Chapter 11
Comprehension: The Power That Fuels Expression
“Whatever you cannot understand, you cannot possess.”
—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Rationale for Including Skill Category
- Comprehension is the power that fuels language expression, and as such, comprehension precedes meaningful production in both typical children and those with developmental disabilities (Sevcik and Romski, 1997). In addition, pragmatic deficits occur on both a receptive and an expressive level (Twachtman-Cullen, 2000c).
- Research demonstrates that comprehension and concept development are areas of difficulty in students with ASD (Goldstein, Minshew, and Siegel, 1994; Minshew, Goldstein, Taylor, and Siegel, 1994); ADD/ADHD (Rief, 2005); NLD (Tanguay, 2001); and of course, in some students with S/LI.
- Difficulty comprehending nonverbal cues and signals is the core deficit in students with NLD, and also significantly problematic in students with ASD (Landa, 2000; Mundy and Sigman, 1989; Tantum, 2000).
Present Levels of Performance for Comprehension
The PLP for comprehension should include
- A statement indicating the student's strengths in comprehension skills, particularly as they relate to academic achievement and functional performance
- A statement about the student's weaknesses in specific areas of comprehension, particularly as they relate to academic achievement, functional performance, and priority educational needs for the coming year
- A statement on how the student's disability in comprehension affects his or her involvement and progress in the general curriculum (or for preschool children, in appropriate activities)
- The sources of the statements in the PLP (optional)
- Any additional information that can enable the PLP to fulfill its two important functions: (1) to serve as the basis for generating need-based, individualized IEP goals and objectives, and (2) to serve as the standard by which to judge student performance and progress
Content Area: Concept Development
Comprehending Concrete Concepts
Sample PLP for a six-year-old student with severe autism and cognitive impairment: Student presents with receptive language skills that are consistent with those of a two-year-old child, based upon observational data and parent report. While he demonstrates comprehension of several core concepts, on the basis of their function (that is, he knows how to use a whistle, cup, sock, and shoe), he does not yet know them as object labels (that is, he is not able to identify them when asked). Student's severe deficits in the comprehension of concrete concepts impede his ability to participate effectively in modified center-based programming, and severely limit his ability to play alongside or interact with peers.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on the PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct teaching, repetition, and accompanying manual signs, student will demonstrate comprehension of 4 concrete concepts by responding appropriately to directives/comments regarding them in contextually relevant activities, 4/5 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities and people, with hand-over-hand assistance, as needed.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given multisensory experiences with objects and accompanying manual signs, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 additional concrete concepts, and maintenance of the 4 previously learned, by responding appropriately to directives/comments regarding them in contextually relevant activities, 4/5 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities and people, with direct verbal and gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given multisensory experiences with objects and accompanying manual signs, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 additional concrete concepts, and maintenance of the 6 previously learned, by responding appropriately to directives/comments regarding them in contextually relevant activities, 4/5 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities and people, given gestural cues.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 concrete concepts by responding appropriately to directives/comments regarding them 4/5 opportunities, across all settings, activities, and people, given expectant waiting.
Comprehending Abstract Concepts
Sample PLP for a four-year-old student with S/LI: Student demonstrates understanding of many core and concrete concepts that serve her well in her preschool classroom. She has a great deal of difficulty with abstract, relational concepts (for example, prepositions). Student's confusion over prepositions makes it difficult for her to follow directions in many academic learning tasks and in functional activities in her preschool inclusive classroom.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction and manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 4 prepositions by responding appropriately to directives in contextually appropriate activities and situations, 7/10 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different settings, activities, and people, given direct verbal and gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 additional prepositions and maintenance of the previous 4, by responding appropriately to directives in contextually appropriate activities and situations, 8/10 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different settings, activities, and people, given indirect verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 additional prepositions and maintenance of the previous 6 by responding appropriately to directives in contextually appropriate activities and situations, 8/10 opportunities across a minimum of 3 different settings, activities, and people, given indirect verbal cues/expectant waiting.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate comprehension of 8 prepositions by responding appropriately to directives involving them in contextually appropriate activities and situations, 9/10 opportunities across settings, activities, and people, independently.
Content Area: Verbal Language/Information Processing
Comprehending Verbal Directions
Sample PLP for a five-year-old student with severe autism and cognitive impairment: According to observation and performance on both the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL), receptive language skills cluster in the 18–24 month range. While student has demonstrated comprehension of several one-step directions when presented in context with accompanying manual signs (for example, “sit down,” “come here,” and “stand up”), he is not always consistent in doing so. These difficulties affect his ability both to follow directions in academic tasks and to participate fully in day-to-day activities with peers in his preschool classroom.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction, and manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 3 new one-step directions in contextually relevant activities, 7/10 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities, settings, and people, given 2 repetitions of directions and physical assistance.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 additional one-step directions, and maintenance of the previous 3, in contextually relevant activities, 8/10 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities, settings, and people, given 2 repetitions of directions and gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 3 additional one-step directions, and maintenance of the previous 5, in contextually relevant activities, 8/10 opportunities, across a minimum of 3 different activities, settings, and people, given a maximum of 1 repetition and indirect verbal cues or expectant waiting.
Annual Goal
Given manual signs to accompany verbal directives, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 one-step directions in contextually relevant classroom activities, 9/10 opportunities, independently.
Explanatory Notes
- Accompanying manual signs aid the processing of verbal information, which is particularly important for students with ASD because they usually exhibit stronger skills in the visual (as opposed to auditory) domain. In the goal and objectives described above, manual signs paired with verbal directives give the student an additional input channel, and hence serve as the underlying condition for performance. Therefore, it is important to bear in mind that when manual signs are used in this manner—as an accommodation to aid auditory processing—they should not be faded out over time unless probes of the student's performance in the absence of manual signs indicate that it is safe to do so.
- Use of the phrase will demonstrate comprehension is tied to the action performed by the student to demonstrate that he or she has understood the task. In the preceding goal and objectives, it should be obvious that the action called for is that of carrying out the directives.
Processing Complex Information
Sample PLP for a fifteen-year-old student with S/LI: Student's comprehension skills serve her well in one-on-one and small-group situations (for example, the resource room/therapy room), according to both her teacher and speech-language pathologist. She has difficulty, however, comprehending verbal language as sentence length and complexity increase, as her performance on the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fourth Edition (CELF-4) indicates. These difficulties negatively affect both her participation in academic activities and her grades overall.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given pre-teaching and a teacher-generated outline for 1 academic subject, student will demonstrate comprehension of verbal language by answering 3 questions appropriately in the resource/therapy room, 4/5 opportunities, given direct verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given teacher-generated outlines for 3 academic subjects, student will demonstrate comprehension of verbal language by answering 3 questions for each subject appropriately in the resource/therapy room, 4/5 opportunities, given indirect verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given teacher-generated outlines, student will demonstrate comprehension of verbal language by answering 3 questions appropriately across inclusive classroom settings for 2 academic subjects, 4/5 opportunities, given indirect verbal cues and manual sign prompts to refer to outline.
Annual Goal
Given teacher-generated outlines, student will demonstrate comprehension of verbal language by answering a minimum of 3 questions about the material within inclusive settings across 4 academic subjects, 4/5 opportunities, given gestural cues to refer to outline, as needed.
Comprehending Figurative Language
Sample PLP for a twelve-year-old student with NLD: Student's comprehension of language is quite good at the literal level, particularly when answering factual questions, according to his teacher, and as documented in formal testing. He has a great deal of difficulty with idiomatic expressions and figurative language, in general, which interferes with overall comprehension. His teacher reports that lately, student has become the target of ridicule by some of his classmates because of his literalness and lack of appreciation of jokes. These problems interfere with academic functioning in English and history classes, and with functional performance in nonacademic settings.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction in the meaning of selected figures of speech, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 idiomatic expressions by giving the literal definition when presented in isolation, with 80% accuracy given direct verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given a series of vignettes, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 idiomatic expressions embedded in context by responding appropriately to them (that is, not taking them literally) in a variety of structured role-plays, with 80% accuracy, given indirect verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given a series of vignettes, student will demonstrate comprehension of 5 new idiomatic expressions, and maintenance of the previous 10 embedded in context, by responding appropriately to them in a variety of structured role-plays, with 80% accuracy, given expectant time delay, as needed.
Annual Goal
Given 15 familiar idioms embedded in contrived, real-world contexts, student will demonstrate comprehension by responding appropriately to them across academic settings, activities, and people, 4/5 opportunities, independently.
Understanding the Multiple Meanings of Words
Sample PLP for a ten-year-old student with high-functioning autism: Student manifests strengths in spelling, and in using vocabulary in a straightforward, literal manner. He has significant difficulty, however, understanding words when they are used in ways that are unexpected. For example, when a story character was defined as having fair hair, student became upset, saying, “But they weren't being fair!” The student's problem in understanding the multiple meaning of common words affects his interaction with peers, and makes it difficult for him to process information in a timely fashion in his fifth-grade inclusive classroom setting.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given prior direct instruction, a set of cards containing 5 words with accompanying definitions that have multiple meanings (for example, train, play, and so on), and scenarios depicting 2–3 different uses for each word presented, student will demonstrate comprehension of multiple meanings by selecting the word/definition that matches each of the multiple-meaning scenarios, with 80% accuracy, given direct verbal and gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given a set of cards containing 10 new and 5 previously learned words/definitions that have multiple meanings, and scenarios depicting 2–3 different uses for each word presented, student will demonstrate comprehension of multiple meanings by verbally supplying the word/definition that matches each of the scenarios, with 80% accuracy, given indirect verbal or gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given a set of cards containing 5 new and 15 previously learned words/definitions that have multiple meanings, and scenarios depicting 2–3 different uses for each word presented, student will demonstrate comprehension of multiple meanings by verbally supplying the word/definition that matches each of the scenarios, with 80% accuracy, given expectant waiting.
Annual Goal
Given 20 previously learned words with multiple meanings, student will demonstrate comprehension of their contextually appropriate intended meanings by responding appropriately to them in contrived situations across academic and functional activities, with 90% accuracy, independently.
Understanding Story Narratives
Sample PLP for a nine-year-old student with Asperger syndrome: Student's strengths in narrative comprehension lie in her ability to remember the details of stories, many of which are irrelevant to the storyline. While she is able to answer general questions on what the story is about, she has significant difficulty identifying the main character, setting, and problem. Student's narrative comprehension difficulty affects her ability to perform adequately in all areas of the curriculum that involve an understanding of narrative information (for example, reading, language arts, social studies, and so on). It also affects her ability to work in a group with peers.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction in the use of a color-coded storyboard, student will demonstrate comprehension of main characters, setting, and problem by selecting pictures appropriate to the storyline from groups of 3 options, for use in telling about targeted story elements across 3 different stories, with 80% accuracy for each element, given direct verbal cues as needed.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given the use of a color-coded storyboard, student will demonstrate comprehension of main characters, setting, and problem by selecting pictures appropriate to the storyline from groups of 5 options, for use in telling about targeted story elements across 5 different stories, with 80% accuracy for each element, given indirect verbal cues as needed.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given a story read aloud by the teacher, student will demonstrate comprehension of main characters, setting, and problem by selecting pictures from sets of 3 that depict the element requested across 7 different stories, with 80% accuracy for each element, given indirect questions and expectant waiting.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate comprehension of story narratives by answering questions about main characters, settings, and problems across 10 different stories, with 80% accuracy for each element, independently.
Content Area: Vocabulary Development
Word Learning
Sample PLP for a five-year-old student with S/LI and cognitive impairment: Reportedly, student is minimally verbal (that is, at the 1–2 word response level), but has made a lot of progress this year in the area of comprehension. While student is beginning to understand some of the more experientially based words such as the verbs go, stop, push, pull, and the concepts big and little, his grasp of them is sketchy, at best. These difficulties impact his ability to follow directions and derive benefit from the kindergarten curriculum. They also interfere with peer relations.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given demonstration and modeling in a play-based setting, student will demonstrate comprehension of 4 experientially based vocabulary words by performing the appropriate action on objects (for example, push the car) when asked, 8/10 opportunities, across different people and activities, given a combination of direct verbal and manual sign cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given multisensory experiences in a play-based setting, student will demonstrate comprehension of 3 additional vocabulary words and maintenance of the previous 4 by performing the appropriate action on objects when asked, 8/10 opportunities, across different people and activities, given a combination of indirect verbal and gestural cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given multisensory experiences in a play-based setting, student will demonstrate comprehension of 3 additional vocabulary words and maintenance of the previous 7 by performing the appropriate action on objects when asked, 9/10 opportunities, across different people and activities, given gestural cues.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 vocabulary words in play activities by performing the appropriate action on objects, 9/10 opportunities, across different people and activities, given expectant time delay.
Comprehending Wh-Questions
Sample PLP for a four-year-old with S/LI: Student scores below grade level on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL). She has particular difficulty answering who, what, when, and where questions. This affects her ability to pay attention during story time and to demonstrate her understanding of story content.
Short-Term Objective 1
Given prior direct teaching and accompanying manual signs for Wh-questions, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 each where and who questions, by responding appropriately to them across a minimum of 3 play-based activities, at a 70% accuracy level for each word category, given direct verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given manual signs for Wh-questions, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 each when and what questions, and maintenance of 10 previously learned where and who questions, by responding appropriately to them across a minimum of 3 play-based activities and 3 stories, at an 80% accuracy level for each word category, given direct and indirect verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given manual signs for Wh-questions, student will demonstrate comprehension of 10 each where, who, when, and what questions, by responding appropriately to them across a minimum of 3 play-based activities and 3 stories, at a 90% accuracy level for each word category, given indirect verbal cues as needed.
Annual Goal
Given manual signs for Wh-questions, student will demonstrate comprehension of novel where, who, when, and what questions, by responding appropriately to them across stories and classroom activities at an accuracy level of 90% for each word category, independently.
Understanding Attributes
Sample PLP for a sixteen-year-old student with high-functioning autism: Although student has a large and relatively sophisticated vocabulary, she has difficulty comprehending directives in both her day-to-day academic activities and in her interactions with peers. Her speech-language pathologist (SLP) reports that in observing student during her participation in a game involving clues, student does not comprehend many of the attributes, as judged by her erroneous responses to the questions of peers. Student's comprehension difficulty affects her interactions with classmates; her ability to understand verbal directives; and her ability to process information in a timely fashion in her tenth-grade inclusive classroom setting.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct teaching and accompanying visual cues, student will demonstrate comprehension of 6 attributes/descriptors by responding appropriately to contextually relevant questions in therapist-designed activities, 8/10 opportunities, given direct verbal cues/correction.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given accompanying visual cues, student will demonstrate comprehension of 4 new attributes/descriptors, and maintenance of the previous 6, by responding appropriately to contextually relevant questions in therapist-designed activities, 8/10 opportunities, given indirect verbal cues/teacher correction.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given accompanying visual cues, student will demonstrate comprehension of 2 new attributes/descriptors, and maintenance of the previous 10, by responding appropriately to contextually relevant questions across a variety of classroom activities, 8/10 opportunities, given teacher correction, as needed.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate comprehension of 15 attributes/descriptors by responding appropriately to contextually relevant questions across classroom activities, 9/10 opportunities, given minimal need for teacher correction.
Content Area: Nonverbal Cues and Signals
Comprehending Paralinguistic Features
Sample PLP for a thirteen-year-old student with NLD: Both informal observation in academic settings and formal language testing indicate that student's receptive and expressive vocabulary is within normal limits. This contrasts sharply with his ability to comprehend the nonverbal cues and signals that accompany verbal input, particularly as they relate to sarcasm and irony. His teachers report that student is often the object of ridicule and teasing because he takes what he hears literally and fails to take into account the tone of voice or body language that change the meaning of the words. This problem affects his relationship with peers, as well as his ability to understand the motivations of characters in stories.
Goal/Objective Templates Based on PLP
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction regarding nonverbal cues and 10 sample videotaped vignettes, student will demonstrate the ability to discriminate between literal and sarcastic utterances by identifying the correct characterization of each within a forced-choice format (true-meaning or sarcastic), with 80% accuracy, given direct verbal cues and teacher correction.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given 10 familiar sample videotaped vignettes, student will demonstrate his understanding of sarcasm by choosing the correct responses to the previously identified sarcastic utterances from groups of 3 possible options, with 80% accuracy, given indirect verbal cues and teacher correction, as needed.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given 10 novel role-play scenarios, student will demonstrate understanding of sarcastic utterances by responding appropriately to them, 80% of opportunities, given expectant waiting as needed.
Annual Goal
Student will demonstrate the ability to discriminate between literal and sarcastic utterances by responding to them appropriately across classroom settings with 80% accuracy, independently.
Explanatory Note
A great way to ensure an unending supply of videotaped role-plays individualized to the specific needs of students is to seek out volunteers from the school drama club to act out therapist- and teacher-written scripts.
Reading Body Language
Sample PLP for an eleven-year-old student with NLD: Student demonstrates strengths in those aspects of language that do not rely on nonverbal information (for example, dealing with facts). Although she is making progress in reading the facial expressions of others in her language therapy class, she evidences body language and facial expressions that many of her classmates find menacing. This difficulty has caused many of her peers to avoid her or call her cruel names.
Short-Term Objective 1
Given direct instruction regarding specific aspects of body language/facial expressions and 5 videotaped role-play scenarios, student will state whether the behavior observed is engaging or off-putting, and select from a 3-card multiple choice format the reason for her answer, at an 80% level of accuracy, given indirect verbal cues.
Short-Term Objective 2
Given 5 new videotaped role-plays, student will state whether the behavior observed is engaging or off-putting and state the reason for her answer, at an 80% level of accuracy, given manual sign cues.
Short-Term Objective 3
Given 5 specific scenarios for role-play and a set of 3 possible body-language scripts for each (highly appropriate; acceptable; inappropriate), student will select 1 of 2 appropriate responses and act out the role-play with a peer, using appropriate body language/facial expressions 80% of the time, as judged according to a 5-point rating scale for determining appropriateness. (Role-plays will be videotaped and analyzed by the student, according to preset parameters, with indirect verbal cueing by SLP, as needed.)
Annual Goal
Given minimal indirect verbal cues, student will act out 5 role-play scenarios with a peer, using appropriate body language and facial expressions 80% of the time, as judged according to a 5-point rating scale for determining appropriateness, independently.
General Teaching Tips and Strategies for Comprehension
1. Provide students with frequent, repetitive language input, delivered in short units of speech, and with accompanying manual signs/visual supports whenever possible to supplement the auditory channel.
2. Avoid testing students by constantly asking questions. Instead, teach them by providing the information they need to establish the connections that lead to meaning.
3. Organize the resource room curriculum (as well as tasks in inclusive settings) around concepts and vocabulary that are functional for the student (that is, that directly relate to the student's life experiences).
4. In working with themes, incorporate those that are conceptually based or functionally relevant (for example, for younger students: sticky/smooth theme, big/little theme, and so on; for older students: going to a restaurant, doing the laundry, and so on). Although there is greater leeway for doing this in a specialized setting, it is possible to incorporate such things in inclusive settings as well. For example, supplement a transportation theme with basic concept themes of fast and slow.
5. Conduct experiential, multisensory, hands-on lessons in the preschool classroom to facilitate comprehension of word-object, word-action, and object-action associations, and to promote comprehension beyond the level of the simple object label.
6. Make use of multiple-choice formats where appropriate, particularly in the initial stages of skill development, because they help to structure the student's responses, thereby enabling him or her to be more successful.
7. Employ techniques and strategies that facilitate the student's ability to process information and understand directives. These include
- Securing the student's attention before giving a direction
- Simplifying language processing by breaking down multistep directions
- Adding visual information to the directions such as
- Objects or object miniatures
- Picture cues
- Natural gestures
- Sign language (manual signs)
- Reducing extraneous auditory and visual distractions to the extent possible
- Encouraging the student to use repair strategies (to ask for repetition or clarification), when needed
8. Directly teach the meaning of idiomatic expressions/figurative language and address the multiple meanings of words in contexts that promote understanding. Provide contrived opportunities for repetition and practice.
9. Directly teach students to understand the meaning of nonverbal cues and signals in both contrived and natural situations. Provide practice opportunities, in context, through the use of structured role-plays.
10. Use color-coding and visual supports to concretize and directly teach difficult-to-grasp narrative elements [for example, blue = setting; orange = main character(s)].