Power, Faith, and Fantasy

23. From Bibles to Drill Bits

1. Harrison, Doctor in Arabia, pp. 24 (“not even their religion”), 30. DeNovo, American Interests, p. 361 (“of little commercial importance”). USNA, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Saudi Arabia: Brandt to the Secretary of State, May 5, 1930 (“demonstrated that the Arabs”). Eleanor Calverley, My Arabian Days and Nights (New York: Crowell, 1958), p. 7 (“until that moment”). Mary B. Allison, Doctor Mary in Arabia: Memoirs (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1994), p. 25 (“like being born”). Thomas W. Lippman, Inside the Mirage: America’s Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia (Boulder: Westview Press, 2004,) pp. 10–11 (“I know you are”). Paul L. Armerding, Doctors for the Kingdom: The Work of the American Mission Hospitals in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1913–1955 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), p. 115. See also Miriam Joyce, Kuwait, 1945–1956: An Anglo-American Perspective (London: Frank Cass, 1998), p. xviii, and Thomas Lippman, “The Pioneers,” Saudi Aramco World 55, no. 3 (May–June 2004), and Eleanor A. Doumato, Getting God’s Ear: Women, Islam, and Healing in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2000), pp. 43–48. According to Doumato, the most common ailment Harrison treated was “inability,” i.e., male sexual dysfunction.

2. Anthony Sampson, The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the World They Shaped (New York: Bantam, 1991), p. 83. Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East, pp. 38–39. Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations, pp. 103–5. Anthony C. Brown, Oil, God, and Gold: The Story of Aramco and the Saudi Kings (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), pp. 24–28. Benjamin Shwadran, The Middle East, Oil, and the Great Powers (Jerusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1973), pp. 237–38, 288. H. St. John Philby, Saudi Arabia (London: Ernest Benn, 1955), p. 330.

3. In spite of his seminal role in the establishment of U.S.-Saudi relations, Twitchell has yet to be the subject of a serious study, and the descriptions of him remain fragmentary. See, e.g., William Yale, The Near East: A Modern History (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1958), p. 362. D. Van der Meulen, The Wells of Ibn Saud (New York: Praeger, 1957), p. 136. George Kheirallah, Arabia Reborn (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1952), pp. 239–40. Moukhtar Ani, Saudi Arabia: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1959), p. 234.

4 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (New York: Touchstone, 1992), pp. 289–91. George Stocking, Middle East Oil: A Study in Political and Economic Controversy (Kingsport, Tenn.: Vanderbilt Univ. Press, 1970), p. 76. Sampson, Seven Sisters, pp. 109–11. Joseph W. Walt, “Saudi Arabia and the Americans, 1928–1951” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern Univ., 1960), p. 87 (“Some of these firms”). H. J. B. Philby, Arabian Oil Ventures (Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1964), p. 124. Philby relates that the king in fact slept through much of the discussions on the agreement and that his—Philby’s—advice weighed decisively in favor of the Americans.

5. Sampson, Seven Sisters, p. 111 (“descending from the skies”). Wallace Stegner, Discovery: The Search for Arabian Oil (Beirut: Export Press, 1971), pp. 3–54.

6. Aaron Miller, Search for Security: Saudi Arabian Oil and American Foreign Policy, 1939–1949 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1980), p. 25 (“We should let matters”), 26–27. Irvine H. Anderson, ARAMCO, the United States, and Saudi Arabia: A Study of the Dynamics of Foreign Oil Policy, 1933–1950 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981), p. 25. Kaplan, Arabists, p. 71 (“the real bulwark”). DeNovo, American Interests, p. 337. Lippman, Inside the Mirage, p. 117 (“Saudi Arabia is presumably”). William Eddy Papers, box 17: Excerpt from Eddy’s unpublished memoirs (“We Muslims”). Karl Twitchell Papers, box 5: Twitchell to Cleveland Dodge, March 3, 1932. Stegner, Discovery, p. 65 (“If utter faith”).

7. USNA, Records of the Department of State relating to the Internal Affairs of Saudi Arabia, 1930–1944: 890f.00/53, Fish to the State Department, April 12, 1940 (“German ruthlessness”); 890f.00/60, Twitchell to Murray, May 14, 1941; 890f.00/73, Memorandum on conditions in Saudi Arabia based on an interview with a reliable informant (American) returned recently from there Oct. 29, 1941. Parker T. Hart, Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1998), p. 37. Rex J. Casillas, Oil and Diplomacy: The Evolution of American Foreign Policy in Saudi Arabia, 1933–1945 (New York: Garland, 1987), pp. 33, 37, 40. Miller, Search for Security, pp. 33–34 (“It can easily”).

8. Shwadran, Middle East, p. 317. Brown, Oil, God and Gold, pp. 106–7 (“extending financial assistance”). USNA, Records of the Department of State relating to the Internal Affairs of Saudi Arabia, 1930–1944: 890f.00/73 Memorandum on Conditions in Saudi Arabia, Oct. 29, 1941; 890f.00/81, Strictly confidential for Secretary and Under Secretary, April 17, 1943 (“Jews had been hostile”).

24. An Insoluble Conflict Evolves

1. The study of the origins of the Arab-Israeli conflict has generated innumerable books. Few of these, however, are free of an expressed bias toward one side or the other in the conflict. For a sample of some of the more highly regarded scholarly works on the subject, see Philip Mattar, The Mufti of Jerusalem: Al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and the Palestinian National Movement (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 12–49. Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel, 1917–1948 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 41–232. J. C. Hurewtiz, The Struggle for Palestine (New York: Greenwood, 1968), pp. 3–94.

2. Irwin Oder, “The United States and the Palestine Mandate, 1920–1948: A Study of the Impact of Interest Groups on Foreign Policy” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia Univ., 1956), pp. 75 (“an influential and noisy”), 320. Gideon Biger, “The American View of the Tel Hai Affair,” Journal of Israeli History 19, no. 1 (1998): 91–94. Manuel, Realities, pp. 272, 277 (“[We] should avoid”), 280–84, 291–92 (“They would turn Trotsky”), 293–99. Barry Rubin, The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1941–1947 (London: Cass, 1980), p. 22 (“decidedly anti-Jewish”). See also Knee, “Anglo-American Relations,” pp. 13–17.

3. Naomi Cohen, The Year after the Riots: American Responses to the Palestine Crisis of 1929–30 (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 22, 23 (“A crowd of savage Arabs”), 27–28, 29 (“ordinary law-abiding”), 33 (“The Jews are always”). USNA, RG 59: Palestine Internal Affairs: Knabenshue to Stimson (n.d.) (“Jewish financial influence”); Knabenshue to Stimson, Aug. 24, 1929 (“provocative acts”); Knabenshue to Stimson, Aug. 26, 1929; Hamilton Fish Jr. to Stimson, Aug. 28, 1929; Knabenshue to Stimson Oct. 19, 1929. CZA, A243/104, Stephen S. Wise Papers: Memorandum of Meeting of SSW with Secretary of State Stimson on the S.S. Leviathan, Sept. 1, 1931. Manuel, Realities, pp. 302–3. “Says Syria Admires Us,” New York Times, Jan. 11, 1929; “4th in Jerusalem Brings Out Throngs,” New York Times, July 5, 1929. “U.S. Investigates Palestine Consul,” Washington Post, Sept. 7, 1929. Oder, “United States and the Palestine Mandate,” p. 156.

4. CZA, A 243/178, Stephen S. Wise Papers: Wise to Frankfurter, July 29, 1937; O’Toole to Wise, July 30, 1937; Wise to Felix Frankfurter, Oct. 16, 1938. FRUS, 1937, vol. 4: Memorandum by Wallace Murray, July 12, 1937, p. 893 (“Any disposition”); 1938, vol. 2: Memorandum submitted to the Secretary of State by American Jewish Delegation, Oct. 14, 1938, p. 956 (“radical departure”). USNA, Palestine Internal Affairs: Wadsworth to Secretary of State, July 7, 1938 (“Palestinian Jews”); Murray to Secretary of State, Feb. 1, 1939 (“In America there is”); Wadsworth to Secretary of State, June 27, 1939. John Fitzgerald Kennedy Presidential Library, President’s Office Files, box 135, Series: Special Events, Folder: 1939 (“It seems to me”): Letter Written to His Father following Trip to Palestine. Halperin, Political World of American Zionism, pp. 21–26. Louis Rapoport, Shake Heaven and Earth: Peter Bergson and the Struggle to Rescue the Jews of Europe (Jerusalem: Gefen, 1999), p. 43 (“Americans don’t like Jews”). Phillip J. Baram, The Department of State in the Middle East, 1919–1945 (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1978), pp. 263, 268.

5. The proposal for transferring 300,000 Palestinian Arabs was first tabled by Edward Norman, a non-Zionist Jew and heir to a family fortune made from food concessions from the 1893 world’s fair. The cost of the project was estimated at $300 million, to be contributed by the Western powers and wealthy American Jews. Neither Britain nor France, however, showed enthusiasm for the idea and Roosevelt made no real effort to implement it. See Rafael Medoff, Baksheesh Diplomacy: Secret Negotiations between American Jewish Leaders and Arab Officials on the Eve of World War II (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2001), pp. 3, 140 (“less right there”), 141–43. On Roosevelt’s foreign policy in general, and toward Palestine in particular, see Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), p. 20 (“a chameleon on plaid”). Willard Range, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s World Order (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1959), p. 8. James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), pp. 108, 397 (“I would put barbed”). Conrad Black, Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003), p. 928. Frederick W. Marks III, Wind over Sand: The Diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt (Athens, Georgia: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1988), p. 253. William Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984), p. 243 (“Holy Gehad”). Memoirs of Cordell Hull, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1948), p. 1530 (“It is something”). Steiner, Religious Beliefs, pp. 66–67. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 113, 138–39 (“little baksheesh”).

6. FRUS, 1936, vol. 3: Secretary of State to Ambassador in the United Kingdom, July 27, 1936, p. 444 (“influential Jewish circles” and “of course presume”); 1937, vol. 2: Memorandum from Secretary of State to the American Ambassador in the United Kingdom to be delivered to the British, p. 890 (“Large sections”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 306–8. PRO, FO 371: Mr. Mallet to British Embassy. Sept. 21, 1936 (“[It] is hardly worth”); Sir R. Lindsay to Viscount Halifax. Nov. 25, 1938. Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 100. USNA, Palestine Internal Affairs: Knabenshue to Murray, May 25, 1935 (“The White Paper”). Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938–1945 (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 126–31, 135 (“exponents of Communism”), 146 (“was 100%”).

7. CZA, L66/22: Letter to Zionist Delegates (n.d.) (“At this time”); Letter to Heads of Organizations (n.d.) (“specializing in delicious”); L66/24: Brainin to Weisgal, Sept. 20, 1938 (“the most beautiful girl”); L66/59: Memorandum on the Opening of the Palestine Pavilion, May 13, 1939; Brainin to Bloom, June 30, 1939; L66/77: Press Release for Tuesday, Feb. 27, 1940; L66/69: Letter for Palestine Book by F. H. La Guardia (n.d.). See also James L. Gelvin, “Zionism and the Representation of Jewish Palestine at the New York World’s Fair, 1939–40,” International History Review 22, no. 1 (2000): 37–64. USNA, Palestine Internal Affairs: Wadsworth to Secretary of State, Sept. 11, 1938.

8. Golda Meir, My Life (New York: Putnam, 1975), pp. 30 (“New food”), 74 (“Crowds of beggars”), 81 (“I was profoundly happy”), 140 (“Look, Golda”). Ralph G. Martin, Golda: Golda Meir, the Romantic Years (New York: Scribner, 1988), p. 98 (“I owed America”).

9. Edward Wagenknecht, Daughters of the Covenant: Portraits of Six Jewish Women (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1983), pp. 153–56. Michael Brown, The Israeli-American Connection: Its Roots in the Yishuv, 1914–1945 (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 135–36, 141–45. Marvin Lowenthal, Henrietta Szold: Life and Letters (New York: Viking, 1942), pp. 244, 264. Simon Noveck, Great Jewish Personalities in Modern Times (Washington, D.C.: B’nai B’rith Department of Adult Jewish Education, 1960), pp. 324 (“first lady of Palestine”), 331. Michael Shire, The Jewish Prophet: Visionary Words from Moses to Heschel (London: Frances Lincoln, 2002), p. 93 (“Political scores”). CZA, Szold Papers, Speech before the Zionists of America Administration Committee, Jan. 9, 1936 (“I became a Zionist”). Jewish Women’s Archive, “JWA—Henrietta Szold—Building the Yishuv,” http://www.jwa.org/exhibits/wov/szold/yishuv.html (Oct. 6, 2005). See also Baila Round Shargel, “American Jewish Women in Palestine: Bessie Gotsfeld, Henrietta Szold, and the Zionist Enterprise,” American Jewish History 90, no. 2 (June 2002).

10. Arthur Goren, Dissenter in Zion: From the Writings of Judah L. Magnes (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 4–16, 23–24, 32–40, 276 (“a country of two nations”), 277–78, 279 (“I have learned”). Daniel P. Kotzin, “An Attempt to Americanize the Yishuv: Judah L. Magnes in Mandatory Palestine,” Israel Studies 5, no. 1 (2000): 3–18. Neil Caplan, Futile Diplomacy, vol. 2 (London: Frank Cass, 1983), pp. 36–37, 87–90. Susan L. Hattis, The Bi-national Idea in Palestine during the Mandatory Times ([Haifa]: Shikmona, 1970), pp. 65–66, 100, 144–48, 171, 184. Shalom Ratzabi, Between Zionism and Judaism: The Radical Circle in Brith Shalom, 1925–1933 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 252–53. Hagit Lavsky, Before Catastrophe: The Distinctive Path of German Zionism (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 211, 212, 213–17. Michael J. Cohen, “Secret Diplomacy and Rebellion in Palestine, 1936–1939,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 8, no. 3 (July 1977): 380, 383, 400–1. Menahem Kaufman, The Magnes-Philby Negotiations, 1929: The Historical Record (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1998), pp. 18, 100–1, 113. “Judah Magnes,” http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1349&subject=70, Oct. 11, 2005 (“may have to live” and “We can establish”).

11. James R. Kruger, Turning On Water with a Shovel: The Career of Elwood Mead (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1992), pp. 103, 107–8, 109 (“wards of the organization”). Robert E. Rook, “An American in Palestine: Elwood Mead and Zionist Water Resource Planning, 1923–1936,” Arab Studies Quarterly 22, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 71–79. Elwood Mead, “The New Palestine,” American Review of Reviews 70, no. 6 (Dec. 1924): 624 (“promise to be a replica”), 626 (“is as attractive”), 628 (“The Zionist movement”).

12. Rook, “Blueprints and Prophets,” pp. 91–92, 99 (“morgue of civilizations”), 101–10, 139–40. Walter C. Lowdermilk, Palestine: Land of Promise (New York: Harper, 1944), pp. 6–7 (“most remarkable devotion”), 8–24, 229 (“the lever that will lift”). Nathan Godfried, Bridging the Gap between Rich and Poor: American Economic Development Policy toward the Arab East, 1942–1949 (New York: Greenwood, 1987), p. 168. Rory Miller, “Bible and Soil: Walter Clay Lowdermilk, the Jordan Valley Project and the Palestine Debate,” Middle Eastern Studies 39, no. 2 (April 2003): 56–63. See also Walter C. Lowdermilk, Conquest of the Land through Seven Thousand Years (1948; reprint, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1953).

13. Shabtai Teveth, Ben Gurion: The Burning Ground, 1886–1948 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), pp. 97–98 (“absurd, resembling cages”), 109–20. Allon Gal, David Ben-Gurion and the American Alignment for a Jewish State (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 15 (“bustling, industrious” and “We, who seek”), 16, 21, 103, 149, 196 (“London has not ceased”), 203, 216. See also Michael Bar-Zohar, Ben-Gurion: A Biography, translated by Peretz Kidron (New York: Adama Books, 1977). Dan Kurzman, Ben-Gurion: Prophet of Fire (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), pp. 115–19.

14. David S. Wyman and Rafael Medoff, A Race against Death: Peter Bergson, America, and the Holocaust (New York: New Press, 2004), pp. 19–29, 107 (“Mi samcha”). Rapoport, Shake Heaven and Earth, pp. 35–43, 56–57 (“An army with such”).

15. David Shapiro, From Philanthropy to Activism: The Political Transformation of American Zionism in the Holocaust Years, 1933–1945 (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994), pp. 71, 84. Silverberg, If I Forget Thee, O Jerusalem, pp. 188–90, 206 (“The more I think”). Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, pp. 205–6 (“battleground”). Halperin, Political World of American Zionism, p. 121. Gal, David Ben-Gurion, p. 69 (“Right now”). Walter Laqueur, A History of Zionism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), pp. 546–47. For a detailed discussion of the New York Times treatment of the Holocaust, see Laurel Leff, Buried by the Times: The Holocaust and America’s Most Important Newspaper (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005), pp. 2–3, 13, 42.

25. A Torch for the Middle East

1. A Pocket Guide to North Africa (Washington, D.C.: War and Navy Department, 1942), pp. 14, 19, 23, 28, 34, 39–41. William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War, 1940–1941 (Gloucester: P. Smith, 1968), pp. 380–81, 590, 592 (“We in the United”), 778 (“We should not get”). Michael J. Cohen, “American Influence on British Policy in the Middle East during World War Two: First Attempts at Coordinating Allied Policy on Palestine,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly 67, no. 1 (Sept. 1977): 51–52 (“Our reputation”). Robert Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), p. 66–68, 91 (“The vice consuls”). George F. Howe, Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the West (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1991), pp. 57–58. FRUS, 1941, vol. 3: British and Free French Invasion and Occupation of Syria and Lebanon; Good Offices of the United States in Arranging Armistice: Personal to the President, June 7, 1941, pp. 725–26.

2. Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, pp. 346–49, 262. Mark W. Clark, Calculated Risk (New York: Harper, 1950), pp. 50 (“Why stick your head”), 107. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943 (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), pp. 12–13, 14 (“indirect contribution”), 16 (“was now our principal objective”), 17–18, 46–47. Hale, “‘General’ Eaton,” p. 28. George S. Patton, War as I Knew It (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), p. 16. Pocket Guide to North Africa, pp. 4–5.

3. Arthur L. Funk, “Negotiating the ‘Deal with Darlan,’” Journal of Contemporary History 8, no. 2 (April 1973): 81–117. Atkinson, Army at Dawn, pp. 3 (“North Africa was”), 287–88. Brown, Oil, God, and Gold, pp. 104–5 (“sons of the Mughreb”). Carleton S. Coon, A North Africa Story: The Anthropologist as OSS Agent (Ipswich, Mass.: Gabmit Press, 1980), p. 14. Howe, Northwest Africa, pp. 108–9. Clark, Calculated Risk, pp. 155 (“I had constantly”), 269.

4. A. J. Liebling, The Road Back to Paris (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran, 1944), pp. 225 (“as examples”), 290 (“a wild competition”). Kenneth G. Crawford, Report on North Africa (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1943), pp. 45–46 (“warriors fighting”). Richard Breitman, “The Allied War Effort and the Jews, 1942–1943,” Journal of Contemporary History 20, no. 1 (Jan. 1985): 140–41, 142 (“Arabs don’t mind Christians”). The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968): Conversation between President Roosevelt and General Nogués, Jan. 17, 1943, p. 608 (“eliminate…the understandable”). Carlo D’Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier’s Life (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), p. 356 (“Many things done here”). There were few exceptions to the general Arab opposition to removing the wartime restrictions on Jews; see Robert Satloff, “In Search of ‘Righteous Arabs,’” Commentary 118, no. 1 (July 2004).

5. Gaddis Smith, American Diplomacy during the Second World War, 1941–1945 (New York: Knopf, 1985), pp. 96 (“A century”), 100–10. Stephane Bernard, The Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 1943–1953 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1968), p. 3. Annie Lacroix-Riz, Les Protectorats d’Afrique du Nord entre la France et Washington: Du débarquement à l’indépendance, Maroc et Tunisie, 1942–1956 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1988), pp. 11–21. Benjamin Rivlin, “The United States and Moroccan International Status, 1943–1956: A Contributory Factor in Morocco’s Reassertion of Independence from France,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 1 (1982): 64–65, 74. Egya N. Sangmuah, “Sultan Mohammed ben Youssef’s American Strategy and the Diplomacy of North African Liberation, 1943–61,” Journal of Contemporary History 27, no. 1 (Jan. 1992): 130. Kenneth Pendar, Adventure in Diplomacy: The Emergence of General de Gaulle in North Africa (London: Cassell, 1966), pp. 142, 146–47. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1946), pp. 110 (“differ sharply), 111 (“French and British financiers”), 112 (“A new future” and “Glowering”). Ernie Pyle, Here Is Your War (New York: Henry Holt, 1943), p. 44 (“Arab farmers”). FRUS, 1944, vol. 5: Mayer to the Secretary of State, Jan. 5, 1944, pp. 527–29.

6. FRUS, 1945, vol. 8: Henderson to Truman, Nov. 10, 1945, p. 10 (“friendly disinterest”). Russell Buhite, Patrick J. Hurley and American Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 6–15, 27, 113 (“certain very rich”), 313. Don Lohbeck, Patrick J. Hurley (Chicago: H. Regnery, 1956), pp. 188–89, 190 (“Our President”), 191 (“My job”), 193 (“America could not”), 195 (“starvation was the easiest”), 210–11 (“the economy of colonial”). Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, Office Files, 1933–1945, pt. 4: Subject Files, reel 19; Hurley to Roosevelt, May 5, 1943 (“exploitation and imperialism”); Hurley to Roosevelt, June 9, 1943 (“similar to those embodied”). Abbas Milani, “Hurley’s Dream,” Hoover Digest, no. 3 (2003): 149 (“It is the purpose” and “free governments”), 150 (“unselfish American policy”). T. H. Vail Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1952), pp. 6–7. See also Mark Hamilton Lytle, The Origins of the Iranian-American Alliance, 1941–1953 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1987), pp. 48–59, 60 (“messianic globaloney”). William R. Louis, Imperialism at Bay, 1941–1945: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), p. 226 (“the colonial system”).

7. FRUS, 1943, vol. 4: Secretary of State to Wiley, Nov. 12, 1943, p. 1045; 1944, vol. 5: Morris to the Secretary of State, Oct. 9, 1944, p. 455. Phillip Baram, “Undermining the British: Department of State Policies in Egypt and the Suez Canal before and during World War II,” Historian 40, no. 4 (Aug. 1978): 633–37, 641–45. Thomas A. Bryson, Seeds of the Mideast Crisis: The United States Diplomatic Role in the Middle East during World War II (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1981), pp. 85–89, 98–99. Rubin, Great Powers, pp. 141–42. Walter L. Browne, The Political History of Lebanon, 1920–1950, vol. 2 (Salisbury, N.C.: Documentary Publications, 1977), pp. 271, 386–87. Louis, Imperialism at Bay, p. 169. Steven L. Spiegel, The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict: Making America’s Middle East Policy, from Truman to Reagan (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 13 (“New Deal” and “you will be”). On America’s prewar refusal to encourage Egyptian nationalists, see Erez Manela, “Friction from the Sidelines: Diplomacy, Religion and Culture in American-Egyptian Relations, 1919–1939,” The United States and the Middle East: Diplomatic and Economic Relations in Historical Perspective (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 2000), pp. 28–35. On Hooker Doolittle’s contribution to Tunisian independence, see David D. Newsom, “The Unsung Diplomat,” Christian Science Monitor, April 12, 2000.

8. FRUS, 1944, vol. 5: Roosevelt to Landis, March 6, 1944, p. 2. James M. Landis Papers, box 164: Excerpt from a “Round Table” at the Univ. of Chicago entitled “The Middle East: Zone of Conflict?” July 22, 1945 (“The trouble is”). Donald A. Ritchie, James M. Landis: Dean of the Regulators (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 3 (“I’ve been called”), 121–23, 124 (“A diffusion of power”), 126, 130. Robert Vitalis, “The New Deal in Egypt: The Rise of Anglo-American Commercial Competition in World War II and the Fall of Neocolonialism,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 2 (Spring 1996): 213, 220–24. Martin W. Wilmington, The Middle East Supply Centre (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1971), pp. 4–7, 62–72, 167. Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945–1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 14–17. Godfried, Bridging the Gap, pp. 483–90. Arthur C. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia (Washington. D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1946), pp. 55, 64, 84–85 (“The Persian government”).

9. Oder, “United States and the Palestine Mandate,” pp. 326–27. On the Millspaugh and Schwarzkopf Missions, see FRUS, 1944, vol. 4: Ford to Secretary of State, Feb. 2, 1944, p. 391; Ford to Secretary of State, April 11, 1944, p. 395; Morris to Secretary of State Oct. 11, 1944, p. 430. James Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American-Iranian Relations (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1988), pp. 24–25, 27. Michael K. Sheehan, Iran: The Impact of United States Interests and Policies, 1941–1943 (Brooklyn: Theo Gaus’ Sons, 1968), pp. 16–17. Lytle, Origins of the Iranian-American Alliance, pp. 112–16.

10. Wilmington, Middle East Supply Centre, p. 167 (“the time has come”). FRUS, 1942, vol. 4: Welles to Kirk, Feb. 26, 1942, p. 564; 1943, vol. 4: Secretary of State to the Secretary of the Interior, Nov. 13, 1943, p. 942 (“the oil of Saudi Arabia”); 1944, vol. 5: Hull to Winnant, Oct. 17, 1944, p. 666 (“a covert contest”); Davies to Murray, Dec. 27, 1944, p. 9; 1944, vol. 5: Murray to the Under Secretary of State, Nov. 23, 1944, pp. 35–36. David Long, The United States and Saudi Arabia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 14–15, 76. Bryson, Seeds of Mideast Crisis, p. 39. Miller, Search for Security, pp. 30–31, 43 (“Just how we could”), 51–55, 60–63, 71, 121, 237. Hart, Saudi Arabia, p. 29. Lytle, Origins of the Iranian-American Alliance, pp. 64, 71. Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East, pp. 133–34. Shwadran, Middle East, pp. 330–33.

11. Cecil Brown, Suez to Singapore (New York: Random House, 1942), p. 12 (“This is Baghdad”). Erasmus Kloman, Assignment Algiers: With the OSS in the Mediterranean Theater (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2005), p. 17 (“never-never land”). Patton, War as I Knew It, p. 10 (“a city which combines”). Norman Schwarzkopf, It Doesn’t Take a Hero (New York: Bantam, 1992), p. 11 (“magical, faraway”). Roger Cohen and Claudio Gatti, In the Eye of the Storm: The Life of General H. Norman Schwarzkopf (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991), pp. 48–49. Humphrey Wynn, Desert Eagles (Osceola, Wis.: Motorbooks International, 1993), pp. 9 (“certainly a dirty place”), 10 (“the last place”), 13 (“Even the beer”). Ernest D. Whitehead, World War II: An Ex-Sergeant Remembers (Kearney: Morris Publishing, 1996), 36 (“What are we doing”). The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, ed. Alfred Chandler (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1970), vol. 2: Dwight Eisenhower to John Eisenhower, Nov. 20, 1942, p. 746 (“beautiful and picturesque”). Clark, Calculated Risk, p. 157 (“like illustrations”). Liebling, Road Back to Paris, p. 243 (“This is exactly”). “Hey, Jack, which way to Mecca?” appears in Peter Arno, Peter Arno (New York: Perennial Library, 1990). A Short Guide to Iraq (Washington, D.C.: War and Navy Departments, 1944), pp. 3–4 (“you have seen”).

12. Atkinson, Army at Dawn, pp. 124 (“Scrofulous, unpicturesque”), 169 (“useless, worthless” and “If they could have”), 255, 462 (“they were open”). D’Este, Eisenhower, p. 400 (“I would rather”). Patton, War as I Knew It, pp. 5, 47 (“the morning edition”), 49 (“the utter degradation”). Whitehead, World War II, pp. 41, 44 (“The Arab men”). World War II Diary of Jean Gordon Peltier (Groveland, Calif.: Perfect Art, 2000), pp. 37 (“The men spend”), 38 (“the animals lived”). Howard Wriggins, Picking Up the Pieces from Portugal to Palestine: Quaker Refugee Relief in World War II (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 2004), p. 79 (“That may be so”). K. Ray Marrs, I Was There When the World Stood Still (Bloomington: 1st Books, 2003), p. 301 (“Their long flowing” and “kill the Arab”). David Rame, Road to Tunis (New York: Macmillan, 1944), pp. 14–15, 36. Liebling, Road Back to Paris, pp. 279, 291. Stars and Stripes (Cairo edition), July 2, 1942 (“Nobody ever taught”); July 30, 1943 (“buxom”), Oct. 8, 1943 (“sayeeda”).

13. The White House Papers of Harry Hopkins, ed. Robert Sherwood, vol. 2 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1949), p. 860 (“horseplay”). Burns, Roosevelt, pp. 395–96 (“The mills of the gods”). FRUS, 1943, vol. 4: Ibn Saud to Roosevelt, May 11, 1943, pp. 773–74 (“Jews have no right”); 1944, vol. 5: Stettenius to Roosevelt, p. 649 (“It would seriously prejudice”), Berle to the Secretary of State, Jan. 28, 1944, pp. 561–62 (“opened for the free entry”); Satterthwaite to Secretary of State, Aug. 3, 1944, p. 607 (“moral as well as material”); Secretary of State to Roosevelt, Dec. 13, 1944, p. 649 (“economic concessions”) Secretary of State to Roosevelt, p. 655 (n.d.); Tuck to Secretary of State, Nov. 21, 1944, p. 640 (“Democratic America”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 310–12.

14. Jim Bishop, FDR’s Last Year (New York: Morrow, 1974), pp. 441, 443 (“the Moslem will not permit”), 435, 445 (“this prosperity” and “short of war”). John S. Keating, “Cruise of the USS Flying Carpet,” True 33, no. 199 (Dec. 1953): 108–9, 110 (“lean and dark”), 111 (“serious damage”). William Eddy, F.D.R. Meets Ibn Saud (New York: American Friends of the Middle East, 1954), pp. 21, 30, 31 (“my most precious”), 34–35 (“Make the enemy”), 44–45 (“most precious pearl”). Black, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, p. 1068 (“whole party”). W. Barry McCarthy, “Ibn Saud’s Voyage,” Life, March 19, 1945, pp. 62–64. FRUS, 1944, vol. 5: Secretary of State to Jidda, April 18, 1944, p. 687 (“thoughts, wants, needs”). Range, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s World Order, p. 149. Burns, Roosevelt, pp. 378–79, 578. White House Papers of Harry Hopkins, pp. 860–61 (“horseplay” and “overly impressed”). Manuel, Realities, pp. 314 (“I will never rest”), 316–17 (“malicious misrepresentation”).

26. The Middle East and the Man from Missouri

1. Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made (New York: Touchstone, 1986), pp. 255–56. Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 126–29, 134–35. Alonzo L. Hamby, Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 404–6. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), pp. 349 (“great, great tragedy”), 350, 353 (“I felt like the moon”), 597. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Putnam, 1974), p. 215 (“It wasn’t just”). Michael T. Benson, Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), pp. 29–33, 34 (“God has created us”), 35–38, 39 (“a matter of faith”), 53–54.

2. FRUS, 1945, vol. 8: Henderson to Matthews, Nov. 13, 1945, p. 1208; Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in France, May 23, 1945, p. 1092; 1946, vol. 7: Stettinius to Secretary of State, Feb. 7, 1946, p. 763; Secretary of State to Stettinius, Feb. 9, 1946, p. 766; Henderson to Truman, Nov. 10, 1945, pp. 10–11. Hahn, United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, pp. 20–21 (“the most deserving”), 26–29. David Lesch, Syria and the United States: Eisenhower’s Cold War in the Middle East (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), p. 17. G. W. Sand, ed., Defending the West: The Truman-Churchill Correspondence, 1945–1960 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004), pp. 92–93, 94. H. W. Brands, Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918–1961 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 132 (“Your country has”), 134 (“Our refusal”). Robert Laffey, “United States Policy toward and Relations with Syria, 1941–1947” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Notre Dame, 1981), pp. 85–86. Irene L. Gendzier, Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), p. 51.

3. Geoff Simons, Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie (Oxford: Centre for Libyan Studies, 2003), p. 18. William Roger Louis, “American Anti-colonialism and the Dissolution of the British Empire,” International Affairs 61, no. 3 (Summer 1985): 403–9. Scott L. Bills, The Libyan Arena: The United States, Britain, and the Council of Foreign Ministers, 1945–1948 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 8, 12, 24, 32. Ronald Bruce St. John, Libya and the United States: Two Centuries of Strife (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), pp. 40, 42–43.

4. FRUS, 1945, vol. 8: Morris to the Secretary of State, Jan. 4, 1945, p. 359; Minor to Acheson, June 2, 1945, p. 376; Henderson to the Secretary of State, Aug. 23, 1945, pp. 27–28. Bruce R. Kuniholm, The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey, and Greece (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 157–65. Lytle , Origins of the Iranian-American Alliance, pp. 120–68. John Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1992), pp. 200, 310–11 (“Now we’ll give”). Barry Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience and Iran (New York: Penguin, 1981), pp. 33–36. Louise L. Fawcett, Iran and the Cold War: The Azerbaijan Crisis of 1946 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992), pp. 122–29, 139. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945–1948 (New York: Norton, 1977), pp. 194–95. Willian Hillman and Harry Truman, Mr. President: The First Publication from the Personal Diaries, Private Letters, Papers, and Revealing Interviews of Harry S. Truman, Thirty-second President of the United States of America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952), pp. 22–23: Truman to Byrnes, Jan. 5, 1946 (“We ought to protest”).

5. FRUS, 1945, vol. 8: Harriman to the Secretary of State Moscow, March 21, 1945, p. 1220; Wilson to the Secretary of State, Sept. 25, 1945, pp. 1249; 1947, vol. 5: Smith to the Secretary of State, Jan. 8, 1947, pp. 2–3; MacVeagh to the Secretary of State, Feb. 11, 1947, p. 17; Report of the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee (n.d.), pp. 76–77 (“There is, at the present”). Joseph C. Satterthwaite, “The Truman Doctrine: Turkey,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social and Science 401 (May 1972): 74–84. Robert Frazier, “Acheson and Formulation of the Truman Doctrine,” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 17, no. 2 (1999): 229–51. John Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), p. 28. Kuniholm, Origins of the Cold War, p. 425. Fawcett, Iran and the Cold War, p. 128. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, p. 251 (“Greece and Turkey”). Lawrence S. Kaplan, “The Monroe Doctrine and the Truman Doctrine: The Case of Greece,” Journal of the Early Republic 13, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 2 (“Our foreign policy”). Laffey, “United States Policy,” p. 71 (“star rising”). The text of Truman’s speech to Congress is available online, through Yale Law School’s Avalon Project.

6. James M. Burns and Susan Dunn, The Three Roosevelts: Patrician Leaders Who Transformed America (New York: Grove Press, 2001), p. 516 (“I cannot bear”). McCullough, Truman, p. 597 (“Everyone else”). Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 189 (“My sympathy”), 200 (“One is led”). Arnold Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 (Palo Alto: Stanford Univ. Press, 2002), p. 275 (“to make the whole world”). Louis, British Empire in the Middle East, p. 240 (“I have to answer”).

7. Truman’s policymaking on Palestine is one of the most lavishly researched subjects in modern Middle Eastern history. Notes relating to the episode contain a representative, but scarcely exhaustive, selection of these sources. Benson, Harry S. Truman, pp. 64–65 (“grievous harm”). Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 203 (“to the head”), 204 (“because they did not”). Zvi Ganin, Truman, American Jewry, and Israel, 1945–1948 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), p. 39 (“firmly believe”). David Schoenbaum, The United States and the State of Israel (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), p. 44.

8. Peter L. Hahn, Caught in the Middle East: U.S. Policy toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1945–1961 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2004), pp. 33–36. Michael J. Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers, 1945–1948 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 96–112, 113 (“the further development”). Ganin, Truman, American Jewry, and Israel, p. 80 (“For the Jews”). Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, vol. 2: Years of Trial and Hope (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1956), p. 57 (“the promised Jewish homeland”). Grose, Israel in the Mind, p. 206 (“Jesus Christ”). Truman Presidential Library: President’s Secretary File: Jacobson to Truman, Oct. 7, 1947 (“Harry, my people”). Benson, Harry S. Truman, p. 96 (“Terror and Silver”). The Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry report is available on the Avalon Project website. See also Michael J. Cohen, ed., The Anglo-American Committee on Palestine, 1945–46, vol. 35 of The Rise of Israel: A Documentary Record from the Nineteenth Century to 1948 (New York: Garland, 1987).

9. FRUS, 1947, vol. 7: Memorandum of Fraser Wilkins, Jan. 14, 1947, pp. 1003–4; Marshall to the Embassy in the U.K., Jan. 14, 1947, pp. 1005–6; Memorandum of Dean Acheson, Jan. 21, 1947, pp. 1008–11. Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 202 (“more concerned”), 214 (“sacrificial labors” and “the title deeds”). Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (Toronto: George-McLeod, 1969), p. 175 (“the most disliked power”). Benson, Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel, pp. 81 (“not in the light”), 93 (“crackpots”). Hahn, Caught in the Middle East, pp. 29, 34, 36 (“underground guerrilla warfare”), 40. The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking, 1951), pp. 180, 245, 303–4, 342, 345. Offner, Another Such Victory, p. 274 (“sixty-four dollar question”).

10. Martin Gilbert, Israel: A History (London: Black Swan, 1998), p. 147 (“the thousands of years”). Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers, p. 266 (“Zionist beachhead”). Manuel, Realities, p. 324 (“stuck his neck out”). Sykes, Crossroads to Israel, p. 325 (“relentless war”). Forrestal Diaries, p. 376. Mattar, Mufti of Jerusalem, p. 110. The minority UNSCOP plan was submitted by Iran, India, and Yugoslavia; the majority plan by Australia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, the Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and Uruguay.

11. Truman Presidential Library: President’s Diaries File, July 21, 1947 (“The Jews, I find”). FRUS, 1947, vol. 5: Marshall to Truman, April 29, 1947, p. 1080; Marshall to Certain Diplomatic Officers, June 13, 1947, p. 1103; Henderson to Marshall, Sept. 22, 1947, p. 1153; Memorandum of Paul Alling, Sept. 26, 1947, p. 1159; Wadsworth to Mattison, Nov. 13, 1947, p. 1257. Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers, pp. 293–94, 295 (“get busy”). Hahn, Caught in the Middle East, pp. 39–41, 48.

12. FRUS, Vol. V, 1948: Kennan to Lovett, Feb. 12, 1948, pp. 589–92; Austin to Marshall, March 17, 1948, p. 736; Henderson to Lovett, April 22, 1948, pp. 841–42 (“decide once and for all”). Truman, Years of Trial and Hope, pp. 161, 164, 171, 173. Hahn, Caught in the Middle East, p. 46 (“British bullheadedness”). Truman Presidential Library: President’s Secretary’s File: Truman to Jacobson, Feb. 27, 1948 (“The situation has been”). Benson, Harry S. Truman, pp. 127 (“Harry”), 128 (“You win” and “bank”). McCullough, Truman, pp. 610–11 (“liar and a double-crosser”). Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers, p. 358 (“shocking reversal” and “surrender to Arab terror”). Dan Kurzman, Genesis 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War (New York: Da Capo Press, 1992), pp. 83, 97. On Zionist fundraising efforts in the United States, see Yossi Melman and Dan Raviv, Friends in Deed: Inside the U.S.-Israel Alliance (New York: Hyperion, 1994), pp. 40–45.

13. FRUS, 1948, vol. 5: Rusk to Marshall, March 22, 1948, p. 751; Gross to Lovett, May 11, 1948, p. 959. Elsey Papers, May 12, 1948, p. 977 (“a very transparent attempt” and “pig in the poke”), State Department to Truman, Aug. 19, 1948, p. 1324 (“are destitute”). Howard M. Sachar, A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time (New York: Knopf, 1970), pp. 309, 310 (“What will happen”). Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, p. 383 (“If the President”). Grose, Israel in the Mind, pp. 290–91, 292 (“I will cross that bridge”), 293 (“What do you mean”). “34 Jews are Slain in Hospital Convoy,” New York Times, April 14, 1948. Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, O Jerusalem (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972), p. 278 (“there were bodies”). The number of Arab victims of the Deir Yassin massacre remains a source of historical controversy. I have relied on Matthew Hogan, “The 1948 Massacre at Deir Yassin,” in Historian 63, no. 2 (2001).

27. Harmony and Hegemony

1. Brian Urquhart, Ralph Bunche: An American Life (New York: Norton, 1993), pp. 103, 122, 164. Charles P. Henry, Ralph Bunche: Model Negro or American Other? (New York: New York Univ., 1999), p. 145. Shabtai Rosenne, “Bunche at Rhodes: Diplomatic Negotiator,” in Benjamin Rivlin, ed., Ralph Bunche: The Man and His Times (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1990), p. 178. Eytan Walter, The First Ten Years: A Diplomatic History of Israel (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1958), p. 31 (“Have a look”).

2. Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 654–55. The CIA’s support of the Free Officers is discussed in a number of sources. See, e.g., Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations: The Amorality of Power Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969), and Wilbur Crane Eveland, Ropes of Sand: America’s Failure in the Middle East (New York: Norton, 1980). See also Anwar El Sadat, Revolt on the Nile (London: A. Windgate, 1957), pp. 117–18. Mohammad Naguib, Egypt’s Destiny: A Personal Statement (London: Gollancz, 1955), p. 121. Sayed Ahmed, Nasser and American Foreign Policy, 1952–1956 (London: LAAM, 1987), pp. 39–47. Holland, America and Egypt, p. 26 (“a Moslem Billy Graham”).

3. Sources on Mossadegh and Operation Ajax abound. See, e.g., Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, pp. 54–61, 62 (“Whether it is in Indo-China”), 63–90, and Mark Hamilton Lytle, The Origins of the Iranian-American Alliance, 1941–1953 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1987), pp. 192–209. See also Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley, 2003).

4. FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 18: NSC 5436/1 United States Policy on French North Africa, June 1, 1955, pp. 92–93 (“we cannot give”). Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post–Cold War Era (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002), pp. 45, 50 (“The French are operating”), 52–58, 123 (“having gone so far”), 153–54. Matthew F. Holland, America and Egypt: From Roosevelt to Eisenhower (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996), p. 30. Frederick Quinn, The French Overseas Empire (New York: Praeger, 2000), p. 227 (“a vast conspiracy”).

5. Dwight David Eisenhower Papers, White House Correspondence, box 3: Eisenhower to Dulles, June 16, 1953; Whitman File, International Series, box 15: Eisenhower to Churchill, April 7, 1953 (“From Foster’s personal”). PRO, FO371/102732/14: Report of Lord Salisbury’s Conversation with Mr. Dulles, July 11, 1953 (“The old colonial attitude”). Evelyn Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez: Diaries, 1951–1956, ed. John Charmley (New York: Norton 1986), p. 229. Hahn, United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, pp. 161–64.

6. I have written extensively on Alpha, Gamma, and the search for Arab-Israeli peace in the 1950s. See, e.g., The Origins of the Second Arab-Israel War: Egypt, Israel, and the Great Powers (London: Frank Cass, 1992); “Escalation to Suez: The Egypt-Israel Border War, 1949–56,” Journal of Contemporary History 24, no. 3 (1989); “Secret Efforts to Achieve an Egypt-Israel Settlement prior to the Suez Campaign,” Middle Eastern Studies 26, no. 3 (1990); “The Diplomatic Struggle for the Negev,” Studies in Zionism 2, no. 1 (1989). On Omega, see FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 15: Memorandum from the Secretary of State to the President, March 28, 1956, p. 410; Diary Entry by the President, March 28, 1956, p. 425. Salim Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism: The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina, 2004), pp. 42–45. On King Saud’s visit to the United States, see Nathan J. Citino, From Arab Nationalism to Opec: Eisenhower, King Sa‘d, and the Making of U.S.-Saudi Relations (Bloomington: Indiana Univ., 2002), pp. 122–23, 135, and Rachel Bronson, Thicker Than Oil: America’s Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia (Oxford: Oxford Univ., 2006), pp. 74–75.

7. PRO, CAB 128/30, July 27, 1956. USNA, 974.7301/7-2756: Paris to Department, July 27, 1956; 974.7301/6-158: Suez Canal Problem, 1954–58, June 1, 1958. Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten (London: Collins, 1985), pp. 537–38. Anthony Gorst and Scott W. Lucas, “Suez 1956: Strategy and the Diplomatic Process,” Journal of Strategic Studies 23, no. 1 (1988): 399–400. Robert Rhodes James, Anthony Eden (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986), p. 166 (“My object”). Bernard Ménager et al., eds., Guy Mollet: Un camarade en république (Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1987), p. 476 (“totally dependent”).

8. DDE, Dulles Papers, Subject Series, Telephone Calls, box 5: Allen Dulles to Secretary Dulles, Oct. 30, 1956; Dulles to Eisenhower, Oct. 30, 1956; The Secretary to Allen Dulles, Oct. 30, 1956. PRO, PREM 11/1105: Washington to Foreign Office Oct. 30, 1956. DDF, III, 1956, 93–95.

9. British Broadcasting Company: Summary of World Broadcasts, pt. 4, The Arab World, Israel, Greece, Turkey, Persia: Voice of the Arabs, Jan. 9, 1957; Voice of the Arabs, Jan. 18, 1957. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, pp. 71–90, 205–12, 221–23, 224, 225–36. Alan Dowty, Middle East Crisis: U.S. Decision-Making in 1958, 1970 and 1973 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1984), pp. 27–35, 56, 80. See also Michael B. Oren, “Israel, the Great Powers, and the Middle East Crisis of 1958,” Studies in Zionism 12, no. 2 (1992). For insights into the film Ben-Hur, I am indebted to one of my Harvard students, John Taylor Hebden.

10. Warren Bass, Support Any Friend: Kennedy’s Middle East and the Making of the U.S.-Israel Alliance (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 4, 73, 79 (“immense satisfaction”), 100, 111, 128. Douglas Little, “The New Frontier on the Nile: JFK, Nasser, and Arab Nationalism,” Journal of American History 75, no. 2 (1988): 500 (“somehow represented yesterday”), 502, 504, 510–13, 521–24. Robert Dallek, An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963 (Boston: Little, Brown, 2003), p. 222 (“The single most important”). Michael B. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002), p. 14.

11. Bass, Support Any Friend, pp. 145–49, 158, 185–90. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 99–107, 108 (“A woman should not”), 155 (“seriously jeopardized”). Mordechai Gazit, President Kennedy’s Policy toward the Arab States and Israel: Analysis and Documents (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Univ., 1983), pp. 18, 33, 42, 46–47. Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli Conflict, pp. 110–12. Oren, Six Days of War, pp. 16–17. The transcript of the Kennedy–Ben-Gurion meeting at the Waldorf is available online at http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/FRUS05_30_61.html.

12. William J. Burns, Economic Aid and American Policy toward Egypt, 1955–1981 (Albany: State Univ. Press of New York, 1985) , p. 159 (“go drink”). Richard B. Parker, The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East (Bloomington: Indiana Univ., 1993), p. 105. P. J. Vatikiotis, Nasser and His Generation (New York: St. Martin’s, 1978), pp. 202–12. Mahmoud Riad, The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York: Quartet Books, 1981) , pp. 15–17.

13. Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library, National Security file, Middle East, Israel boxes 140, 141: Conflicting U.S. Attitudes toward Military Aid to Israel, April 20, 1967; U.S.-Israel Relations, Nov. 3, 1967. USNA, Middle East Crisis files, 1967, Lot file 68D135, box 1: United States Statements on Israel: Johnson Statements, June 1, 1964. William B. Quandt, “The Conflict in American Foreign Policy,” in Itamar Rabinovich and Haim Shaked, eds., From June to October: The Middle East between 1967 and 1973 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1978), pp. 5–6. I. L. Kenen, Israel’s Defense Line: Her Friends and Foes in Washington (Buffalo: Prometheus, 1981), p. 173 (“You have lost”). Douglas Little, “The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and Israel, 1957–68,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 25, no. 4 (Nov. 1993): 274–75. Michael Karpin, The Bomb in the Basement: How Israel Went Nuclear and What That Means for the World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), p. 243 (“Take care of the Jews” and “If Israel is destroyed”).

14. USNA, Middle East Crisis, Chronology June 4th–7th, box 15: Memorandum for the Middle East Task Force, May 29, 1967 (“Let us not forget”). LBJ, National Security File, History of the Middle East Conflict, box 17: Memorandum for the Record, The Arab-Israeli Crisis, May 27, 1967 (“If Israel fires first”); box 20: United States Policy and Diplomacy in the Middle East Crisis, May 15–June 10, 1967, pp. 56–59 (“Israel will not be alone” and “I failed”); History of the Middle East Conflict; box 19: Memorandum for the Record, Washington–Moscow “Hotline” Exchange, Oct. 22, 1968; Kosygin to Johnson, June 10, 1967 (10:00 a.m.); Johnson to Kosygin (10:58 a.m.); Movements of Sixth Fleet, June 10, 1967; The President in the Middle East Crisis, Dec. 19, 1968; Richard Helms Oral History; Llewellyn Thompson Oral History. Oren, Six Days of War, pp. 102–16, 164 (“Our goal”), 262–71.

15. Craig A. Daigle, “The Russians Are Going: Sadat, Nixon and the Soviet Presence in Egypt, 1970–1971,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 8, no. 1 (March 2004): 3 (“The difference between”). William B. Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967, 3d ed. (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), pp. 67–68. Nadav Safran, Israel: The Embattled Ally (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1978), p. 441. Thomas Wheelock, “Arms for Israel: The Limit of Leverage,” International Security 3, no. 2 (1987): 124–26. FRUS, 1969–76, vol. E-5, Documents on Africa, 1969–72: Buchanan to the President, Feb. 18, 1970 (“Israel is the current”), on http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e5/54756.htm.

16. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 77, 89–102. Daigle, “Russians Are Going,” pp. 4 (“You would be mistaken”), 7 (“There is no reason”). Henry A. Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), pp. 738–39. Henry A. Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), pp. 596, 603, 622–23, 626.

17. George Washington University, National Security Archive, “The October War and U.S. Policy,” Document 63: Secretary’s Staff Meeting, Oct. 23, 1973, p. 6 (“We could not make”), http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/. Henry A. Kissinger, Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), pp. 43, 291, 317 (“It was a tremendous”), 340 (“We may have to take”). Alexander M. Haig Jr., with Charles McCarry, Inner Circles: How America Changed the World: A Memoir (New York: Warner, 1992), pp. 409, 411 (“Whatever it takes”), 412–17.

18. Anwar El Sadat, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), pp. 292–95. Abba Eban, Personal Witness: Israel through My Eyes (New York: Putnam, 1992), pp. 570–72. Kenneth W. Stein, Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, 1999), pp. 146–63, 175–79. George Washington University, National Security Archive, “The October War and U.S. Policy,” Document 63: Secretary’s Staff Meeting, Oct. 23, 1973, p. 7 (“The Europeans behaved”), http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB98/. Rashid Khalidi, Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East (Boston: Beacon, 2005), pp. 43 (“covert action”), 131.

19. Bill Adler, ed., The Wit and Wisdom of Jimmy Carter (Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1977), pp. 68, 139 (“significant moral principle”). Jimmy Carter, Living Faith (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001), pp. 22–24, 36 (“fellowship of faith”). Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983), p. 27 (“After a couple of hours”). Douglas Brinkley , The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter’s Journey beyond the White House (New York: Viking, 1998), p. 114. Seyom Brown, The Faces of Power: Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Reagan (New York: Columbia Univ., 1983), pp. 454–56. Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East, new ed. (Fayetteville: Univ. of Arkansas Press, 1993), pp. 29, 193 (“The blood of Abraham”).

20. Brown, Faces of Power, pp. 482–83, 489, 502. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 188–90, 198–203. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, pp. 83, 87, 100, 105, 110–11, 117, 237–38, 242, 254–71, 284 (“You are probably”). Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam, 1982), pp. 279, 293, 296–97, 496 (“The Camp David Accords”). Saadia Touval, The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948–1979 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 291–314. Moshe Dayan, Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt-Israel Peace Negotiations (New York: Knopf, 1981), pp. 17, 89–99, 117, 126. On Carter’s relationship with evangelical Christians, see Donald Wagner, “Evangelicals and Israel: Theological Roots of a Political Alliance,” Christian Century, Nov. 4, 1998, p. 1024 (“The time has come”).

21. The lyrics for “Midnight at the Oasis,” written by David Nichtern, can be found at http://www.webfitz.com/lyrics/Lyrics/1974/131974.html. Said, Orientalism, pp. 27, 204, 59–60, 316, 319, 322. Edward W. Said, “Islam through Western Eyes,” Nation, March 26, 1980. Meir Litvak and Joshua Teitelbaum, “Students, Teachers and Edward Said: Taking Stock of Orientalism,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 10, no. 1 (March 2006): 3 (“to discover”). Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong: The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (New York: Perennial, 2003), pp. 151 (“Compared with its millennial“), 152–53. “Orientalism: An Exchange,” New York Review of Books, Aug. 12, 1982, pp. 44 (“willful political assertions”), 46 (“beneath the umbrella”), 48 (“a genuine problem”).

22. Mark Bowden, Guests of the Ayatollah: The First Battle in America’s War with Militant Islam (New York: Atlantic Monthly, 2006), pp. 33, 38, 69 (“undermined the political”), 115 (“island of stability”), 125 (“The people of the United States”), 211, 218, 287, 313 (“Death to the Three”), 360, 479, 563, 564. Kenneth M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), pp. 153–80. Brown, Faces of Power, pp. 515 (“Our relations with”), 524, 560 (“An attempt by”). Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 458 (“It’s almost impossible”), 466–67, 569.

28. The Thirty Years’ War

1. Ronald Reagan, Reagan, in His Own Hand, ed. Kiron K. Skinner, Annelise Anderson, and Martin Anderson (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), p. 213. Ronald Reagan, An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 518 (“He’s not only a barbarian”). Alexander M. Haig Jr., Caveat: Realism, Reagan, and Foreign Policy (New York: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 182–84. “Israeli Jews Destroy Iraqi Atomic Reactor; Attack Condemned by U.S. and Arab Nations,” New York Times, June 9, 1981, p. 1.

2. Reagan, American Life, pp. 442, 423 (“We’re walking a tightrope”), 424 (“No matter how villainous”), 425–28, 430. Haig, Caveat, pp. 180–81, 186. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 251, 252, 253–59. Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli Conflict, pp. 416–26. Fred Lawson, “The Reagan Administration in the Middle East,” MERIP Reports, no. 128 (Nov. 1984): 32. On the Arafat evacuation, see Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin, Yasir Arafat: A Political Biography (Oxford: Oxford Univ., 2003), pp. 77, 86–89. On the role of the USS New Jersey, visit the battleship’s website at http://www.battleshipnewjersey.org/history.html.

3. Reagan, American Life, pp. 496 (“Once again”), 497–507, 518 (“Any nation victimized”). Terry A. Anderson, Den of Lions: Memoirs of Seven Years (New York: Crown, 1993). Numerous websites document the terrorist attacks against the United States in the 1980s; see, e.g., “Target America,” http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/
frontline/shows/target/etc/cron.html, and “Lebanon: The Hostage Crisis,” http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8105.html.

4. Lawrence E. Walsh, Iran-Contra: The Final Report (New York: Times Books, 1994), pp. 1–3, 10–24. Reagan, American Life, pp. 505–6 (“We wouldn’t be shipping”), 516 (“I did not think”). Douglas A. Borer, “Inverse Engagement: Lessons from U.S.-Iraq Relations, 1982–1990,” Parameters 33, no. 2 (2003): 52 (“No one had any doubts”), 53–56. Dana Priest, “Trip Followed Criticism of Chemical Arms’ Use,” Washington Post, Dec. 19, 2003, p. 42. Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 (New York: Penguin, 2005), p. 229 (“nation of beasts”). Numerous documents on American support for Saddam have been posted on the Web; see, e.g., “Saddam’s Iron Grip: Intelligence Reports on Saddam Hussein’s Reign,” http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB167/.

5. Kathleen Christison, “The Arab-Israeli Policy of George Shultz,” Journal of Palestine Studies 18, no. 2 (1989): 29–47. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 367–80. David Ignatius, “The Secret History of the U.S.-PLO Terror Talks,” Washington Post, Dec. 4, 1988.

6. On Bush’s comparisons of Saddam to Hitler and the protests they provoked from Jewish groups, see Allison Kaplan, “U.S Apologizes for Hitler Remark,” Jerusalem Post, Nov. 7, 1991. Michael Kelly, Martyrs’ Day: Chronicle of a Small War (New York: Vintage, 1993), pp. 120–21 (“I’ve been in the army”). H. Norman Schwarzkopf, with Peter Petre, It Doesn’t Take a Hero: The Autobiography (New York: Bantam, 1992), p. 319 (“Saddam was what”). Colin Powell, with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1995), pp. 461–71, 511–13. James Mann, The Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet (New York: Penguin, 2004), pp. 185–91, 193 (“Our practical intention”). Coll, Ghost Wars, p. 229 (“It is not the world”). James A. Baker III and Thomas M. Defrank, The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War and Peace, 1989–1992 (New York: Putnam, 1995), pp. 262–63, 272–73, 277 (“What the President did”). “The Religion of George H. W. Bush,” http://www.adherents.com/people/
pb/George_HW_Bush.html (“Americans are the most religious”). Bush’s “New World Order” speech is available online at “Bab—An Open Door to the Arab World,” http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/pal/pa110.htm.

7. Dennis Ross, The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004), pp. 68, 71–81. Baker and Defrank, Politics of Diplomacy, pp. 488 (“a rich tale”), 512 (“Like the walls”). David Horovitz, “Blunt Baker Urges Israel to Talk Peace,” Jerusalem Post, June 14, 1990.

8. Aladdin lyrics, original and altered, appeared on http://www.angelfire.com/movies/
disneybroadway/aladdin.html. Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute of Near East Policy, 2001), pp. 1, 5. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remarking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), pp. 217–18 (“The underlying problem”).

9. Coll, Ghost Wars, pp. 249–56. “Text of Clinton Statement on Iraq, Feb. 17, 1998,” http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/
1998/02/17/transcripts/clinton.iraq/ (“unholy axis”). Bill Clinton, My Life: The Presidential Years (Westminster, Md.: Knopf, 2005), p. 40 (“I was pleased”). Laurie Mylroie, “U.S. Policy toward Iraq,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin 3, no. 1 (Jan. 2001).

10. Clinton, My Life: The Presidential Years, pp. 78–79, 100–1 (“Now the horns”), 102–3, 104 (“Shalom, salaam, peace”), 244–45, 281 (“We had become friends”). Bill Clinton, My Life: The Early Years (Westminster, Md.: Knopf, 2005), p. 466 (“God will never”). David Horovitz, ed., Yitzhak Rabin: Solider of Peace (London: Peter Halban, 1996), pp. 115–22. Shimon Peres, Battling for Peace: Memoirs, ed. David Landau (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995), pp. 335–37, 343–44. Dennis Ross, Missing Peace, pp. 101–21. Quandt, Peace Process, pp. 327–31. Connie Bruck, “The Wounds of Peace,” New Yorker, Oct. 14, 1996.

11. Clinton, My Life: The Presidential Years, pp. 448–49 (“fanatics and killers”), 634–35 (“I am not a great man”), 642–46. Madeleine Albright, with Bill Woodward, Madam Secretary (New York: Miramax, 2003), pp. 289, 291, 294–95, 317, 490–91, 497. Douglas Waller, “A Frantic Hunt for Peace,” http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/
time/2000/10/16/peace.html (“Close the gate!”). See also Robert Malley and Hussein Agha, “Camp David: The Tragedy of Errors,” New York Review of Books, Aug. 9, 2001. Coll, Ghost Wars, pp. 329, 376–77, 379, 380 (“Every Muslim”), 395–96, 405–15, 436 (“We are at war”).

12. Richard Bernstein et al., Out of the Blue: The Story of September 11, 2001, from Jihad to Ground Zero (New York: Times Books, 2002), pp. 7, 25–26, 120–21, 131–39, 184 (“Please have fun”). CNN Breaking News, Sept. 11, 2001, Transcript # 091174CN, p. 4 (“these are Islamic terrorists”).

13. Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), pp. 26, 89, 112, 132, 154, 293, 317. Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq (New York: Pantheon, 2006), pp. 14–19, 36–40, 50–53, 93–94, 104, 108, 160–65. “Bush Delivers Graduation Speech at West Point,” http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/
releases/2002/06/20020601-3.html. Bush’s statement on the Senate and House vote authorizing the war in Iraq can be found on the White House website, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/
releases/2002/10/20021016-11.html. Powell’s Feb. 5 testimony to the Security Council appears on the U.S. State Department website, http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/
powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm.

14. Gordon and Trainor, Cobra II, pp. 436–37. John Keegan, Iraq War: The Military Offensive, from Victory in 21 Days to the Insurgent Aftermath (Westminster, Md.: Knopf, 2005), pp. 204–10, 428, 448–50, 457–61, 475, 484–85, 493. L. Paul Bremer III, My Year in Iraq: The Struggle to Build a Future of Hope (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), pp. 14, 39–42, 57. “President Outlines Steps to Help Iraq Achieve Democracy and Freedom,” http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/
releases/2004/05/20040524-10.html. “Iraqi Smart Culture Card,” http://cryptome.org/iraq-culture.htm. A Short Guide to Iraq (Washington, D.C.: War and Navy Departments, 1943), p. 5. Brian Turner, “What Every Soldier Should Know,” Here, Bullet (Farmington, Me.: Alice James Books, 2005), reprinted with the permission of Alice James Books. Fouad Ajami, “Heart of Darkness,” Wall Street Journal, Sept. 28, 2005. Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2006), p. 181 (“a self-fulfilling prophecy”). Christopher Hitchens, “The Perils of Withdrawal,” Slate, Nov. 29, 2005. Thomas L. Friedman, “Budgets of Mass Destruction,” New York Times, Feb. 1, 2004.