, Americans in the Egyptian Army, p. 263. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Gomanos to Frelinghuysen, July 23, 1882.

8. Chaillé-Long, My Life, pp. 139 (“Egypt for the Egyptians”), 201 (“a very bad soldier”). Farman, Egypt and Its Betrayal, p. 333 (“Tel el-Kebir”). USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Wolf to Blaine, Oct. 29, 1881 (“The cup is full”). Later in life, Wolf seems to have altered his opinion of the British administration in Egypt, crediting it with bringing it into “new light.” See Wolf, Presidents I Have Known, p. 134.

9. Cox, “Arabi and Stone,” p. 158 (“Egypt had become”). Bernard A. Weisberger, Statue of Liberty: The First Hundred Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), pp. 22–23 (“Granite beings”), 24 – 25, 33. Willadene Price, Bartholdi and the Statue of Liberty (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1959), pp. 27–29, 42–45, 63–65, 119–20. Marvin Trachtenberg, The Statue of Liberty (New York: Penguin, 1986), pp. 46, 53–54, 57. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 56 (“When will you turn”).

10. On the use of the Middle East model by American imperialists in the Far East, see Field, “Near East Notes,” pp. 24 (“The Muslim societies”), 25–27. Field also makes the remarkable observation (p. 41) that “all the countries in which women have recently exercised significant political power—Israel, India, Ceylon, and China—were nineteenth-century targets of American missionary endeavor.” Mark Twain, “An Anti-Imperialist,” New York Herald, Oct. 15, 1900.

14. Imperial Piety

1. Eve Merriam, The Voice of Liberty: The Story of Emma Lazarus (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1959), pp. 140–41. Mark A. Raider, The Emergence of American Zionism (New York: New York Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 12 (“We consider ourselves”), 70–71 (“Wake, Israel”). Bette Roth Young, “Emma Lazarus and Her Jewish Problem,” American Jewish History 84 (Dec. 1996): 299 (“opens up such”), 309 (“a home for” and “artisans, warriors”). Martin Feinstein, American Zionism, 1884–1904 (New York: Herzl Press, 1965), pp. 18, 58–59. Emma Lazarus, “Epistle to the Hebrews,” American Hebrew 13 (Feb. 2, 1883): 137; “The Jewish Problem,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 36, no. 6 (Feb. 1883). Daniel Marom, “Who Is the ‘Mother of Exiles’?: Jewish Aspects of Emma Lazarus’s The New Colossus,” Prooftexts 20, no. 3 (2000): 250 (“renew their youth”). Abram S. Isaacs, “Will the Jews Return to Palestine,” Century 26, no. 1 (May 1883). See also Ranen Omer-Sherman, “Emma Lazarus, Jewish American Poetics, and the Challenge of Modernity,” Journal of American Women Writers 19 (2003). Gregory Eiselein, “Emotion and the Jewish Historical Poems of Emma Lazarus,” Mosaic 37 (2004). Arthur Zeiger, “Emma Lazarus and Pre-Herzlian Zionism,” in Shulamit Reinharz and Mark A. Raider, eds., American Jewish Women and the Zionist Enterprise (Waltham, Mass.: Brandeis Univ. Press, 2004), pp. 13–17.

2. T. De Witt Talmage, Talmage on Palestine (New York: W. D. Rowland, 1890), pp. 7, 10 (“that curse of nations”), 24 (“All the fingers” and “They would be foolish”). John Rusk, The Authentic Life of T. DeWitt Talmage (New York: L. G. Stahl, 1902), pp. 79–82, 104, 125–26. Handy, Holy Land, pp. 125–28. See also T. De Witt Talmage, New Tabernacle Sermons (New York: George Munro, 1886).

3. William E. Blackstone, Jesus Is Coming (Chicago: Revell, 1908), pp. 240–41. Paul Charles Merkley, The Politics of Christian Zionism, 1891–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1998), pp. 60–63, 69–71. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 268–69. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 228–29. The full text of the Blackstone Memorial can be found in Joseph Celleni, ed., Christian Protagonists for Jewish Restoration (New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 13–14.

4. In his first State of the Union Address, in 1885, Grover Cleveland assailed the Porte for its attempts to impose “religious tests as a condition of residence [in Palestine],” but otherwise refrained from endorsing the Jewish state idea. See Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789–1897, vol. 8 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1898), p. 335. FRUS, 1882: Wallace to Said Pasha, June 3, 1882, p. 508; Ascher and Weinberg to Wallace, June 13, 1882, pp. 517–18; 1885: Bayard to Cox, Oct. 15, 1885, p. 871; 1888: Straus to Said Pasha, May 17, 1888, p. 1589 (“inquisitorial”); Rives to Gilman, Oct. 12, 1888, p. 1618; 1898: Straus to Hay, Nov. 22, 1898, p. 1092. Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1963), p. 108. Jacob M. Landau and Kemal Mim Oke, “Ottoman Perspectives on American Interests in the Holy Land,” in Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 269–72. Cyrus Adler, Jacob H. Schiff: His Life and Letters, vol. 2 (London: William Heinemann, 1929), pp. 162–63. Naomi Wiener Cohen, A Dual Heritage: The Public Career of Oscar S. Straus (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1969), pp. 88–89, 171, 283. Regina S. Sharif, Non-Jewish Zionism: Its Roots in Western History (London: Zed Press, 1983), pp. 92–93.

5. Bertha Spafford Vester, Our Jerusalem: An American Family in the Holy City (1950; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977), pp. 56–57, 63 (“American-made”), 98 (“He taught me”), 134, 158. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 114 (“post-Protestant period”), 152–53 (“When sorrows”), 155 (“hoping to be”).

6. Supporters of the American Colony were also instrumental in securing the recall of Merrill’s successor, Edwin S. Wallace. Wallace accused Mrs. Spafford of holding “such power over her victims as to make them swear to be true what they know to be false,” and of “doing much harm to injure the good name of America in this part of the world.” See USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Jerusalem: Wallace to Cridler, Dec. 7, 1897; Merrill to Wharton; Oct. 3, 1891 (“one of the wildest”); Merrill to Quincy, Aug. 17, 1893; Merrill to Cridler, Jan. 30, 1899; Merrill to Cridler, July 8, 1901 (“They hate the United”). Shalom Goldman, “The Holy Land Appropriated: The Careers of Selah Merrill, Nineteenth Century Christian Hebraist, Palestine Explorer, and U.S. Consul in Jerusalem,” American Jewish History 85, no. 2 (June 1997): 152–67. Ruth Kark, “Annual Reports,” pp. 173–74. Alexander Fume Ford, “Our American Colony at Jerusalem,” Appleton’s Magazine 8 (1906): 643–55.

7. Carl Dolmetsch, “Our Famous Guest”—Mark Twain in Vienna (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1992), pp. 45, 128–31, 25, 270. Cynthia Ozick, “Mark Twain and the Jews,” Commentary 99, no. 5 (May 1995): 56–62. Theodore Herzl, “Mark Twain and the British Ladies: A Feuilleton,” Commentary 28, no. 3 (Sept. 1959): 243–44 (“a short, spare”). Twain, Innocents Abroad, p. 324. Amos Elon, Herzl (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975), pp. 66, 245. Obenzinger, American Palestine, pp. 266 (“The difference between the brain”), 267–68 (“If that concentration”). “Concerning the Jews” first appeared in Harper’s New Monthly Mazagine in Sept. 1899; see also Charles Neider, ed., The Complete Essays of Mark Twain (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1963), pp. 235–50, and Dan Vogel, Mark Twain’s Jews (Jersey City, N.J.: KTAV Publishing House, 2006), pp. 61–88.

8. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Cairo: Wolf to Frelinghuysen, March 25, 1882. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 350. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 249–50, 275. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 9, 13–14, 18, 31. Kaplan, Arabists, pp. 39–40. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 21. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, p. 229 (“Americans occupy Egypt”).

9. American diplomatic records are rife with correspondence describing assaults on, and even the murder of, missionaries. See, e.g., FRUS, 1901: Negotiations for the Settlement of Indemnity Claims of United States Citizens, Hay to Straus, Jan. 11, 1900, p. 906. Laurie, Ely Volume, pp. 84, 457. Cagri Erhan, “Ottoman Official Attitudes towards American Missionaries” in Amanat and Bernhardsson, eds., United States and the Middle East, pp. 317–19. Vogel, To See a Promised Land, pp. 116–17. Tibawi, American Interests in Syria, pp. 237, 269 (“In the war”), 275, 280. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 12, 35 (“No man ever came”), 42. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, p. 331. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, p. 437. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, pp. 30–31 (“modern missionaries”).

10. J. Christy Wilson, Apostle to Islam: A Biography of Samuel M. Zwemer (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1952), pp. 40–44, 72–73. Henry Harris Jessup, The Setting of the Crescent and the Rising of the Cross; or, Kamil Abdul Messiah, a Syrian Convert from Islam to Christianity (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1898), pp. 51–53, 65, 72, 127, 137–39, 143. Alfred DeWitt Mason and Frederick J. Barny, History of the Arabian Mission (New York: Board of Foreign Missions Reformed Church in America, 1926), pp. 76–77, 86 (“very heart of Islam”), 90–91. Samuel Zwemer and James Cantine, The Golden Milestone: Reminiscences of Pioneer Days Fifty Years Ago in Arabia (New York: Revell, 1938), pp. 18–19, 30, 43, 92, 135. A. E. Zwemer and S. M. Zwemer, Zigzag Journeys in the Camel Country: Arabia in Picture and Story (New York: Revell, 1911), pp. 27, 31 (“Pioneer journeys”), 50, 92, 103 (“A country [without]”). Paul W. Harrison, Doctor in Arabia (London: Robert Hale, 1943), p. 264. Stuart Knee, “Anglo-American Relations in Palestine, 1919–1925: An Experiment in Realpolitik,” Journal of American Studies of Turkey 5 (1997): 5 (“American religious-philanthropic”).

11. Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (New York: American Home Mission Society, 1885), pp. 218–19. USNA, RG 59, Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State, Persia: Bayard to Pratt, Aug. 23, 1887; Bayard to Pratt, July 7, 1886. FRUS, 1881: Foster to Blaine, May 21, 1881, pp. 1016–17; Vol. XLII, 1883: Benjamin to Felinghuysen, June 13, 1883, pp. 703–6 (“the most brilliant”); 1886, Pratt to Bayard, Nov. 29, 1886, p. 913 (“iron, coal, copper”); 1887: Pratt to Bayard, May 4, 1887, pp. 916–17. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 39–40. Abraham Yeselson, United States–Persia Diplomatic Relations, 1883–1921 (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1956), pp. 23–25. Palmer, Guardians of the Gulf, pp. 6–9. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 296–97. Michael Zirinsky, “American Presbyterian Missionaries at Urmia during the Great War,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 12, no. 1 (April 1998): 8–11.

12. Field, “Near East Notes,” pp. 51, 54. Still, American Sea Power, pp. 79 (“The wayward Turks”), 103–4 (“Even the head”).

13. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from the U.S. Consuls, Erzerum: Chilton to Use, Oct. 9, 1895. New York Times, Dec. 28, 1894 (“if not by”). Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 11 (“Armenian Holocaust”), 23, 64, 73, 93. Arman Kirakossian, ed., The Armenian Massacres, 1894–1896: U.S. Media Testimony (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 2004), pp. 37 (“blot upon civilization”), 47 (“Not all the perfume”). Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 43 (“the demon of damnable”). Clyde E. Buckingham, Clara Barton: A Broad Humanity (Alexandria, Va.: Mount Vernon Publishing, 1977), p. 262 (“the warships”).

14. Angell later served as president of the University of Michigan, where an impressive hall still bears his name. FRUS, 1900: Griscom to Hay, Dec. 12, 1900, p. 515. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Constantinople: Judson Smith to Olney, Nov. 19, 1895; Olney to Terrill; Jan. 16, 1896. Frederick Davis Greene, Armenian Massacres; or, The Sword of Mohammed (Philadelphia: National Publishers Co., 1896), p. xvii (“The policy of the United”). Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, pp. 41–44, 45 (“rattle the Sultan’s”). Kirakossian, Armenian Massacres, p. 71 (“Yankees of the Orient”). Erhan, “Ottoman Official Attitudes,” p. 332. Still, American Sea Power, pp. 99–100, 105–6, 107. George Washburn, Fifty Years in Constantinople (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909), pp. 246–49. Washburn relates how one American sailor, an African American whom the Turks mistook for a Muslim, succeeded in saving large numbers of Armenians.

15. Buckingham, Clara Barton, pp. 260–62. David H. Burton, Clara Barton: In the Service of Humanity (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), pp. 128–30. Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad, pp. 124, 127 (“I shall never counsel”). Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 10, 62–65, 69–70. Kirakossian, Armenian Massacres, pp. 42–43. “Profiles in Caring: Clara Barton,” http://www.nahc.org/NAHC/Val/Columns/SC10-1.html (“perhaps the most perfect”). McDougall, Promised Land, pp. 104–5.

15. Imperial Myths

1. Clarence Clough Buel, “Preliminary Glimpses of the Fair,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 45, no. 4 (Feb. 1893): 615. Davis, “Representations of the Middle East, 1876–1904,” pp. 344–48, 370. Erik Larson, The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America (New York: Vintage, 2003), pp. 247–48, 250–51, 265–67.

2. The Autobiography of Sol Bloom (New York: Putnam, 1948), pp. 106 (“I came to realize”), 107–8 (I knew that”), 119 (“To have made”). Donna Carlton, Looking for Little Egypt (Bloomington, Ind.: IDD Books, 1994), p. 27. A superb description of the Middle Eastern exhibitions at the Paris fair can be found in Timothy Mitchell’s Colonising Egypt (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), p. 1.

3. “The World’s Columbian Exposition: Idea, Experience, Aftermath,” http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA96/WCE/title.html (“the strange music”). Mark Stevens, Six Months at the World’s Fair (Detroit: Detroit Free Press, 1895), pp. 101, 103 (“Cairo was strikingly”). Larkin, Devil in the White City, p. 236. Gustav Kobbe, “Sights at the Fair,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 46, no. 6 (Sept. 1893): 653 (“The Midway Plaisance”). Carlton, Looking for Little Egypt, pp. 27, 35, 39 (“Such a jaunt”). Norman Bolotin and Christine Laing, The World’s Columbian Exposition (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2002), p. 139. Robert Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New World: Chicago’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), p. 164. David Burg, Chicago’s White City of 1893 (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 1976), pp. 105, 221.

4. The cost of riding camels was twice that of riding donkeys—twenty-five cents. A quarter also gained admission to the Moorish Palace, the Persian Tent, the Turkish Pavilion, and the Bedouin encampment. See Bolotin and Laing, World’s Columbian Exposition, p. 107. Stevens, Six Months, p. 102 (“This high art dancing”). Burg, Chicago’s White City, pp. 221 (“splendid specimens”), 222 (“It is the coarse” and “Every motion”), 223 (“Now she revolves”). Carlton, Looking for Little Egypt, p. 23. Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New World, pp. 165, 166 (“genuine native muscle” and “a peaceful night’s rest”), 167 (“simply horrid”). Larkin, Devil in the White City, pp. 311–12 (“whether the apprehensions”).

5. Daniel Burnham, ed., Final Official Report of the Director of Works of the World’s Columbian Exposition (New York: Garland, 1989), p. 40. “None Can Compare with It,” New York Times, June 19, 1893, p. 5 (“The denizens”). Mrs. Mark Stevens, A Lecture on What You Missed in Not Visiting the World’s Fair (Flint: n.p., 1895), p. 6 (“New Jerusalem”). Buel, “Preliminary Glimpses,” p. 626 (“Haroun al-Raschid”). Muccigrosso, Celebrating the New World, pp. 167–68 (“We were all knocked”). Autobiography of Sol Bloom, pp. 122–23, 135 (“The crowds poured in” and “a masterpiece of rhythm”), 136. Burg, Chicago’s White City, p. 223.

6. Blackstone’s proposal for an international arbitrating organization, circulated at the 1893 fair, can be found in the William Blackstone Papers, collection 540, box 7, folder 1. Turner, Frontier in American History, p. 37.

16. A Region Renamed and Reordered

1. A. T. Mahan, Retrospect and Prospect (Boston: Little, Brown, 1902), pp. 233, 237, 243. A. T. Mahan, The Problem of Asia (Boston: Little, Brown, 1900), pp. 80–81, 83 (“the neck of land”). Numerous studies exist on the Mahan’s naval theories in general and on his concept of the Middle East in particular. See, e.g., Roderic H. Davison, “Where Is the Middle East?” in Richard H. Nolte, ed., The Modern Middle East (New York: Atherton Press, 1963), pp. 15–17. Marwan R. Buheiry, “Alfred T. Mahan: Reflections on Sea Power and on the Middle East as a Strategic Concept,” in Lawrence I. Conrad, ed., The Formation and Perception of the Modern Arab World (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1990), pp. 157–62. W. D. Pulson, The Life and Work of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1939), pp. 41–42.

2. Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 46, 127. Walter Zimmerman, First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002), pp. 24–25, 30–31, 34–37. Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 99, 105. Ernest May, Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power (Chicago: Imprint Publications, 1961), p. 6.

3. Camel cigarettes first appeared in 1913, with a logo inspired by “Old Joe,” a camel in the Barnum and Bailey Circus. Other “Middle Eastern” brands soon appeared, with names like Aga, Kismet, and Osman. See Nance, “Crossing Over,” pp. 98–102. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 16–22, 39–40. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 206–7. Turgay, “Ottoman-American Trade,” p. 234 (“The newspapers”). Field, America and the Mediterranean World, pp. 327, 338. The Complete Plays of Bernard Shaw (London: Constable Press, 1931), pp. 320 (“As the search”), 323 (“The world”).

4. Theodore Roosevelt’s Diaries of Boyhood and Youth (New York: Scribner, 1928), pp. 227 (“I felt a great deal”), (“what we should call”), 276 (“How I gazed”), 278-79 (“the Arabs always talk”), 290, 304 (“a glimpse of”), 314-319. Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (New York: Da Capo Press, 1985), pp. 20, 398–99, 548 (“so utterly incompetent”), 550, 561 (“dreadful scourge”). Nathan Miller, Theodore Roosevelt: A Life (New York: Quill Books, 1992), p. 54. Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Modern Library, 2001), pp. 37, 40–41. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 45 (“Spain and Turkey”). Steiner, Religious Beliefs, pp. 152–56. John Milton Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983), pp. 71–72 (“barbarous and semi-barbarous”).

5. FRUS, 1901, vol. 4: Leishman to Hay, Sept. 5, 1901, p. 997; Lazzaro to Dickinson, Sept. 5, 1901, p. 998 (“dressed like Turks”); Stone to Peet, Sept. 20, 1901, p. 1006; Eddy to Hay, Dec. 13 1901; Leishman to Hay, March 1, 1902. Teresa Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair: America’s First Modern Hostage Crisis (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), pp. 30–31 (“Women have no earthly”), 32–35, 56–57, 94–96, 140–42.

6. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls, Constantinople: Leishman to Hay, Sept. 10, 1903. “Unspeakable Turk to Be Called Upon to Settle for the Murder of American Vice-Consul,” Los Angeles Times, Aug. 28, 1903. “Turkish Minister to Confer with Hay,” New York Times, Aug. 30, 1903 (“We have allowed”). Still, American Sea Power, p. 159. Erhan, “Ottoman Official Attitudes,” p. 332.

7. USNA, RG 59, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls. Tangier: Gummere to Hay, May 19, 1904 (“most prominent American”); Gummere to Hay, May 20, 1904; Gummere to Hay, June 15, 1904. FRUS, 1904: Hay to Gummere, June 9, 1904, pp. 498–99 (“Anything which may be regarded”). Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 323, 324 (“all we hold sacred”), 329 (“PRESIDENT WISHES”), 325–26, 327 (“I had much rather”), 335 (“WE WANT PEDICARIS”), 337–38 (“that flag”). Baepler, White Slaves, pp. 291–97, 301 (“one of the most”). Peter Larsen, “Theodore Roosevelt and the Moroccan Crisis, 1904–1906” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1984), pp. 1, 21–22 (“surrender to the demands”), 40–41, 64, 66.

8. FRUS, 1906: International Diplomatic Conference at Algeciras: White to the Secretary of State, Jan. 30, 1906, pp. 1471–72. The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Elting Morison (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1954): Roosevelt to Whitelaw Reid, June 27, 1906, pp. 318–19; Roosevelt to Joseph Cannon, Sept. 12, 1904, pp. 923–24 (“Do they object”). Selections from the Correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, 1884–1918 (New York: Scribner, 1925): Roosevelt to Lodge, July 11, 1905, p. 166. USNA, RG 59, Special Missions: Root to White, March 2, 1906 (“side with either”). Frederick W. Marks, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1979), p. 69. Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1986), pp. 356–62, 366, 370–74, 377–78, 381–88. Raymond A. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries (Claremont: Regina Books, 1970), pp. 70–79, 83–89, 104–9, 111 (“It would be enormously”).

9. Franklin Matthews, Back to Hampton Roads (New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1909), pp. 282–83, 287–89, 290 (“We gave Cairo”). Roman J. Miller, Around the World with the Battleships (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1909), pp. 301–6, 308 (“About us swarmed”), 309, 315, 324–25. James A. Reckner, Teddy Roosevelt’s Great White Fleet (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988), pp. 146–47. Robert A. Hart, The Great White Fleet (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965), pp. 272–74.

10. Letters of Theodore Roosevelt: Roosevelt to George Otto Trevelyan, Oct. 11, 1910, pp. 349–51. Wright, United States Policy toward Egypt, pp. 168–69. Vatikiotis, History of Egypt, pp. 203–4. David H. Burton, Theodore Roosevelt: Confident Imperialist (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), pp. 180–85, 191 (“I should have things”). Sheikh Ali Yousuff, “Egypt’s Reply to Colonel Roosevelt,” North American Review 191 (June 1910): 732–33, 755 (“Down with Roosevelt”), 737 (“when Egypt is”).

11. Walter Scholes and Marie Scholes, The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1970), pp. 30–31. Thomas Bentley Mott, Twenty Years as Military Attaché (1937, reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1979), pp. 171–74. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 46–49, 52 (“an attitude”), 53 (“the veriest folly”), 76. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 59–60. Robert A. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the Persian Constitutional Revolution (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1974), pp. 115, 124–26, 134, 160–61, 170, 198 (“a monumental error”).

17. Spectators of Catastrophe

1. Philip Roth, The Plot against America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), p. 114. David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (New York: Avon, 1989), p. 534. Kinross, Ottoman Centuries, pp. 566–609. Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East: Its Discovery and Development (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1954), p. 25. Helen Davenport Gibbons, The Red Rugs of Tarsus: A Woman’s Record of the Armenian Massacre of 1909 (New York: Century, 1917), pp. 170 (“The only difference”), 179.

2. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 38. DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 38, 96. FRUS, 1914, Supplement: Bryan to Morgenthau, Oct. 5, 1914, p. 9 (“I am much gratified”).

3. FRUS, 1914, Supplement: Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 19, 1914, p. 758; Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 25, 1914, p. 75; Bryan to Morgenthau, Aug. 26, 1914, p. 77 (“in the interest”).

4. FRUS, 1914, Supplement: Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 15, 1914, p. 66 (“grave immediate necessity”); Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 19, 1914, p. 758 (“reign of military terrorism”); Morgenthau to Bryan, Nov. 7, 1914, p. 139 (“never doubted”); Morgenthau to Bryan, Nov. 8, 1914, p. 781 (“For each Mussulman”); Lansing to Morgenthau, Nov. 18, 1914, p. 771 (“Should organized massacres”); Lansing to Morgenthau, Nov. 20, 1914, p. 771 (“any loss of life”); Bryan to Morgenthau, Dec. 20, 1914, pp. 777–78 (“it would be unsafe”); Morgenthau to Bryan, Dec. 22, 1914, p. 778; 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1: Rusem to Bryan, Sept. 12, 1914, pp. 70–71 (“who gave the world”); Wilson to Lansing, Sept. 17, 1914, pp. 72–73. See also Robert Trask, The United States Response to Turkish Nationalism and Reform, 1914–1939 (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1971), p. 13. Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1960), pp. 68–69. Robert L. Daniel, “The Armenian Question and American-Turkish Relations, 1914–1927,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 46 (Sept. 1959): 256.

5. “Missionaries Tell of Terrible Conditions—Raids by Turks,” New York Times, Dec. 5, 1914; “20,000 Christians in Peril,” Dec. 15, 1914; “Fear of General Massacre in Constantinople” (“There was no room”). Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 177–80.

6. Leslie A. Davis, The Slaughterhouse Province: An American Diplomat’s Report on the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1917 (New Rochelle: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1989), pp. 46–54, 67–69, 79 (“The Mohammedans”). Statement by the Rev. William A. Shedd, of the American (Presbyterian) Mission Station at Urmia, “Beth Aram—The Aramean homepage in Germany,” http://www.beth-aram.de/dokumente3.html. “Agonies of Armenians Described by Dr. Richard Hill in Letter from Caucuses,” New York Times, Feb. 7, 1916. Henry H. Riggs, Days of Tragedy in Armenia (Ann Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 1917), p. 48. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 193–94 (“old men and old”), 346 (“The Government”), 180, 196, 200–201.

7. Jay Winter, ed., America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003), p. 192. Clarence Ussher and Grace Knapp, An American Physician in Turkey (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917), pp. 236–44, 277. John D. Barrows, In the Land of Ararat (New York: Revell, 1916), pp. 128–34. FRUS, 1915, Supplement: Bryan to Gerard, March 12, 1915, p. 964 (“non-combatants”). “Turks Lock 1,000 in Wooden Building and Then Apply the Torch,” New York Times, Sept. 3, 1915; “Spare Armenians Pope Asks Sultan,” Oct. 13, 1915; “State Department Shows Quarter of a Million Women Violated,” Oct. 22, 1915. Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic, 2002), pp. 4–6.

8. Barbara Tuchman, “The Assimilationist Dilemma: Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story,” Commentary 63, no. 5 (May 1977): 60. Henry Morgenthau III, Mostly Morgenthau: A Family History (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1991), pp. 102–3, 127. The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, ed. Arthur Link (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1966–94), vol. 35: From the Diary of Colonel House, May 2, 1913, pp. 384–85; Henry Morgenthau to Woodrow Wilson, June 12, 1913 (“Would prominent Methodists”), p. 513. Central Zionist Archives (henceforth, CZA), A 243/150: Morgenthau to Wise, June 10, 1913; Wise to Morgenthau, Aug. 7, 1913.

9. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 222–23 (“dazzling” and “intrigue, intimidation”). CZA, A 243/150: Morgenthau to Wise, Nov. 28, 1913 (“This is undoubtedly”). Henry Morgenthau Papers, reel 22; undated speech (“few rug merchants”). Henry Morgenthau, All in a Life-Time (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1922), pp. 175–76 (“I had hitherto”), 196, 203 (“the American spirit”), 204 (“gospel of Americanism”), 209 (“Here was I”). Henry Morgenthau, The Murder of a Nation (New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America, 1974), p. 18.

10. Lansing replaced Bryan, an adamant pacifist, who resigned in protest of Wilson’s policies, which, he felt, were drawing America into the war. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 227, 266–70. Merrill D. Peterson, “Starving Armenians”: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2004), p. 37 (“gigantic plundering”). “Armenians’ Own Fault, Benstrof Now Says,” New York Times, Sept. 29, 1915. Power, Problem from Hell, p. 6. Israel Charny, ed., Encyclopedia of Genocide (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1999), p. 96. Lewis Einstein, Inside Constantinople (London: John Murray, 1917), p. 231. FRUS, 1915, Supplement: Morgenthau to the Secretary of State, July 10, 1915, p. 983 (“race extermination”); 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1: Lansing to Wilson, Nov. 15, 1916, p. 41.

11. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 35, p. 349 (“You may be sure”). FRUS, 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1: Lansing to Wilson, Nov. 21, 1916, p. 42 (“well-known disloyalty”). Winter, America and the Armenian Genocide, p. 104. “Government Sends Plea for Armenia,” New York Times, Oct. 4, 1915 (“aroused strong sentiment”). Henry Morgenthau Papers, reel 7: Morgenthau to the Secretary of State, July 16, 1915 (“Nothing short of”). Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1918), pp. 333–34 (“not…as a Jew”). Morgenthau, Murder of a Nation, pp. 64 (“Our people will”), 68 (“They are all dead”).

12. Henry Morgenthau Papers, reel 7: Morgenthau to Secretary of State, Aug. 11, 1915 (“It is difficult”). FRUS, 1915, Supplement, Morgenthau to Secretary of State, Sept. 3, 1915, p. 988. USNA, RG 59, Morgenthau to the Secretary of State, Nov. 25, 1915; Morgenthau to the American Consuls at Beiruth and Aleppo, Nov. 29, 1915. James Barton, Story of Near East Relief (1915–1930) (New York: Macmillan, 1930), p. 4. Ralph Elliot Cook, “The United States and the Armenian Question, 1894–1924” (Ph.D. diss., Tufts Univ., 1957), pp. 131–32. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 279–80, 282. Power, Problem from Hell, pp. 9, 11–12. CZA, CM 241/2—roll 44: Clipping from the St. Louis Dispatch, Sept. 15, 1915 (“The United States might be”). Some Americans also opposed Morgenthau’s plan for resettling Armenians in the United States. “Nothing is more stupid…than advocating that the solution of the Armenian question…is in emigration en masse to America,” wrote the New York Herald correspondent Herbert Gibbons. “Their wholesale emigration…would mark the disappearance of the Armenians as a race and a nation.” See Herbert A. Gibbons, The Blackest Page of Modern History (New York: Putnam, 1916), p. 50.

13. Richard Kloian, The Armenian Genocide: News Accounts from the American Press (Berkeley: Anto Press, 1985), p. 219 (“One group”). Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 242–43 (“arms or legs” and “hundreds of bodies”), 246–47. James Barton, ed., “Turkish Atrocities”: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917 (Ann Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 1998), p. 9 (“Women [who] escaped”).

14. George Horton, The Blight of Asia (1926; reprint, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953), pp. 54–57. Balakian, Burning Tigris, pp. 254–55. DeNovo, American Interests, p. 39. Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story, pp. 307, 321–22 (“The whole history”), 350. Morgenthau, Murder of a Nation, p. 114 (“I had reached”). See also Marsovan 1915: The Diaries of Bertha B. Morley (Ann Arbor: Gomidas Institute, 2000), p. 15.

15. FRUS, 1916, Supplement: Philip to Lansing, May 21, 1916, p. 851 (“Turkish authorities appear”); Philip to Lansing, July 15, 1916, pp. 932–33 (“In spite of”); Philip to Lansing, July 26, 1916, p. 934; Philip to Lansing, July 26, 1916, p. 935; 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 2: Lansing to Wilson, May 17, 1917, pp. 17–19. Dennis R. Papazian, “Misplaced Credulity: Contemporary Turkish Attempts to Refute the Armenian Genocide,” http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/
armenian/papazian/misplace.html (“unchecked policy of extermination”). Kaplan, Arabists, p. 65 (“The air was filled”). See also Grace D. Guthrie, Legacy to Lebanon (Richmond, Va.: Self-published, 1984), p. 17. Margaret McGilvary, The Dawn of a New Era in Syria (New York: Revell, 1920), pp. 94 (“The whole country”), 110 (“In Syria we were”).

18. Action or Nonaction?

1. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 35: House to Wilson, Nov. 11, 1915, p. 191 (“Anything coming”); House to Wilson, Feb. 3, 1916, p. 124 (“The Central Empire runs”); Woodrow Wilson’s State of the Union Address, Dec. 4, 1917, p. 200 (“do not yet stand”). FRUS, 1916, Supplement: Philip to Lansing, March 28, 1916, p. 849; 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1: Elkus to Lansing, Sept. 26, 1916, p. 782; Elkus to Lansing, March 2, 1917, pp. 787–88 (“What can we expect”); Elkus to Lansing, Feb. 11, 1917, p. 134 (“Our relations with Turkey”); Supplement 2: Secretary of State to Elkus, April 6, 1917, p. 11. See also Isaiah Friedman, The Question of Palestine: British-Jewish-Arab Relations: 1914–1918 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1992), p. 211.

2. Wilson’s request for a congressional declaration of war appears on http://www.classbrain.com/artteenst/
publish/article_86.shtml. Cornelius Engert Papers, box 1, folder 11.5: Engert to American Minister at The Hague, Nov. 11, 1917. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 35: Chambers to Wilson, Dec. 10, 1915, p. 337; vol. 45: Abram Elkus to Wilson, Nov. 14, 1917 (“Turkey is the weakest”). John H. Finley, A Pilgrim in Palestine (New York: Scribner, 1919), p. 55. “Senators Want War on Austria,” New York Times, Nov. 27, 1917 (“Turkey’s course”); Dec. 7, 1917 (“I should be sorry”). Selections from the Correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge: Lodge to Roosevelt, Oct. 2, 1918. Letters of Theodore Roosevelt: Roosevelt to Lodge, Oct. 23, 1918 (“We ought to declare”); Roosevelt to Paul Shimmon, July 10, 1918 (“surpassed the iniquity”).

3. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 45: Dodge to Wilson, Dec. 2, 1917, pp. 185–86; Wilson to Dodge, Dec. 5, 1917 (“every word”); vol. 47: Lansing to Wilson, May 8, 1918, pp. 569–70; vol. 48: From the Diary of Colonel House, May 19, 1918, p. 70; Wilson to Lansing, May 24, 1918, p. 136; vol. 49: Sir William Wiseman to Sir Eric Drummond, Aug. 27, 1918, p. 365. DeNovo, American Interests, p. 106 (“I have thought”). Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 8: Roosevelt to Cleveland, May 11, 1918, pp. 1316–18 (“We are guilty”); Theodore Roosevelt to Andrew Fleming West, Dec. 28, 1918, p. 1418 (“It is rather bitter”). Joseph Grabill, “Cleveland H. Dodge, Woodrow Wilson, and the Near East,” Journal of Presbyterian History 48 (Winter 1970): 249–54. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, p. 260 (“following its inclination”). See also David E. Cronon, ed., The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 1913–1921 (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963), p. 246.

4. FRUS, 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 2: Lansing to Wilson, May 17, 1917, pp. 17–19; 1917, Supplement 2: Morgenthau and Frankfurter to Secretary of State, July 8, 1917, pp. 120–22. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 43: Memorandum from an interview with Wilson written by Sir William Wiseman, July 13, 1917, p. 172; vol. 45: Morgenthau to Wilson, Nov. 26, 1917, p. 123 (“was the cancer”); Wilson to Lansing, Nov. 28, 1917, p. 147; vol. 49: Dodge to Wilson, Sept. 28, 1918, pp. 151–52 (“in the seventh heaven”). Jehuda Reinharz, Chaim Weizman: The Making of a Statesman (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 153–54, 155 (“there was one chance”), 163 (“on no account”), 164–68. Richard Lebow, “The Morgenthau Peace Mission of 1917,” Jewish Social Studies 32, no. 4 (Oct. 1970): 271 (“If it succeeds”), 272–80, 281 (“hot air impressions”), 284 (“wild goose chase”). William Yale, “Ambassador Henry Morgenthau’s Special Mission of 1917,” World Politics 1, no. 3 (April 1949): 311–15, 320 (“Morgenthau’s trip”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 155–58. Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error: The Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1949), pp. 196 (“Talk to Morgenthau”), 197–98.

19. An American Movement Is Born

1. Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, p. 12. Feinstein, American Zionism, pp. 99 (“a fatal blow”), 125. Rafael Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs: An American Jewish Dilemma, 1898–1948 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), p. 12 (“of merely being”). Gideon Shimoni, The Zionist Ideology (Hanover: Univ. Press of New England, Brandeis Univ. Press, 1995), p. 137 (“Their entire desire”). Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 72 (“the most formidable”). Arthur Hertzberg, ed., The Zionist Idea: An Historical Analysis and Reader (New York: Atheneum, 1972), p. 500 (“We believe that”). Melvin I. Urofsky, American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1975), p. 98. Oscar Straus Papers, box 4: Straus to Wolf, April 24, 1906.

2. Samuel Halperin, The Political World of American Zionism (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1961), pp. 11–12 (“Will the Jews”). Hertzberg, Zionist Idea, p. 499 (“Is the German-American”). H. N. Hirsch, The Enigma of Felix Frankfurter (New York: Basic Books, 1981), p. 44. Michael E. Parrish, Felix Frankfurter and His Times: The Reform Years (New York: Free Press, 1982), pp. 129–30. Ben Halpern, “The Americanization of Zionism,” American Jewish History 69, no. 1 (1979): 15–33. Melvin I. Urofsky, A Voice That Spoke for Justice: The Life and Times of Stephen S. Wise (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1982).

3. Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, pp. 21, 25, 27. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 48 (“these so-called dreamers”), 52 (“deep moral feeling”). CZA, A 243/13, Stephen S. Wise Papers: Wise to Frankfurter, Oct. 10, 1936 (“Sanity, soundness”). Ezekiel Rabinowitz, Justice Louis D. Brandeis: The Zionist Chapter of His Life (New York: Philosophical Library, 1968), pp. 14, 31. Evyatar Freisel, “Brandeis’ Role in American Zionism Reconsidered,” in Jeffrey Gurock, ed., American Jewish History: The Colonial and Early National Periods, 1654–1840 (New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 42–43, 105. Allon Gal, “In Search of a New Zion: New Light on Brandeis’ Road to Zionism,” in Gurrock, American Jewish History, pp. 79, 88, 90–91 (“the descendants”). Ben Halpern, A Clash of Heroes: Brandeis, Weizmann, and American Zionism (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 94–95, 100–5. Louis D. Brandeis, The Jewish Problem: How to Solve It (New York: Zionist Organization of America, 1919), pp. 19–20 (“There is no inconsistency”).

4. USNA, Ducker to the Secretary of the Navy—Report on the Conditions in Palestine with Reference to Zionism, Feb. 10, 1915. Lansing to Brandeis, Feb. 16, 1915 (“general massacre”); Alexandria Palestine Committee to the Secretary of State, Jan. 25, 1915 (“In name of”); FRUS, 1914, Supplement: Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 13, 1914, p. 757; 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 1: Elkus to Lansing, Nov. 17, 1916, p. 784. Manuel, Realities, pp. 128–31, 136–40. Ruth L. Deech, “Jacob de Haas: A Biography,” in Raphael Patai, ed., Herzl Year Book 7 (New York: Herzl Press, 1971), pp. 340–41 (“If ever I have”).

5. Morgenthau, All in a Life-Time, p. 175 (“Anything you can do”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 120–25, 126 (“unqualified loyalty”), 141–46. FRUS, 1916, Supplement: Morgenthau to Lansing, Dec. 1915, p. 830; Lansing to Glazebrook, Jan. 14, 1916, p. 925; Lansing to Philip, Sept. 13, 1916, p. 937. USNA, Ducker to the Secretary of the Navy—Report on the Conditions in Palestine with Reference to Zionism, Feb. 10, 1915 (“would long remain” and “undoubtedly one”). CZA, A 243/159, Correspondence on Matters of the Yishuv: Perlstein to Wise, Jan. 16, 1915; A 264/25, Papers of Felix Frankfurter: Primrose to Gaster, March 18, 1915. Alexander Aaronsohn, With the Turks Palestine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), p. 85. Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration (London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1961), p. 191 (“America was”). Scuttled by a tsunami in Aug. 1916, with the loss of thirty-eight hands, the Tennessee was mourned by the Jews of Palestine as “an eternal blessing.” See Davis, With Eyes toward Zion, vol. 2, pp. 238–39.

6. Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 68 (“The Jews from every”). Manuel, Realities, p. 83. Letters of Theodore Roosevelt: Roosevelt to Julian H. Miller; Sept. 16, 1918, p. 1372 (“It seems to me”); Roosevelt to Lioubomir Michailovitch, July 11, 1918, p. 1350 (“there can be”). The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, ed. Charles Seymour (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), vol. 1, pp. 43–44 (“It is all bad”). Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World Settlement (Garden City. N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1923), p. 74 (“fine example”). Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, pp. 257, 295 (“the English naturally want”). Stein, Balfour Declaration, p. 156. Elizabeth Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1963), p. 40 (“man to man”). Yaakov Ariel, On Behalf of Israel: American Fundamentalist Attitudes toward Jews, Judaism, and Zionism, 1865–1945 (Brooklyn: Carlson, 1991), p. 45 (“the Zionist movement”).

7. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 63–66, 67 (“To think that”). Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, p. 267. Stein, Balfour Declaration, pp. 427–28, 505, 530. The Letters of Louis D. Brandeis, ed. Melvin I. Urofsky and David M. Levy (Albany: State Univ. of New York, 1973): Brandeis to de Hass, April 24, 1917, p. 283 (“I have heard much”), de Hass Memorandum, May 4, 1917, p. 286 (“a publicly assured”); Brandeis to de Hass, May 8, 1917, p. 288 (“I am a Zionist”); Brandeis to Weizmann, Sept. 24, 1917, p. 310 (“entire sympathy”). Richard Lebow, “Woodrow Wilson and the Balfour Declaration,” Journal of Modern History 40, no. 4 (Dec. 1968): 501–13. Weizmann, Trial and Error, pp. 193–94, 208 (“one of the most important”). Manuel, Realities, p. 168 (“the many dangers”). Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, p. 91 (“The vast mass”).

8. Ben Halpern and Jehuda Reinharz, Zionism and the Creation of a New Society (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 175–77, 180–82. Robert Silverberg, If I Forget Thee, O Jerusalem: American Jews and the State of Israel (New York: Morrow, 1970), pp. 104, 105–6 (“The Americans brought”), 176. Martin Watts, The Jewish Legion and the First World War (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 147–48. Elias Gilner, War and Hope: A History of the Jewish Legion (New York: Herzl Press, 1969), pp. 165–67, 170–71, 177.

9. Lansing’s remark about Jewish guilt for the death of Christ was later leaked to the press, but the secretary denied having made it. FRUS, 1914–20, Lansing Papers, vol. 2: Lansing to Wilson, Dec. 13, 1917, p. 71 (“many Christian sects”); Lansing Note, Dec. 14, 1917, p. 71 (“very unwillingly”). Selig Adler, “The Palestine Question in the Wilson Era,” Jewish Social Studies 10, no. 4 (Oct. 1948): 313 (“polluting and intolerable”). Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, pp. 21–25. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 70, 83 (“sentimental, religious”). William Yale Oral History, Columbia Univ., pp. 10 (“playboy”), 14 (“brass knucks”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 171, 172 (“400 million Christians”), 176 (“satisfaction” and “in the progress”), 184 (“younger and more hot-headed”), 185 (“young, hot-headed Jews”), 186 (“Religious fanaticism” and “If a Jewish State”), 189 (“disagreeable…type”), 190. Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East, pp. 44–45.

10. Medoff, Zionism and the Arabs, pp. 21–25. Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 81 (“The Arabs in Palestine”).

20. Arise, O Arabs, and Awake!

1. John M. Munro, A Mutual Concern: The Story of the American University of Beirut (Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books, 1977), p. 65 (“I know why the Turks”). The study of the origins of Arab nationalism has generated a great many books and articles. See, e.g., Ernest C. Dawn, “The Origins of Arab Nationalism,” in Rashid Khalidi, ed., The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1991), p. 3. Ernest C. Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1973), pp. 132, 140. Adeed Dawisha, Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 25–27, 32–34. Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: Between Islam and the Nation-State (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), pp. 102–4. Eliezer Tauber, The Emergence of the Arab Movements (London: Frank Cass, 1993), pp. 15–18. Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism, 3d ed. (Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books, 1973), pp. 45, 79, 106. See also George Antakly, “American Protestant Educational Missions: Their Influence on Syria and Arab Nationalism, 1820–1923” (Ph.D. diss., American Univ., 1976), pp. 111–12, 115, 120.

2. Neville Mandel, The Arabs and Zionism before World War I (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1976), pp. 42–55, 85–86, 211–12 (“The Jews’…right”). Mary C. Wilson, “The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism,” in Khalidi, Origins of Arab Nationalism, pp. 205, 219. Dawisha, Arab Nationalism, p. 34. Muhammad Y. Muslih, The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 54–60, 67, 79, 87.

3. Alixa Naff, The Arab Americans (Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 1999), pp. 14, 33. Alixa Naff, “Arabs in America: A Historical Overview,” in Sameer Abraham, ed., Arabs in the New World: Studies in Arab-American Communities (Detroit: Wayne State Univ., 1983), pp. 9–10, 13–19. Philip Keyal and Joseph Keyal, The Syrian-Lebanese in America (Boston: Twayne, 1975), pp. 34, 41, 63, 66, 82. Salom Rizk, Syrian Yankee (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1943), p. 71 (“I could see America”). Because of a misspelling of his name in a Boston grammar school, Khalil Gibran’s name is sometimes rendered Kahlil Gibran. See “Khalil the Heretic” in Gregory Orfalea, ed., Grape Leaves: A Century of Arab American Poetry (Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah Press, 1988), pp. 24–25. Gibran Khalil Gibran, The Prophet (New York: Knopf, 1952), pp. 48–49. For further reference, see the Gibran Khalil Gibran website, http://leb.net/gibran/.

4. The Ameen Rihani Papers: From an unpublished manuscript, pp. 76 (“other educational institutions”), 111 (“proof of the aptitude”), 115 (“American spirit”), Bliss to Rihani, March 12, 1913 (“It was unfortunate”). Nada Najjar, “The Space In-between: The Ambivalence of Early Arab-American Writers” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Toledo, 1999), pp. 77, 96, 123, 126 (“Carry to the East”). Theodore Roosevelt Papers: Rihani to Roosevelt, April 20, 1917. Ameen Rihani, The Path of Vision (Beirut: Rihani House, 1970), pp. 97 (“in a land where”), 124 (“The voice of America”). Ameen Rihani, “Palestine and the Proposed Arab Federation,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 164 (Nov. 1932): 66 (“The Land of Promise”). Ameen Rihani, The Fate of Palestine (Beirut: Rihani House, 1967), pp. 25, 37, 80, 85 (“without prejudicing”). See also Suheil B. Bushrui, The Thoughts and Works of Ameen Rihani, http://www.alhewar.com/Bushrui_Rihani.html.

5. Laurence Evans, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), pp. 122 (“I have a kindly”). Stuart Knee, “The King-Crane Commission of 1919: The Articulation of Political Anti-Zionism,” in Gurrock, American Jewish History, pp. 182–88, 188 (“Unitarians of the desert”). Grabill, “Cleveland H. Dodge,” p. 254. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 70 (“the menace”). Frank W. Brecher, Reluctant Ally: United States Foreign Policy toward the Jews from Wilson to Roosevelt (New York: Greenwood, 1991), p. 19. David Philipson, My Life as an American Jew (Cincinnati: John G. Kidd, 1941), pp. 173–74.

21. The First Middle East Peace Process

1. Studies on the origins of Wilsonian diplomacy abound. See, e.g., Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1992), pp. 3 (“A boy never gets”), 14, 33, 77. August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson (New York: Scribner, 1991), pp. 294, 434. Louis Auchincloss, Woodrow Wilson (New York: Penguin, 2000), pp. 74, 92. Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 343, 344 (“go to the ends”), 345 (“do the thinking”). Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, 1856–1890 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1927), pp. 49, 211, 312. Lloyd E. Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 1–2, 9. Cooper, Warrior and the Priest, pp. 15, 273, 323. David M. Kennedy, “What ‘W’ Owes to ‘WW,’” Atlantic Monthly, March 2005, p. 36.

2. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference Papers, vol. 5: Proceedings, April 21, 1919, p. 107; May 13, 1919, p. 584 (“docile people”); vol. 6: June 25, 1919, p. 676 (“cleared out”). Intimate Papers of Colonel House, vol. 1: Diary entry for Dec. 18, 1912, p. 96 (“There ain’t going”). Harley Notter, The Origins of the Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1937), p. 46 (“abnormal”). Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, p. 497 (“America believes in helping”).

3. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 1: Excerpt from “The Inquiry,” Dec. 22, 1917, p. 52; Lippmann to the Secretary of War, May 16, 1918, pp. 97–98. Manuel, Realities, pp. 212, 213–14. William L. Westermann Paris Peace Conference Diaries, entry for Dec. 29, 1918, p. 14 (“thrown in the waste”). Lawrence E. Gelfand, The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917–1919 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1963), pp. 227, 231–32, 244, 248–49, 255 (“fanaticism and bitter”), 256 (“It was the cradle”). Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), pp. 227–30.

4. Manuel, Realities, p. 217 (“Will not the Mohammedans”). George Noble, “The Voice of Egypt,” Nation 110, no. 2844 (Jan. 3, 1920): 862 (“No people”).

5. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 1: Jusserand to Lansing, Nov. 29, 1918, p. 367. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 47: Memorandum by William Westermann, April 17, 1919, p. 443 (“the great loot”). Link, Wilson, p. 414 (“call through a crack”). Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2002), pp. 30–32, 386 (“the complete and definite”). Edward House, ed., What Really Happened at Paris (New York: Scribner, 1921), pp. 178–79 (“Not having declared”). Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, pp. 373 (“The other governments”).

6. Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 84 (“In spite of”). MacMillan, Paris 1919, p. 386 (“knowing in the bottom” and “The obstacle is”). Frederick Palmer, Bliss, Peacemaker (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1934), p. 418 (“Wherever a mandate”). FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 3: Proceedings, Jan. 30, 1919, p. 807 (“I can think of”). Smuts envisaged three types of mandates—A, B, and C, where A mandates were intended for those territories most ready for independence. All of the Middle East mandates were type A. See F. S. Crafford, Jan Smuts: A Biography (Garden City. N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1943), p. 148. H. C. Armstrong, Grey Steel (London: Arthur Barker, 1937), p. 316.

7. Felix Frankfurter Reminisces: Recorded in Talks with Harlan B. Phillips (New York: Reynal, 1960), p. 156 (“Here was little me”). Joseph P. Lash, From the Diaries of Felix Frankfurter (New York: Norton, 1975), p. 26 (“cousins in race”). FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 3: Proceedings, Feb. 6, 1919, p. 891; Bliss Address to the Council of Ten on Feb. 13, 1919, pp. 1016–17; vol. 4: Proceedings, Feb. 27, 1919, p. 169 (“They are intelligent”). Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, p. 500 (“startling resemblance”). John Allen, “Inventing the Middle East,” On Wisconsin (Winter 2004): 36–39. Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1974), p. 67. Robert Lansing, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1921), pp. 163–64 (“ancient seer”), 169 (“His voice seemed”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 221–22, 229 (“prominent American Jews”), 234–35, 238 (“The opposition of the Moslems”), 257 (“Jerusalem will be”).

8. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres, pp. 22 (“So long as”), 67. Edith Wharton, In Morocco (New York: Scribner, 1920), pp. 79 (“Nothing endures in Islam”), 266 (“from Persia to Morocco”). Evans, United States Policy, p. 29. James Shotwell, At the Paris Peace Conference (New York: Macmillan, 1937), pp. 130–31, 176–78. Harry N. Howard, The King-Crane Commission (Beirut: Khayats, 1963), pp. 50–51 (“widespread trouble”). MacMillan, Paris 1919, pp. 152–53, 154 (“I cannot imagine”). Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, p. 492 (“America is the only”).

9. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 5: Proceedings, March 20, 1919, pp. 10 (“scrap”), 12; vol. 11: Minutes of Meeting, March 27, 1919, p. 133 (“knew nothing about”). Brecher, Reluctant Ally, pp. 19–20. Manuel, Realities, p. 245 (“a very experienced”). Papers of Woodrow Wilson: Feisal to Wilson, vol. 47: April 20, 1919, p. 525 (“I am confident”); vol. 48: Wilson Remark in Paris, May 3, 1919, p. 401 (“Our [Allied] governments”). Felix Frankfurter Reminisces, p. 151 (“A crazy idea”). Howard, King-Crane Commission, pp. 35, 37 (“is about to cheat”), 38–39, 44–45 (“too honest”). William L. Westermann Paris Peace Conference Diaries, entry for Jan. 12, 1919, pp. 19 (“the root of all good”), 24.

10. Thomas Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal (New York: Macmillan, 1947), pp. 264–66. Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1995), p. 263 (“Old men, unarmed”). MacMillan, Paris 1919, pp. 349, 353–54. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, pp. 393–95. Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the Middle East, 1914–1924 (New York: Knopf, 1969), p. 349. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 5: Proceedings, May 14, 1919, p. 618; May 19, 1919, p. 708; May 22, 1919, p. 812. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, p. 260 (“with all my heart”). William L. Westermann Peace Conference Diaries, entry for May 22, 1919, p. 81. Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, ed. Rohan Butler and J. P. T. Bury (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1963), vol. 13: Geddes to Curzon, May 11, 1919, pp. 70–71; Geddes to Curzon, May 19, 1919, p. 76. Intimate Papers of Colonel House, vol. 3: entry for May 20, 1919, p. 468 (“something of a scandal”).

11. Donald M. Love, Henry Churchill King of Oberlin (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1956), pp. 215–16. Howard, King-Crane Commission, pp. 56, 221 (“Every part of the Turkish”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 249–51 (“Whereas injustice”). FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 12; Crane and King to the Commission to Negotiate Peace, July 10, 1919, pp. 749–50 (“A real great lover”); King-Crane Commission, pp. 792, 794 (“be seriously considered” and “It is simply impossible”), 797 (“On account of her” and “no other Power”), 799 (“The people of the area”), 801, 833 (“Constantinopolitan State”). William Yale Oral History, pp. 64, 70. For an overview of the commission, see James Gelvin, “The Ironic Legacy of the King-Crane Commission,” in David Lesch, ed., The Middle East and the United States (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), pp. 13–26.

12. Erik Goldstein, “The Eastern Question: The Last Phase,” in Michael Dockrill, ed., The Paris Peace Conference, 1919: Peace without Victory (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 145 (“Lloyd George is a cheat!”). MacMillan, Paris 1919, pp. 33 (“God himself was content”), 145.

13. FRUS, 1919, Paris Peace Conference, vol. 11: Proceedings, July 1, 1919, p. 184; July 8, 1919, p. 284 (“perfectly useless proposition”). Lansing, Peace Negotiations, p. 149. Manuel, Realities, p. 255 (“whole disgusting scramble”). Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover (New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 385. William L. Westermann Paris Peace Conference Diaries, p. 69. Feroz Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 55 (“America, which knows”). James B. Gidney, A Mandate for Armenia (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 17, 184–87, 188 (“Here is a man’s job”). General James G. Harbord, Conditions in the Near East: American Military Mission to Armenia (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1920).

14. Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 64: “The President’s State of Health,” Lansing Memorandum, Nov. 5, 1919, pp. 56–57. Henry Cabot Lodge, The Senate and the League of Nations (New York: Scribner, 1925), p. 184 (“obligation to preserve”). Sachar, Emergence of the Middle East, pp. 349, 361. Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson, p. 609 (“the American people”).

15. Marjorie Housepian Dobkin, Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 101, 103, 112, 166 (“I’ll never forget”). Horton, Blight of Asia, p. 113 (“a fittingly lurid”). FRUS, 1923, vol. 2: Child and Grew to Hughes, Dec. 13, 1922, p. 921 (“find [the] means”); Child and Grew to Hughes, Jan. 3, 1923, p. 946; Harding to Hughes, Jan. 15, 1923, p. 950 (“The most ardent”). Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939: British Secretary’s Notes, April 10, 1920, pp. 20–21; April 20, 1920, pp. 60–61. Daniel, “Armenian Question,” p. 262.

16. William L. Westermann Paris Peace Conference Diaries, pp. 179–80 (“When boldness”). Lansing, Peace Negotiations, p. 175 (“The seeds of discontent”). Palmer, Bliss, Peacemaker, p. 370 (“there never had been”). DeNovo, American Interests, pp. 299–301. Gelvin, “Ironic Legacy of the King-Crane Commission,” p. 13 (“It is not possible”). Sachar, Emergence of the Middle East, p. 365.

22. Fantasies Revived

1. One could easily dedicate a book to the innumerable books written about Lawrence of Arabia. See, e.g., David Fromkin, “The Importance of T. E. Lawrence,” New Criterion 10, no. 1 (Sept. 1995). John E. Mack, A Prince of Our Disorder: The Life of T. E. Lawrence (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 221 (“limelight of history”), 265 (“On the whole”), 275. Phillip Knightley and Colin Simpson, The Secret Lives of Lawrence of Arabia (London: Thomas Nelson, 1969), pp. 52–53. Lawrence James, The Golden Warrior (New York: Paragon House, 1993), pp. 272, 276–77. See also Shotwell, At the Paris Peace Conference, p. 131 (“younger successor of Mohammed”).

2. Norman Bowen, Lowell Thomas: The Stranger Everyone Knows (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 39–40. Lowell Thomas, Good Evening Everybody (New York: Morrow, 1976), pp. 131–39. Lowell Thomas, With Lawrence in Arabia, pp. 12 (the Uncrowned King” and “one of most picturesque”), 20 (“He walked rapidly”), 22 (“restored the sacred places”), 75 (“united the wandering tribes”), 76 (“reincarnation of a prophet”), 114 (“400 Turks”), 264 (“a great scoop”). Joel Hodson, Lawrence of Arabia and American Culture (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1995), pp. 43, 61, 62 (“quite without intention” and “the George Washington”). Knightley, Secret Lives, p. 53 (“break up the Islamic”). Knock, To End All Wars, p. 213 (“chuckled in the desert”). Mack, Prince of Our Disorder, pp. 276 (“I saw your show”), 277 (“I don’t bear him”). Hodson, Lawrence of Arabia, pp. 30, 43, 66 (“Come with me”).

3. Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 21–24. Willa Sibert Cather, My Ántonia (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), pp. 6 (“more inscribed”), 10 (“the beard of an Arabian”). Little, American Orientalism, pp. 17–18.