DRAMATIS PERSONAE

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Arz von Straussenberg, Arthur – chief of general staff

Aust, Albrecht – commander, 15th Infantry Division

Burián, Stephan – foreign minister, replaced by Czernin

Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz – commander of k.u.k. forces on the Italian Front

Csanády von Békes, Friedrich – commander XXVI Corps

Czernin von und zu Chudenitz, Ottokar – foreign minister

Edler von Schenk, Alfred – commander XIII Corps

Hadfy, Emmerich – commander XXVI Corps, replaced by Csanády

Kövesz, Hermann von – commander Seventh Army

Kritek, Karl – commander Third Army

Rohr von Denta, Franz Freiherr – commander First Army

Tersztyánsky von Nadas, Karl – commander Third Army, replaced by Kritek

ESTONIA

Kuperjanov, Julius – freedom fighter

Laidoner, Johan – first head of the Estonian Army

Päts, Konstantin – first head of state

FINLAND

Aaltonen, Ali – commander Red forces

Lehtimäki, Verner – commander Red garrison in Tampere

Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil – commander White forces

Salmela, Hugo – commander Red garrison in Tampere, succeeded by Lehtimäki

Svinhufvud, Pehr Evind – chair of Finnish senate

Thesleff, Vilhelm – commander Finnish Jägers

GERMANY

Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von – chancellor of Germany, replaced first by Michaelis, then Hertling

Bischoff, Josef – commander of Iron Brigade/Iron Division

Brandenstein, Otto Freiherr von – commander mobile column in Finland

Bruchmüller, Georg – German artillery officer, nicknamed ‘Durchbruchmüller’ (‘durchbruch’ = ‘breakthrough’)

Eben, Johannes von – commander Ninth Army

Eberhardt, Walter von – general and later Freikorps commander

Ebert, Friedrich – chair of Social Democrats, later German president

Erzberger, Matthias – Centrist member of Reichstag

Estorff, Ludwig von – commander 42nd Infantry Division

Falkenhayn, Erich von – former chief of general staff

Fletcher, Alfred – commander of Baltische Landeswehr

Goltz, Rüdiger von der – commander of German forces deployed in Finland and the Baltic States

Hertling, Georg Graf von – chancellor of Germany after Michaelis, replaced by Prince Max von Baden

Hindenburg, Paul von – chief of general staff

Hoffmann, Max – chief of staff, Ober Ost

Hutier, Oskar von – commander Eighth Army

Kühlmann, Richard von – foreign minister

Liebknecht, Karl – Social Democrat member of Reichstag

Linsingen, Alexander von – commander of eponymous army group

Litzmann, Karl – deputy commander k.u.k. Third Army

Ludendorff, Erich – quartermaster-general

Mackensen, August von – military governor of Romania, commander of forces of the Central Powers on the Romanian Front

Max von Baden (Prince) – chancellor of Germany

Morgen, Curt von – commander I Reserve Corps

Noske, Gustav – Social Democrat member of Reichstag, later defence minister

Riemann, Julius – commander VI Corps

Scheidemann, Philipp – co-chair of Social Democrats

Winckler, Alfred von – commander I Corps

LATVIA

Kalpaks, Oskars – first commander of Latvian Army

Manteuffel, Hans von – prominent member of Baltic German community

Niedra, Andrievs – pro-German politician and former pastor

Stryk, Heinrich von – prominent member of Baltic German community

Ulmanis, Kārlis – first prime minister

Zemitāns, Jorģis – commander North Latvian Brigade

LITHUANIA

Mickevičius-Kapsukas, Vincas – leader of Lithuanian communists and head of state of Lit-Bel

Sleževičius, Mykolas – prime minister

Smetona, Antanas – first Lithuanian president

Voldemaras, Augustinas – first prime minister

POLAND

Belina-Prazmowski, Wladyslaw – Polish cavalry commander

Haller, Józef – Polish army commander

Piłsudski, Józef – commander Polish Legion, later head of state of Poland

Rydz-Śmygły, Edward – Polish army commander

Sikorski, Władysław – Polish army commander

Szeptycki, Stanisław – commander of Polish forces in capture of Minsk

Wasilewski, Leon – colleague of Piłsudski

Żeligowski, Lucjan – Polish army commander, head of state of Republic of Central Lithuania

ROMANIA

Averescu, Alexander – commander Second Army, later prime minister (replaced by Marghiloman)

Brătianu, Ion – prime minister of Romania, replaced by Averescu

Marghiloman, Alexandru – prime minister of Romania

RUSSIA

Alexeyev, Mikhail Vasiliyevich – chief of general staff, replaced Tsar Nicholas II as commander-in-chief, replaced by Brusilov

Bachirev, Mikhail Koronatovich – commander Baltic Fleet during fighting for Estonian archipelago

Baluev, Petr Semenovich – commander Special Army, then commander Eleventh Army, commander West Front from August 1917

Beliaev, Mikhail Alexeyevich – war minister

Benckendorff, Pavel Constantinovich – Grand Marshal of the Imperial Court

Bermont-Avalov, Pavel – White Russian commander of West Russian Volunteer Army

Bizenko, Anastasia Alexandrovna – member of Bolshevik delegation at Brest-Litovsk

Boldyrev, Vasily Georgiyevich – commander XLIII Corps

Brusilov, Alexei Alexeyevich – commander Southwest Front, later commander-in-chief

Budyonny, Semyon Mikhailovich – commander First Cavalry Army

Byelkovich, Leonid Nikolayevich – commander Seventh Army

Cheremisov, Vladimir Andreyevich – commander Eighth Army, later commander Northern Front

Chkheidze, Nikolai Semionovich – chairman of the Soviet of Workers’ Deputies and member of the Provisional Government

Denikin, Anton Ivanovich – chief of general staff (replaced by Lukomsky), then commander West Front, then commander Southwest Front

Dragomirov, Abram Mikhailovich – commander Northern Front

Dukhonin, Nikolai Nikolayevich – quartermaster general Southwest Front, then chief of general staff

Erdeli, Ivan Georgevich – commander Eleventh Army, replaced by Baluev

Fedotov, Ivan Ivanovich – commander Eleventh Army, replaced by Erdeli

Frederiks, Vladimir Borisovich – minister of the imperial household

Gapon, Georgi – priest and leading figure in 1905 protests

Golitsyn, Nikolai Dmitrievich – prime minister

Guchkov, Alexander Ivanovich – Duma member, war minister in Provisional Government

Gurko, Vasily Iosifovich – acting chief of general staff, then commander West Front

Gutor, Alexei Evgeneyevich – commander Eleventh Army (replaced by Fedotov), then commander Southwest Front

Ivanov, Nikolai Iudevich – former commander of Southwest Front, dispatched to Petrograd to suppress the February Revolution

Joffe, Adolf Abramovich – leader of first Bolshevik delegation at Brest-Litovsk

Kelchevsky, Anatoly Kiprianovich – commander Ninth Army

Kerensky, Alexander Fyodorovich – socialist deputy in the Duma, later war minister, then prime minister

Khabalov, Sergei Semenovich – commander Petrograd Military District, replaced by Kornilov after February Revolution

Kiselevsky, Nikolai Mikhailovich – commander Tenth Army

Klembovsky, Vladislav Napoleonovich – chief of general staff after February Revolution, replaced by Denikin, later commander Northern Front

Kornilov, Lavr Georgeyevich – commander Petrograd Military District, then commander Eighth Army (replaced by Cheremisov), then commander Southwest Front, then commander-in-chief

Kvyetinsky, Mikhail Fedorovich – commander Third Army

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich – leader of the Bolsheviks

Lesh, Leonid Vilgelmovich – commander Third Army, replaced by Kvyetinsky

Lukomsky, Alexander Sergeyevich – chief of general staff

Lvov, Prince Georgi Yevgenyevich – leader of the Union of Zemstvos, then 1st Minister-Chairman (prime minister) of Provisional Government

Lvov, Vladimir Nikolayevich – member of the Duma, Procurator of the Holy Synod

Mikhail Alexandrovich (Grand Duke) – brother of Tsar Nicholas II, proposed as regent

Miliukov, Pavel Nikolayevich – founder and leader of Kadets, foreign minister, replaced by Tereshchenko

Nadozhny, Dmitri Nikolayevich – commander III Corps

Parsky, Dmitri Pavlovich – commander Twelfth Army

Protopopov, Alexander Dmitrievich – interior minister

Raskolnikov, Fyodor Fyodorovich – commissar of the Baltic Fleet

Rodzianko, Mikhail Vladimirovich – chairman of the Duma

Rodzianko, Alexander Pavlovich – commander of White Russian Northern Corps

Ruzsky, Nikolai Vladimirovich – commander Northern Front, replaced by Dragomirov

Savinkov, Boris Viktorovich – commissar Southwest Front, then deputy war minister

Shcherbachev, Dmitri Gregorovich – advisor to King of Romania

Shulgin, Vasily Vitalyevich – right-wing member of the Duma

Snesarev, Andrei Yevgenyevich – commander Western Army

Stashkov, Roman Ilarionovich – peasant member of Bolshevik delegation at Brest-Litovsk

Sukhovnin, Mikhail Alexeyevich – commander First Army after February Revolution

Sveshnivov, Dmitri Alexandrovich – commander of Estonian islands

Tereshchenko, Mikhail Ivanovich – foreign minister after April Crisis

Trotsky, Leon (born Lev Davidovich Bronstein) – leading Bolshevik, leader of delegation at Brest-Litovsk after Joffe

Tsereteli, Irakli – leading Menshevik, later interior minister

Tukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich – commander Bolshevik forces at Battle of Warsaw

Vesilovsky, Antonii Andreyevich – commander Second Army

Yanushevsky, Grigory Yefimovich – commander III Corps, replaced by Nadozhny

Yudenich, Nikolai Nikolaevich – commander White Russian forces in the Baltic region

MISCELLANEOUS

Alexander-Sinclair, Edwin (Britain) – commander 6th Cruiser Squadron

Buchanan, George (Britain) – ambassador in Petrograd

Cichowski, Kazimierz – chairman of Communist Party of Lit-Bel

Knox, Alfred (Britain) – military attaché in Russia

Nezerov, Stefan (Bulgaria) – commander Third Army

Paléologue, Maurice (France) – ambassador in Petrograd

Poincaré, Raymond (France) – president of France