In respect to the employment of troops, ground may be classified as dispersive, frontier, key, open, focal, serious, difficult, encircled, and desperate.
When a feudal lord fights in his own territory, he is in dispersive ground. When he makes but a shallow penetration into enemy territory, he is in frontier ground. Ground equally advantageous to occupy is key ground. Ground equally accessible is open. When a state is enclosed by three other states, its territory is focal. He who first gets control of it will gain the support of the majority of neighboring states. When the army has penetrated deep into hostile territory, leaving far behind many enemy cities and towns, it is in serious ground. When the army traverses mountains, forests, or precipitous country, or marches through defiles, marshlands, or swamps, or any place where the going is hard, it is in difficult ground. Ground to which access is constricted, where the way out is tortuous, and where a small enemy force can strike a larger one is called encircled. Ground in which the army survives only if it fights with the courage of desperation is called desperate. And, therefore, do not fight in dispersive ground; do not stop in the frontier borderlands.
Do not attack an enemy who occupies key ground first; in open ground, do not allow your formations to become separated and your communications to be blocked. In focal ground, ally with neighboring states; in serious ground, gather in plunder. In difficult ground, press on; in encircled ground, devise strategems; in desperate ground, fight courageously.
In ancient times, those described as skilled in war made it impossible for the enemy to unite his front and his rear, for his divisions both large and small to cooperate, for his good troops to succor the poor, and for officers and men to support each other. When the enemy’s forces were dispersed, they prevented him from assembling them; even when assembled, they threw him into disorder. They concentrated and moved when it was advantageous to do so; when not advantageous, they halted. Should one ask: “How do I cope with a well-ordered enemy host about to attack me?” I reply: “Seize something he cherishes and he will conform to your desires.” Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy’s unpreparedness, make your way by unexpected routes, and attack him where he has taken no precautions.
The general principles applicable to an invading force are that when you have penetrated deeply into hostile territory your army is united and the defender cannot overcome you. Plunder fertile country to supply your army with plentiful provisions. Pay heed to nourishing the troops; do not unnecessarily fatigue them. Unite them in spirit; conserve their strength. Make unfathomable plans for the movements of the army. Throw the troops into a position from which there is no escape, and even when faced with death they will not flee. For if prepared to die, what can they not achieve? Then officers and men together put forth their utmost efforts. In a desperate situation, they fear nothing; when there is no way out, they stand firm. Deep in a hostile land they are bound together, and there, where there is no alternative, they will engage the enemy in hand-to-hand combat. Thus, such troops need no encouragement to be vigilant. Without extorting their support, the general obtains it; without inviting their affection, he gains it; without demanding their discipline, he wins it. Prohibit superstitious doubts and do away with rumors; then nobody will flee even facing death. My officers have no surplus of wealth, but it is not because they disdain riches; they have no expectation of long life, but it is not because they dislike longevity. On the day the army is ordered to set out, the tears of those seated soak their garments—the tears of those reclining course down their cheeks. But throw them into a situation where there is no escape and they will display the immortal courage of Zhuan Zhu and Cao Kuei. [Zhuan Zhu and Cao Kuei both lived in the Spring and Autumn Period, and were said to be brave warriors undaunted in the face of death.]
Now, the troops of those adept in war are used like the “simultaneously responding snake” of Mount Ch’ang. When struck on the head, its tail attacks; when struck on the tail, its head attacks; when struck in the center, both head and tail attack. Should one ask: “Can troops be made capable of such instantaneous coordination?” I reply: “They can.” For, although the men of Wu and Yüe hate one another, if together in a boat tossed by the wind they would cooperate as the right hand does with the left. Thus, in order to prevent soldiers from fleeing, it is not sufficient to rely upon hobbled horses or buried chariot wheels. To achieve a uniform level of valor relies on a good military administration. And it is by proper use of the ground that both strong and weak forces are used to the best advantage. Thus, a skillful general conducts his army just as if he were leading a single man, willy-nilly, by the hand.
It is the business of a general to be serene and inscrutable, impartial, and self-controlled. He should be capable of keeping his officers and men in ignorance of his plans. He changes his methods and alters his plans so that people have no knowledge of what he aims at. He alters his campsites and marches by devious routes, and thus makes it impossible for others to anticipate his purpose. The business of a general is to kick away the ladder behind soldiers when they have climbed up a height. He leads the army deep into hostile territory and there releases the trigger. He burns his boats and smashes his cooking pots; he drives his men now in one direction, then in another, like a shepherd driving a flock of sheep, and no one knows where he is going. To assemble the army and throw it into a desperate position is the business of the general. To take different measures suited to the nine varieties of ground, to take aggressive or defensive tactics in accordance with different situations, and to understand soldiers’ psychological states under different circumstances, are matters that must be studied carefully by a general.
Generally, when invading hostile territory, the deeper one penetrates, the more cohesion it brings; penetrating only a short way causes dispersion. Therefore, in dispersive ground, I would unify the determination of the army. In frontier ground, I would keep my forces closely linked. In key ground, I would hasten into the enemy’s rear. In open ground, I would pay strict attention to my defenses. In focal ground, I would consolidate my alliances. In serious ground, I would ensure a continuous flow of provisions. In difficult ground, I would march past the roads speedily. In encircled ground, I would block the points of access and egress. In desperate ground, I would make it evident that there is no chance of survival. For it is the nature of soldiers to resist when surrounded, to fight to the death when there is no alternative, and when desperate to follow commands implicitly.
One ignorant of the plans of neighboring states cannot make alliances with them; if ignorant of the conditions of mountains, forests, dangerous defiles, swamps, and marshes, he cannot conduct the march of an army; if he fails to make use of native guides, he cannot gain the advantages of the ground. A general ignorant of even one of these nine varieties of ground is unfit to command the armies of a hegemonic king. Now, when a hegemonic king attacks a powerful state, he makes it impossible for the enemy to concentrate his troops. He overawes the enemy and prevents his allies from joining him.
It follows that there is no need to contend against powerful combinations, nor is there any need to foster the power of other states. He relies for the attainment of his aims on his ability to overawe his opponents. And so he can take the enemy’s cities and overthrow the enemy’s state. Bestow rewards without respect to customary practice; publish orders without respect to precedent. Thus, you may employ the entire army as you would one man. Set the troops to their tasks without imparting your designs; use them to gain advantage without revealing the dangers involved. Throw them into a perilous situation and they will survive; put them in desperate ground and they will live. For when the army is placed in such a situation, it can snatch victory from defeat. Now, the crux of military operations lies in the pretense of following the designs of the enemy; and once there is a loophole that can be used, concentrate your forces against the enemy. Thus, even marching from a distance of a thousand li, you can kill his general. This is called the ability to achieve one’s aim in an artful and ingenious manner.
Therefore, when time comes to execute the plan to attack, you should close the passes, rescind the passports, have no further intercourse with the enemy’s envoys, and exhort the temple council to execute the plans. When the enemy presents an opportunity, speedily take advantage of it. Seize the place which the enemy values without making an appointment for battle with him. In executing the plan, you should change according to the enemy situation in order to win victory. Therefore, at first you should pretend to be as shy as a maiden. When the enemy gives you an opening, be swift as a hare and he will be unable to withstand you.
For Further Thought
Valued for its central location, Sun Tzu identifies the focal state as a key ally in maintaining diplomacy with others. Use the space below to draw parallels between the land of the focal state, and the various groups, departments, and organizations that you interact with. Who among them possesses the qualities of the focal state, making for a worthy ally?
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