Chapter 3

Setups for Successful Performance

“Set yourself up for success and anything is possible.”

—Anonymous

Performance never occurs in a vacuum. Whether the achievement is a climb to the top of Mount Everest or the safe completion of a tugboat trip, there are unstated but important factors that govern success. In other words, performance is always contingent on certain conditions, whether or not they are explicitly stated.

Exactly what is it that makes performance conditional? In the Mount Everest example, performance is tempered by many things, including both the needs of the climber in the rarefied atmosphere at the top of the mountain and the weather conditions. Without the proper conditions (oxygen supply and adequate weather), performance (climbing to the top of Mount Everest) would not be possible. Likewise, in the tugboat example, safe passage depends on several factors, ranging from the ability of the pilot to the integrity of the tugboat and suitability of weather conditions. Goals for these two activities might be stated, respectively, as follows:

Given a supply of oxygen and adequate weather conditions, Mr. Smith will climb to the top of Mount Everest.

Given appropriate pilot training, a mechanically sound vessel, and adequate weather conditions, Captain Doe will navigate safely from point A to point B.

Underlying Conditions and Performance

These examples illustrate two important points about underlying conditions. First, they can either make or break performance. Therefore, they are powerful contributors to—or if inappropriate—detractors from successful performance. Second, the underlying conditions affect what the performer needs in order to accomplish the task. Simply stated, performance that is eminently possible under appropriate (supportive) conditions may be severely compromised or completely lacking in the absence of those conditions. At the risk of stating the obvious, student success, or the lack thereof, is very much a function of the underlying conditions.

The underlying conditions for the types of activities noted in the preceding examples are so obvious that they really can go without saying and still be addressed. In contrast, it is critical to specify the underlying conditions governing performance for students with the types of conditions covered in this book because of their unique needs for certain types of support in order to achieve success. In fact, we consider the statement of underlying conditions in the IEP to be essential not only to providing successful programming but also to avoiding inappropriate programming.

Consider the following goal written for a preschool child with ADHD who, despite repeated reminders to raise his hand, continues to interrupt the teacher constantly in morning circle:

Jimmy will raise his hand 9/10 times (that is, nine out of ten times, or at the 90% level of performance) when he has something to say in morning circle.

The lack of an underlying condition for performance leaves much to be desired (probably even the successful accomplishment of the objective!). Specifically, if the teacher uses only verbal reminders, chances are that both she and Jimmy will experience a good deal of frustration, albeit for vastly different reasons. When executive skills are weak, as they are in ADHD, verbal reminders alone are insufficient to mediate control of impulsivity. With the appropriate underlying condition, however, the objective is eminently achievable. Consider the following:

Given a picture cue of a child raising his hand, Jimmy will raise his hand 9/10 times when he has something to say in morning circle.

The addition of the underlying condition—the picture of the child raising his hand—gives the student a stable and meaningful cue—an executive function prop, if you will—to remind him of the need to raise his hand. Moreover, it not only gives anyone working on the objective a clear idea of the type of support needed to enable performance but also ensures consistency in the manner in which the objective is addressed across different staff members.

An Underlying Condition and Goal for Teachers and Clinicians

Of course, providing support to compensate for Jimmy's impaired executive function (EF) system in the form of a stable visual cue implies (a) knowing that the student with ADHD has EF difficulty, and (b) knowing that his performance is contingent on this type of visual support. Although most educators are aware that impulsivity is a stable characteristic of students with ADHD, they may not be aware that it is also a symptom seen in many students with ASD. Moreover, since impulsivity is associated with blurting out or acting out, it is often viewed as a behavior problem rather than a reflection of EF impairment. Hence, at this point we'd like to set forth an underlying theme that applies to all students with special needs: The first, most basic building block of appropriate IEP development and effective service delivery is knowledge of the specific disability and its symptoms, and an understanding of the way in which it affects the particular student who manifests it.

Based on this, we propose an underlying condition and annual goal (rendered in tongue-in-cheek fashion) to govern the performance of teachers and clinicians: Given basic knowledge of the specific disability (ASD, ADD/ADHD, NLD, S/LI, or ED) and the specific strengths, weaknesses, and needs of the student who manifests it, the teacher or clinician will make need-based educational decisions, on behalf of the student, across a variety of areas and domains that lead to appropriate service delivery.

Simply stated, without adequate knowledge of both the disability itself and the way in which it affects a particular student, it is impossible to determine the strategies, supports, or conditions that are helpful (or inimical) to the student. As noted previously, it is beyond the scope of this book to provide in-depth information on each of the conditions covered; however, we have listed several excellent resources for this purpose in Appendix B.

The Importance of the Underlying Condition on the IEP

From the information provided thus far, it should be obvious that it is unacceptable to proceed without clarifying the underlying conditions for a student's performance, except in cases where they are so obvious that their inclusion would be ridiculous (as in the Mount Everest and tugboat examples). That said, it is better to err on the side of stating the obvious than to assume that the appropriate conditions for performance will be met when not specified. This will ensure that all objectives are being implemented in a consistent manner in the event of staff or programmatic change. Another reason why it is important to clearly articulate the underlying condition is that in some cases successful accomplishment of the objective is actually contingent upon it. Consider the following annual goal for a child with ADD:

Margaret will complete a multistep art project with a maximum of three reminders from staff.

Anyone with knowledge of the organizational deficits that accompany ADD would know that, without the appropriate executive function supports, this goal would have a slim chance of being met. Clarifying the following appropriate underlying condition not only helps define the task for anyone working on the goal but also makes its successful accomplishment more likely:

Given a visual depiction (template) of the sequence of activities, Margaret will complete a multistep art project with a maximum of three reminders from staff.

It should be obvious that, in this case, it is the underlying condition that actually makes the objective achievable, because the visual template provides the EF support that the student requires to be successful. Moreover, the underlying condition for performance serves to provide information to less knowledgeable staff regarding how to scaffold the student's performance.

Variations

Underlying conditions are usually specified in the first clause of the objective in order to emphasize what needs to be in place before performance is to be expected. Specific examples of some common underlying condition clauses will be given later in this chapter. It should be noted that most IEP forms also contain special sections where team members may specify accommodations and modifications. When specified, accommodations and modifications may be considered special types of underlying conditions because they delineate what the student needs in order to be successful. For example, if a Nerf® ball is to be used as an accommodation for softball or tennis in adaptive physical education, its use constitutes the condition under which performance in the particular sport is to be accomplished. It should be noted that listing accommodations elsewhere in the IEP does not take the place of including them as underlying conditions in IEP goals and objectives. For additional information on the role of accommodations and modifications, see Chapter Nine.

Underlying Conditions Versus Methodology

There may be a good deal of overlap between underlying conditions and methodology. Indeed, the line that distinguishes these two concepts is often blurry at best. For example, a particular methodology, such as the use of a Social Story™ (Gray, 2010) for a student with autism may also serve as a condition governing student performance. In this particular case, it really doesn't matter what you call it, because whether the Social Story™ serves as an underlying condition or as the methodology used to elicit certain behavior, all of the bases are covered. That said, there may be times when distinguishing between methodology and underlying conditions is advantageous. In that case, the following paragraph explains one way to distinguish between these interrelated concepts.

It may be useful to think of methodology as coming into play when one seeks to remediate a deficit. Underlying conditions, in contrast, may be thought of as compensatory strategies to circumvent the deficit area, promote acceptable task completion, or enable performance. For example, myopic or nearsighted individuals have difficulty seeing objects that are far away. Many myopic individuals compensate for their visual problems by wearing eyeglasses or contact lenses. These prosthetic devices are analogous to underlying conditions because they compensate for the nearsightedness and enable successful performance. It is important to note that the individual's visual acuity does not change, even though his or her visual performance does improve. In contrast, in recent years medical technology has introduced laser vision correction. It serves as a method for correcting or remediating the condition of nearsightedness. Similarly, an end-of-day checklist may serve as a prosthetic device for a student with ADHD with impaired executive skills. The brain function doesn't change, but the student's performance does as a result of the visual support. Likewise, teaching a student to use a chunking strategy is a method that can be used to improve rote memorization.

Although these examples provide a clear distinction between supports that compensate for weaknesses and enable performance (underlying conditions), and methods that remediate them (methodology), real-world distinctions between the two are not always clear-cut. So be it! The important point is this: in writing annual goals and short-term objectives it is important to cover the bases with respect to underlying conditions. If the underlying condition selected overlaps with methodology, think of it as accomplishing two important purposes for the “price” of one. For an in-depth discussion of methodology, see Chapter Four.

Underlying Conditions Versus Prompts

There is also a good deal of overlap between underlying conditions and prompts. Consider, for example, the following:

Given manual signs as cues for verbal expression, Meg will respond appropriately to social exchanges each time she is addressed.

It should be obvious that the use of manual signs in this annual goal serves as both the condition for performance and the prompt that enables it. The following rule of thumb may be helpful in determining when a prompt is also an underlying condition. Because underlying conditions refer to those things that are done before a student is expected to perform a task, prompts that are given early on, as preconditions for performance, are likely doing double-duty—that is, they are serving as underlying conditions as well. But if the prompt is given after the student has been set up to succeed by a well-stated underlying condition, then it is likely serving as the cue for performance. Hence, the placement of the prompt in the IEP goal or objective (at the beginning or at the end) is often what determines its purpose—that is, as an underlying condition or a cue to prompt performance.

Finally, although fading back prompts is generally considered desirable, we caution against pulling the rug out from under students by precipitously and indiscriminately fading back prompts that may be essential underlying conditions for performance. Many students with ASD and ADD/ADHD have been ill-served when sorely needed organizational supports have been faded out, ostensibly to promote independence. Here's an example: Ross, a middle school student with high-functioning autism, was constantly being marked down in classes due to his difficulty completing and handing in homework assignments. This problem was solved when Ross was given a checklist to cue him to copy down the homework assignments after each class and take home the necessary materials to complete them. After two semesters, the school staff discontinued use of the checklist as a way to promote independence. Almost immediately, Ross began to miss his homework assignments and forget to take home the appropriate materials. It should be clear that Ross was demonstrating by his performance that he was unable to complete assignments without support for his organizational problems.

The preceding example illustrates two very important points. First, a student cannot be independent in a skill that he or she has not mastered (as Ross's performance in the absence of organizational supports clearly indicates). Second, because the EF problems seen in ADD/ADHD and ASD reflect deficits, as opposed to maturational issues, certain types of organizational supports, like checklists, are likely necessary in order for the student to be successful. Hence, we urge IEP teams to exercise both caution and discretion in this important issue, and to think long and hard about pulling away supports that may be necessary to successful performance. A far better approach would be to teach the student to independently use the supports that are necessary for his or her successful performance in order to have a lifelong tool to shore up weaknesses in executive skills. A complete discussion of prompts and their relationship to student success is presented in Chapter Five.

Examples of Underlying Conditions

The underlying conditions that one selects should be based on well-established compensatory strategies or other contingencies deemed crucial to student success. Following is a list of commonly used underlying conditions. This is not a complete list of all the possible underlying conditions that may be effective for students but instead is designed to “prompt” the reader to think about the types of conditions that may be necessary for successful performance. We encourage creativity and specificity when determining underlying conditions on the theory, as we have explained, that well-stated underlying conditions help to set up a student for successful performance. That said, preceded by the word given, one or more of the following may serve as underlying conditions in IEP goals and objectives:

Wrapping Up the Main Points