Marshal André Masséna, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling (1756–1817). Born in Nice, young Masséna served in the French infantry from 1775 and retired a sergeant-major in 1789. After a stint as a trader and smuggler in Antibes, he volunteered into the army in 1792 and, in these desperate times, this gifted soldier had risen through the ranks and was a major-general by 1793. He campaigned with the young General Bonaparte in Italy and was truly outstanding in the Swiss campaign of 1799-1800, winning the battle of Zurich against the Austrians and Russians. A marshal in 1804 and showered with honours by Napoleon, Masséna also had a taste for looting and enriched himself at every opportunity. A skilful courtier, he had the ear of Napoleon, who knew his faults but prized the extraordinary general who had the rare capacity for independent command. His strategic and tactical talents were instinctive as he had never studied military theory due to his dislike of reading. Following the Austrian campaign of 1809, Napoleon named Masséna commander of the French ‘Army of Portugal’ in early 1810. The Masséna of the Bussaco campaign was not quite the same active, vigorous and keen-eyed general that had performed so brilliantly in Switzerland ten years earlier. Now a marshal and a duke, he had grown accustomed to leisure and the luxuries of his high station. He brought his Parisian mistress on campaign, the wife of a captain of dragoons nicknamed Madame X by Marbot. According to several French officers, her influence resulted in some critical delays. It was generally agreed that Masséna had a difficult, even detestable personality but his military talents were recognised by the greatest military men of the age including Napoleon. Wellington, asked years later by Lord Stanhope who was his most redoubtable opponent immediately answered ‘Masséna’, adding that ‘when Masséna opposed me in the field, I never slept comfortably’.3
Marshal André Masséna, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling (1756–1817), commander of the French ‘Army of Portugal’ tasked by Napoleon with the conquest of Portugal in 1810.
Marshal Michel Ney, Duke of Elchingen (1769–1815). Born in Sarrelouis, he was trained as a law clerk but joined the hussars in 1788 as a private. Six years later he was a brigadier-general and rose to marshal in 1804. Temperamental, he could be an extraordinary tactician when calm, had a very quick mind in action and had considerable drive and energy. He could be a superb, even charismatic leader of men in battle. However, as General Jomini observed, all these qualities diminished in proportion to commands that ‘increased his responsibility’ so Napoleon did not make him an army commander. He led the 6th Corps during the Bussaco campaign but detested Masséna, who finally relieved him from duty in 1811. But Napoleon gave Ney other corps commands and named him Prince of the Moskova for his outstanding conduct in Russia. He fought with great bravery at Waterloo and was later executed by the royalist government.
Marshal Michel Ney, Duke of Elchingen (1769–1815), commander of the French army’s 6th Corps. Portrait by Gérard. (Musée de l’Armée, Paris)
General Jean-Louis Reynier (1771–1814) was born in Lausanne, Switzerland. He joined the French army as private gunner in September 1792, was commissioned captain within a month and rapidly rose to brigadier-general in 1795 and general of division the following year. His rapid rise was due to his exceptional efficiency. He then became chief of staff of General Moreau but this was to hamper Reynier in the years ahead. Moreau was a rival of General Napoleon Bonaparte so that Reynier fell into disfavour once Napoleon became first consul. After a time, Napoleon seems to have concluded that he was not a political plotter. Reynier was thus later sent to southern Italy where the French took over the Kingdom of Naples. When Reynier pushed further south with his army, however, he was soundly defeated at Maida in 1806 by the British General Stuart, who then retreated to the island of Sicily. Reynier was a strict disciplinarian but was also humane, brave and very honest, but he was also cold, taciturn and could not inspire his men. As a result, he was not well liked by his troops. Very efficient, he was a difficult subordinate and had no respect for the capacity of some marshals. He was an outstanding and meticulous planner, a talent that Napoleon fully recognised. Planning was Masséna’s weakness and Reynier thus filled that void while also commanding the 2nd Corps. After the 1810–11 campaigns, he went on to serve in Russia in 1812 and Germany the following year. He died in Paris in February 1814.
General Jean-Louis Reynier (1771–1814), commander of the French army’s 2nd Corps.
General Andoche Junot, Duke of Abrantes (1771–1813) met Napoleon Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon in 1793, became his ADC and campaigned in Italy and Egypt, by which time he had risen to general of division. He was also at Austerlitz in 1805. One of Napoleon’s closest friends of his early career, Junot was a good soldier if not an outstanding general. Previously ambassador to Portugal, he managed to occupy the country without resistance during the invasion of November 1807 for which he was named Duke of Abrantes by Napoleon. He had difficulties coping with the revolt in Portugal from June 1808 and was overwhelmed once the British landed in August. The Sintra Convention, negotiated thanks to General Kellerman, saved his army and Napoleon forgave him. Junot was given command of the 8th Army Corps for the 1810 campaign but he was now under Marshal Masséna and with Marshal Ney and General Reynier, all clearly better field officers. His corps was held in reserve and was not engaged at Bussaco. He later commanded it in Russia.
General Andoche Junot, Duke of Abrantes (1771–1813), commander of the French army’s 8th Corps.
Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington (1769–1852). The future Duke of Wellington was born in Ireland and joined the army in 1787. He campaigned in Holland during 1794–95, was in India from 1796 where he won much distinction for his victories over the Mahrattas at Assaye and Argaun in 1803. Back in England in 1806, opportunities for commands were relatively few although he led a brigade at Copenhagen in 1807. Gazetted lieutenant-general, he was put in command of the troops sailing from Ireland to Portugal in July 1808 where he performed brilliantly. However, Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Darlymple were senior to young Wellesley and he was superseded on 21 August, the day he defeated General Junot at the battle of Vimeiro. Wellington was again put in charge of the British forces in Portugal in April 1809, retaking Porto from Marshal Soult’s French troops, who fell back into Spain. The summer found him making a foray into Spain as far as Talavera, where he beat Marshal Victor on 27 August, and he was back in Portugal by early September confirming that he was really a most talented general. Appointed Marshal-General of the Portuguese forces and thus commander-in-chief of the Allied Army on 29 April 1809, he was tireless in his support of Marshal Beresford’s reorganisation of the Portuguese army. His construction of the Lines of Torres Vedras in late 1809 as an ultimate defence against a future French invasion showed great prescience. The invasion occurred in 1810 and the French invaders were eventually chased back into Spain and beaten at Fuentes de Onoro in May 1811. Wellington then campaigned through Spain and finally into southern France by 1814. He is of course most famous for his victory over Napoleon at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. He went on to be commander-in-chief of the army and prime minister. This extraordinary man passed away in 1852.
LtGen Sir Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington (1769–1852), commander-in-chief of the allied forces in 1810. He was appointed to command the British forces in Portugal in April 1809 and appointed marshal-general of the Portuguese army on 6 July. He was created a Peer with the title of Viscount Wellington on 26 August 1809.
Major-General Rowland Hill (1772–1842) was commissioned in 1790 and campaigned at Toulon and in Egypt. A major-general by 1808, he commanded one of the brigades in the army in Portugal. Hill’s efficiency and good judgement were demonstrated in the field during the Vimeiro campaign. Hill then served with distinction under Sir John Moore in the Corunna campaign. When Wellington once again assumed command of the British and Portuguese forces in 1809, Hill accompanied him during the Porto and the Talavera campaigns. By then, Rowland Hill’s kindness and consideration towards his men was well known within the army and he was affectionately known as ‘Daddy Hill’. During the 1810 Bussaco campaign Hill was entrusted by Wellington with independent commands, and with an apparent ability almost to read Wellington’s mind he proved very successful. He later became ill with malaria, was successfully treated in Britain and was back in Portugal in May 1811. During the remainder of the Peninsular War, Hill remained Wellington’s most trusted subordinate.
MajGen Rowland Hill (1772–1842). His engaging personality and somewhat ‘country gentleman’ manners allied with his good judgement and efficiency as a commander very much pleased Wellington. Hill commanded the 2nd Division and was also his effective second-in-command entrusted with independent commands thanks to his outstanding ability to read Wellington’s tactical mind. Lieutenant-general in January 1812, knighted in March, created Baron Hill of Almaraz and Hardwicke following the Peninsular War, he served with Wellington at Waterloo. Following duty with the army of occupation in France, Hill happily retired to his country estate in 1818. However, when Wellington became prime minister in 1828, he accepted the post of commander-in-chief. Print after a portrait taken in the 1830s.
Brigadier-General Robert Craufurd (1764–1812) was commissioned in 1779 and served in India and on the Continent in various capacities and campaigns. By the mid-1800s, Craufurd was one of the most experienced and knowledgeable officers in the army but his advancement suffered because of his fiery temper, which made him enemies. However, he was a friend of Sir John Moore and a disciple of his beliefs in light infantry tactics so that, in the autumn of 1808, Craufurd was given command of the Light Brigade, which he led with vigour during the Corunna and Talavera campaigns in 1809. In the 1810 campaign, his brigade, consisting of the 43rd and 52nd light infantry and the 95th Rifles, was joined by the 1st and 3rd Cazadores battalions forming the Light Division. For five months, until July, his division held a 60km front on the northeastern Portuguese border against a force six times his strength. He eventually pushed too far east, resulting in the unnecessary River Coa fight. Wellington did not chastise him for this error, knowing Craufurd’s talent, which was certainly in full bloom at the battle of Bussaco. He then went on leave to England but was back leading his Light Division at Fuentes de Onoro in May 1811 and was promoted major-general the following month. He was killed at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo on 24 January 1812, his death depriving the Allied army of one of its best officers.
BrigGen Robert Craufurd (1764–1812), commander of the Light Division. In 1807 he was with the ill-fated expedition to Buenos Aires and Montevideo under the command of the incompetent Gen Whitelocke but this did not tarnish his reputation with the men. As he had greying hair, a toast in the army at the time – disappointed at the Montevideo fiasco – was ‘Success to grey hairs, bad luck to white locks!’ The 1810 campaign started badly for Craufurd, who was almost trapped by Marshal Ney’s troops at the River Coa, but he was outstanding at Bussaco a few weeks later.
MajGen Thomas Picton (1758–1815) played an important role in the battle of Bussaco, his 3rd Division defending one of the two areas attacked by the French. Picton was notorious for his indifference to uniform and habitually wore civilian clothes, usually a blue frock coat. His staff officers followed suit and were collectively known as the ‘bear and ragged staff’. On the morning of 27 September, Picton rushed out of bed in his red nightcap which won him as much fame as his inspiting leadership. Richard Hook’s artwork shows him in action, giving instructions to a captain of the 8th Portuguese Infantry. A light company private of the 88th Foot stands behind. (Wellington’s Generals, Osprey Men-at-Arms Series No. 84)
Major-General Thomas Picton (1758–1815) campaigned in the West Indies and was governor of Trinidad until 1806. Promoted major-general in 1808, Picton was recommended to Wellington by Spanish General Miranda, who had known him in the West Indies. In early 1810 Picton was sent to Portugal at Wellington’s request and appointed to command the 3rd Division. Some years after the Peninsular War, William Napier wrote that it was ‘common opinion’ that Wellington and Picton were on bad terms, but this must have been an unfounded rumour. Wellington refuted this adding he could not recall ‘even a difference of opinion, much less anything of the nature of a quarrel’ between him and Picton and that ‘he had never reason to regret’ his choice.4 Picton’s performance during the Bussaco campaign certainly bore that out; his 3rd Division was heavily engaged in the battle and often formed the rearguard in the subsequent retreat to Torres Vedras. Picton went on to distinguished service during the rest of the Peninsular War but was killed at Waterloo.
Marshal William Carr Beresford (1768–1854), commander-in-chief of the Portuguese army from 1809 to 1820. He was an experienced soldier, having served not only in Europe but in India, Egypt, South Africa, South America and Madeira – where he learned Portuguese – before serving with Sir John Moore in the Corunna campaign. He was recalled by Rifleman Harris as ‘a fine looking soldier and equal to his business’. An excellent administrator, he was appointed to command the ragged Portuguese army and given the formidable task of transforming it into a force comparable to the British. The 1810 Bussaco campaign was the first test of his success. Beresford wears the dress uniform of a Portuguese marshal, dark blue and richly embroidered with gold. (The Count of Amarante and Marquis of Chaves, Porto)
There were no outstanding actions fought by Portuguese generals in the 1810 campaign. This includes British generals in the Portuguese army as well as native-born Portuguese general officers. It was, however, an intensely formative campaign and nearly all those named below went on to senior commands. The Portuguese high command did go through a massive ‘revolution’ at that time along with the whole army. In the spring of 1809, the Portuguese government sought a British commander to transform its disorganised army into an efficient fighting force. Major-General William Carr Beresford was the obvious choice and he was appointed marshal on 7 March 1809. His efforts were tireless and no administrative or political obstacle daunted him. With Wellington’s support, he transformed the Portuguese army into a numerous, well-equipped and disciplined force led by effective commanders, one of the Peninsular War’s most important if less familiar achievements. Beresford was not, however, an outstanding tactician and did not serve with Wellington’s army. During the Bussaco campaign he commanded the Allied forces further south. However, Benjamin D’Urban, Quartermaster General of the Portuguese army, was with Wellington’s staff. The governor of the ill-fated fortress of Almeida was William Cox. Colonel Nicholas Trant led a militia brigade that shadowed the French columns as did Colonel Carlos Frederico Lecor, while the brigade of Colonel José Joaquim Champalimaud was one of the first heavily engaged at Bussaco. The Portuguese forces further to the northeast were led by Major-General Francisco da Silveira, who kept the pressure on the French at Almeida while Lieutenant-General Manuel Pinto Bacelar commanded forces in the northeast.
MajGen Francisco de Silveira (1763–1821) kept the pressure on the French garrison at Almeida with his Portuguese militia and Ordenanza. In early August 1810, a French column moved to Puebla de Senabria but Silveira, with a small Spanish force under Gen Taboada, overwhelmed the garrison. Once Masséna’s main French force had moved west, Silveira blockaded Almeida so effectively that its garrison had no outside communications between 18 September and 15 November 1810.
3 Masséna felt the same way about Wellington. In 1816 the two met in Paris and Masséna exclaimed: ‘Ah Monsieur le Maréchal, que vous m’avez fait passer des mauvais moments!’ (Ah! Marshal, what bad moments you have put me through), adding that he had not left him with a black hair on his body. Arthur Griffiths, The Wellington Memorial (London, 1897), p.88.
4 Quoted in Griffiths, The Wellington Memorial, p.320.