A Divine Purpose for the Current Age
God has a divine purpose for the current age. I will demonstrate that this purpose relates both to Israel and to the church. God, through Scripture, also provides us with insights regarding the characteristics of the present age. All of this serves as a prelude to specific end-time prophecies about the rapture and the subsequent tribulation period.
From the time that Israel rejected Christ in the first century, it has experienced a judicial blindness and hardening as a judgment from God. The apostle Paul put it this way: “I want you to understand this mystery, brothers: a partial hardening has come upon Israel, until the fullness of the Gentiles has come in [that is, until the full number of Gentiles who will be saved have, in fact, become saved]” (Romans 11:25).
The backdrop is that the Jews in Israel had sought a relationship with God not by faith but by works (see Galatians 2:16; 3:2,5,10). Of course, to attain righteousness by observing the law, people must keep the law perfectly (James 2:10), which no person is capable of doing. The Jews stumbled over the “stumbling stone,” who is Jesus Christ (Romans 9:31-33). Jesus did not fit their preconceived ideas about the Messiah (Matthew 12:14,24), so they rejected Him. As a result of this rejection of the Messiah, a partial judicial blindness and hardness has come upon Israel. Israel thus lost its favored position before God, so the gospel was preached to the Gentiles to make the Jews jealous that they may be saved (Romans 11:11).
Since that time, Gentiles who place faith in Jesus become members of God’s church. Believing Jews also become members of God’s church in the current age (see Ephesians 3:3-5,9; Colossians 1:26-27).
The good news is that Israel’s hardening and casting off is only temporary. In dire threat at Armageddon, toward the end of the tribulation period, Israel will finally recognize its Messiah and turn to Him for rescue from the invading forces of the antichrist (Zechariah 12:10; see also Romans 10:13-14). A remnant of Israel will be saved (Romans 11:25). (More on all this later in the book.)
Today we live in what is called the church age. The universal church is the ever-enlarging body of born-again believers who comprise the body of Christ and over whom He reigns as Lord. Although the members of the church may differ in age, sex, race, wealth, social status, and ability, they are all joined together as one people (Galatians 3:28). All of them share in one Spirit and worship one Lord (Ephesians 4:3-6). This body is comprised of only believers in Christ. The way one becomes a member of this universal body is to simply place faith in Christ (Acts 16:31; Ephesians 2:8-9).
The word church is translated from the Greek word ekklesia. This Greek word comes from two smaller words. The first is ek, which means “out from among.” The second is klesia, which means “to call.” Combining the two words, ekklesia means “to call out from among.” The church represents those whom God has called out from among the world—both Jews and Gentiles. And those God has called come from all walks of life. All are welcome in Christ’s church.
The church has not always existed. Seven key scriptural factors lead us to this conclusion.
1. The church did not exist in Old Testament times. Matthew 16:18 cites Jesus saying that He would build His church. This indicates that the church did not yet exist.
2. This is consistent with the Old Testament text itself, for it does not contain a single reference to the church.
3. In New Testament times, the church is clearly portrayed as distinct from Israel (see Romans 9:6; 1 Corinthians 10:32; Hebrews 12:22-24). Thus, the church is not a mere continuation of Old Testament Israel. It is true that there are some similarities between Israel and the church. Both are part of the people of God, both are part of God’s spiritual kingdom, and both participate in the spiritual blessings of the Abrahamic covenant and the new covenant. Beyond this, however, there are notable distinctions. Israel is an earthly political entity (Exodus 19:5-6), but the universal church is the invisible spiritual body of Christ (Ephesians 1:3). Israel was composed of Jews, but the church is composed of both Jews and Gentiles (see Ephesians 2:15). And one becomes a Jew by physical birth, whereas one becomes a member of the church through a spiritual birth (John 3:3).
4. Every single believer in the church age is baptized into the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13), so the church age must have begun on the day of Pentecost, for this is the day when this phenomenon first occurred (Acts 2; 11:15-16).
5. The church is called a mystery that was not revealed to past generations, but was revealed for the first time in the New Testament era. This mystery involved the idea of uniting Jewish and Gentile believers in one spiritual body (see Ephesians 3:3-6,9; Colossians 1:26-27). This lends support to the idea that the church age began on the day of Pentecost. (Individual Jews may become members of the church by faith in Christ in the present age, but God still has a future purpose for Israel. This will become increasingly clear throughout this book.)
6. We are told in Ephesians 1:19-20 that the church is built on the foundation of Christ’s resurrection, meaning that the church could not have existed in Old Testament times.
7. The church is called a “new man” in Ephesians 2:15, meaning it could not have existed in Old Testament times.
We conclude, then, that the genesis of the church was on the day of Pentecost, and that ever since then, we’ve been living in the church age. This church age will last until the church is raptured off the earth—the dead in Christ will be resurrected, and all living believers on the earth will instantly be translated into their resurrection bodies (1 Thessalonians 4:13-17; 1 Corinthians 15:50-58). I will provide evidence in this book that the rapture takes place prior to the seven-year tribulation period. During the tribulation, God will resume His special dealings with Israel (Daniel 9:26-27).
As prophecy scholar Thomas Ice demonstrates, Christ’s parables in Matthew 13 describe the course of the present age. These parables cover the period of time between Christ’s two advents—His first and second comings.1
The theological backdrop is that the kingdom had been offered to the Jews by the divine Messiah, Jesus Christ (Matthew 11–12). However, the Jewish leaders not only rejected Jesus but even claimed that His miracles were performed in the power of Satan. This constituted a definitive turning away from Jesus Christ, the Jewish Messiah. This is why a judicial blindness and hardening has come upon Israel as a judgment from God (Romans 11:25).
God’s kingdom program was thereby altered—its coming was delayed. (It will be delayed until the future 1000-year millennial kingdom, which follows the second coming of Christ.) In Matthew 13, Jesus revealed what the course of the present age would be like until His second coming. He provided His insights in parables.
The parable of the sower teaches that this age will be characterized by the sowing of the gospel seed onto different kinds of soil (Matthew 13:1-23). This reveals that people will have various responses to the gospel because various forces are opposed to the gospel—including the world, the flesh, and the devil.
The parable of the weeds indicates that the true sowing of the gospel seed will be imitated by a false counter-sowing (Matthew 13:24-30,36-43). Only a judgment following the future tribulation period will separate the wheat (true believers) from the weeds (unbelievers or false believers).
The parable of the mustard seed indicates that God’s spiritual kingdom would have an almost imperceptible beginning—hardly even noticeable. But just as a small mustard seed can produce a large plant (it can grow more than 15 feet high), so God’s spiritual kingdom would start small but grow to be very large in the world (Matthew 13:31-32).
The parable of the leaven has been interpreted variously by biblical scholars (Matthew 13:33). Most believe that leaven typically represents evil in Scripture (see Matthew 16:12; Mark 8:15; Luke 12:1; 1 Corinthians 5:6-8; Galatians 5:9). For this reason, they conclude that perhaps the parable is teaching that false teaching may emerge and grow exponentially and penetrate Christendom.
The parable of the hidden treasure has also been interpreted variously by biblical scholars (Matthew 13:44). Many believe Jesus was pointing to the incredible value of the true kingdom of heaven as opposed to counterfeit belief systems. Those who truly see its importance will do anything within their power to possess it. They will allow nothing to stand in their way.
Some may wonder why the second coming of Christ has not already occurred in the present church age. Why doesn’t God bring about the end immediately? There is a good answer for this.
Second Peter 3:9 instructs us, “The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance.” God is patient and is providing plenty of time for people to repent.
This is in keeping with the fact that God has a long track record of showing immense patience before bringing people to judgment (see Joel 2:13; Luke 15:20; Romans 9:22). We should therefore not be surprised that He continues this patience in the present age.
Sadly, despite God’s patience and His desire that none will perish, many people will refuse to turn to God and will therefore spend eternity apart from Him (Matthew 25:46). God longs for all to be saved (see 1 Timothy 2:4), but not all will receive God’s gift of salvation (see Matthew 7:13-14). That is one of the reasons why so many horrific judgments fall on an unbelieving world during the future tribulation period (Revelation 4–18). The people living on earth during that time will have no excuse!
The birth of the modern, self-governing nation of Israel in 1948 began the fulfillment of specific Bible prophecies about an international regathering of the Jews in unbelief before the judgments to come during the future tribulation period. This regathering was predicted to take place after centuries of exile in various nations around the world.
In Ezekiel 36:10 God promised the Jewish people, “I will multiply people on you, the whole house of Israel, all of it. The cities shall be inhabited and the wasted places rebuilt.” God also promised, “I will take you from the nations and gather you from all the countries and bring you into your own land” (verse 24).
In biblical times, Israel had been in bondage to single nations, such as the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians. And in each case, God delivered them after a time. But never in biblical history have the Israelites been delivered from “all the countries.” This event did not find fulfillment until 1948, when Israel finally became a national entity again, and Jews have been streaming back to their homeland ever since. Joel Rosenberg provides this insight:
Consider the numbers. When Israel declared her independence on May 14, 1948, the country’s population stood at only 806,000. Yet by the end of 2005, nearly 7 million people lived in Israel, 5.6 million of whom were Jewish. Thousands more arrive every year. In 2005 alone, some 19,000 Jews immigrated to Israel. In fact, today more Jews live in the greater Tel Aviv area than in New York City, as many Jews live in Israel as in the United States, and it will not be long before more Jews live in Israel than Jews who do not.2
The divine program of restoring Israel has apparently been in progress, even prior to 1948, setting the stage for the future tribulation period. Here are some key dates in recent history:
• 1881–1900: About 30,000 Jews who had been persecuted in Russia moved to Palestine.
• 1897: The goal of establishing a home in Palestine for Jewish people received great impetus when the First Zionist Congress convened in Basel, Switzerland, and adopted Zionism as a program.
• 1904–1914: 32,000 more Jews who had been persecuted in Russia moved to Palestine.
• 1924–1932: 78,000 Polish Jews moved to Palestine.
• 1933–1939: 230,000 Jews who had been persecuted in Germany and central Europe moved to Palestine.
• 1940–1948: 95,000 Jews who had been persecuted in central Europe moved to Palestine. Meanwhile, more than six million Jews were murdered by Adolph Hitler and Nazi Germany.
• 1948: The new state of Israel was born.
• 1967: Israel captured Jerusalem and the West Bank during the Six Day War, which was precipitated by an Arab invasion.3
In the vision of dry bones in Ezekiel 37, the Lord miraculously brings scattered bones back together into a skeleton, wraps the skeleton in muscles and tendons and flesh, and breathes life into the body. There is no doubt that this chapter is speaking about Israel, for we read that “these bones are the whole house of Israel” (verse 11). The chapter portrays Israel as becoming a living, breathing nation, seemingly brought back from the dead.
This means that 1948 is a year to remember. After all, in AD 70 Titus and his Roman warriors destroyed Jerusalem, definitively ending Israel’s identity as a political entity (see Luke 21:20). The Jews were dispersed worldwide for many centuries. In 1940, no one could have guessed that within a decade Israel would be a nation again. And yet it happened. Israel achieved statehood in 1948, and Jews have been returning to their homeland ever since.
Biblical prophecy reveals that this newly reborn nation of Israel will become prosperous. God promises, “I will make the fruit of the tree and the increase of the field abundant, that you may never again suffer the disgrace of famine among the nations” (Ezekiel 36:30).
The regathering of Jews in Israel is necessary in order for key biblical prophecies about the tribulation period to make sense. The return of the Jews to the land prior to the tribulation period is clearly implied in the peace covenant between the antichrist and the leaders of Israel (Daniel 9:27). The signing of this peace pact will signal the actual beginning of the tribulation period. Note, however, that for such a treaty to make sense, the Jews must be in their own land, and Israel must be a viable political entity. The point is, then, that Israel must be regathered to the land before the beginning of the tribulation period. This is what makes the year 1948 so significant from a prophetic standpoint.
We can make the same point in relation to the rebuilding of the Jewish temple that will exist during the tribulation period (see Matthew 24:15-16; 2 Thessalonians 2:4). How could there be a rebuilding of the Jewish temple in Israel unless Israel had been previously reborn as a nation?
I need to be careful to emphasize that Israel at this time still remains in unbelief. But according to Joel 2:28-29, a spiritual awakening in Israel will eventually occur.
Armageddon—the series of battles that occur at the end of the tribulation period—appears to be the historical context in which Israel will finally become converted (Zechariah 12:2–13:1). The restoration of Israel will include the confession of Israel’s national sin (Leviticus 26:40-42; Jeremiah 3:11-18; Hosea 5:15), following which Israel will be saved, thereby fulfilling Paul’s prophecy in Romans 11:25-27. In dire threat at Armageddon, Israel will plead for their newly found Messiah to return and deliver them. “They shall mourn for Him, as one mourns for an only child” (Zechariah 12:10; Matthew 23:37-39; see also Isaiah 53:1-9), and their deliverance will surely come (see Romans 10:13-14). Israel’s leaders will have finally realized the reason why the tribulation has fallen on them—perhaps because the Holy Spirit will enlighten their understanding of Scripture, or because of the testimony of the 144,000 Jewish evangelists (Revelation 7), or because of the testimony of the two prophetic witnesses (Revelation 11).
Later, in the millennial kingdom, which follows the second coming of Christ, Israel will experience a full possession of the promised land and the reestablishment of the Davidic throne. It will be a time of physical and spiritual blessing, the basis of which is the new covenant (Jeremiah 31:31-34).
The word apostasy comes from the Greek word apostasia, which means “falling away.” The word refers to a falling away from the truth. It depicts a determined, willful defection from the faith or an abandonment of the faith.
Judas Iscariot’s betrayal of Jesus for 30 pieces of silver is a classic example of apostasy and its effects (see Matthew 26:14-25,47-57; 27:3-10). He fell away from the truth, perhaps for financial reasons. Later, in remorse, Judas hanged himself, after which his body fell headlong and “burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out” (Acts 1:18).
Hymenaeus and Alexander experienced a shipwreck of their faith and apparently engaged in blasphemy (1 Timothy 1:19-20). Demas turned away from the apostle Paul because of his love for the present world (2 Timothy 4:10).
Whether people are enticed by money or the love of the world or something else, they can be enticed away from their commitment to the Lord. And the consequences are always severe—even deadly. The apostles often warned of the danger of apostasy (Hebrews 6:4-8; 10:26-27).
Apostasy also occurred in Old Testament times among the Israelites (Joshua 22:22; 2 Chronicles 33:19; Jeremiah 2:19; 5:6). As a result of their apostasy, they went into exile (the northern kingdom was exiled by Assyria in 722 BC, and the southern kingdom was exiled by Babylon in 597–581 BC).
Paul warned church elders that following his death, false teachers would emerge who would seek to lead church members into apostasy: “I know that after my departure fierce wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock, and from among your own selves will arise men speaking twisted things, to draw away the disciples after them” (Acts 20:29-30).
Scripture tells us that there will be an increase of apostasy in the end times. For example, 1 Timothy 4:1-2 warns, “The Spirit expressly says that in later times some will depart from the faith by devoting themselves to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons, through the insincerity of liars whose consciences are seared.”
Many of the cults and false religions that pepper our land today emerged out of the Christian church. The leaders of these groups received alleged revelations from angels—which we know to be fallen angels, or demons. Mormonism is a classic example. It was founded by Joseph Smith after he received a revelation from the alleged angel Moroni. Another example is Islam, which is based on alleged revelations that the angel Gabriel brought to Muhammad.
Moreover, 2 Timothy 4:3-4 offers this warning: “The time is coming when people will not endure sound teaching, but having itching ears they will accumulate for themselves teachers to suit their own passions, and will turn away from listening to the truth and wander off into myths.” Who can doubt that these words describe the very days in which we live? Channel-surfing on television in the evening, you will come across examples of numerous such false teachers espousing doctrines that appeal to people’s passions, such as the health and wealth gospel.
Second Timothy 3:1-8 provides some specifics regarding end-times apostasy:
Understand this, that in the last days there will come times of difficulty. For people will be lovers of self, lovers of money, proud, arrogant, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, heartless, unappeasable, slanderous, without self-control, brutal, not loving good, treacherous, reckless, swollen with conceit, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God, having the appearance of godliness, but denying its power. Avoid such people. For among them are those who creep into households and capture weak women, burdened with sins and led astray by various passions, always learning and never able to arrive at a knowledge of the truth. Just as Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so these men also oppose the truth, men corrupted in mind and disqualified regarding the faith.
Scripture reveals that apostasy is often encouraged by false teachers (Galatians 2:4) and escalates during times of trial (Luke 8:13). This is prophetically significant, for false teachers and severe trials will proliferate in the future tribulation period.
Scripture is clear that apostasy will rise to a fever pitch during the future tribulation period. In 2 Thessalonians 2:3 we read, “Let no one deceive you in any way. For that day will not come, unless the rebellion comes first.” Many believe this refers to a rebellion against the truth.
Matthew 24:9-12, a passage speaking about the tribulation period, includes many of these themes: “Many will fall away…many false prophets will arise and lead many astray…the love of many will grow cold.”
Sobering days lie ahead.
Is America mentioned in Bible prophecy? Many have thought so. Some prophecy enthusiasts have suggested interpretations that are speculative and far-fetched. Others have taken a more reasoned approach.
The Bible is clear that the United States of Europe—the revived Roman Empire that will be headed by the antichrist—will be the political and economic superpower in the end times (see Daniel 2; 7). This being the case, many prophecy scholars believe the United States will progressively weaken by the time the tribulation period begins. I personally believe this is a strong possibility. And there are a number of scenarios that might explain how it could happen.
The continued moral and spiritual degeneration of the United States could cause it to implode. Many statistics show the trouble this country is in morally and spiritually. At present, four out of five adults—some 83 percent—say they are concerned about the moral condition of the United States. If this country’s moral fiber continues to erode, its demise is only a matter of time.
Because of the high level of immorality in this country, God may bring judgment upon it. Christian leaders have been warning about this possibility for decades, but their warnings often fall on deaf ears, just as the prophets were often ignored during Old Testament times.
Scripture reveals that God is absolutely sovereign (Psalm 50:1; 66:7; 93:1; Proverbs 19:21; Isaiah 14:24; 46:10), and in His sovereignty He blesses nations that submit to Him and brings down nations that rebel against Him. In the book of Job we read, “He makes nations great, and he destroys them; he enlarges nations, and leads them away” (Job 12:23). Daniel 2:20-21 tells us that God “removes kings and sets up kings.” In view of such scriptural facts, is America ripe for judgment? We have cause for concern.
• God is absolutely sovereign over the nations.
• Both the Old and New Testaments affirm that God is a God of judgment.
• America is in a free fall, plummeting morally and spiritually, with no repentance in sight.
• We must therefore ask whether God might sovereignly judge America in the end times for turning away from Him.
I hate to say so, but I think this is a real possibility. Those who doubt this should consult what the apostle Paul says in Romans 1:18-28:
For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who by their unrighteousness suppress the truth. For what can be known about God is plain to them, because God has shown it to them. For his invisible attributes, namely, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made. So they are without excuse. For although they knew God, they did not honor him as God or give thanks to him, but they became futile in their thinking, and their foolish hearts were darkened…
Therefore God gave them up in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, to the dishonoring of their bodies among themselves, because they exchanged the truth about God for a lie and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever! Amen.
For this reason God gave them up to dishonorable passions. For their women exchanged natural relations for those that are contrary to nature; and the men likewise gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless acts with men and receiving in themselves the due penalty for their error. And since they did not see fit to acknowledge God, God gave them up to a debased mind to do what ought not to be done.
If this passage tells us anything, it is that when a nation continues to willfully reject God and His Word, turning its back on His moral requirements, God eventually reveals His wrath against that nation. God has a long track record of wrath against ungodly nations. This passage reveals that one way God reveals His wrath is by allowing the people of that nation to experience the full brunt of the ravaging consequences of their sin.
Many great nations have risen and fallen throughout human history. In each case, the nation had no expectation of its impending demise. Indeed, those who lived in these nations probably believed that their nation could never fall. “Anthropology tells us that many of the fallen civilizations in history also thought they were superior to their neighbors and forebears. Few of their citizens could have imagined their society would suddenly collapse.”4 But the harsh reality of documented history is that great nations do fall—and they fall hard.
How about a small dose of real history? The Babylonian Empire lasted less than a century. The Persian Empire capitulated after about two centuries. Greece waned in less than three centuries. The mighty Roman Empire held out for nine centuries. The citizens of these empires probably thought their nations would last forever, but each empire suffered a gross moral decline, and God rendered appropriate judgment.
Here is a question to ponder: If what we are witnessing in America today—pornography, premarital sex, extramarital sex, widespread homosexuality, same-sex marriages, abortions, drinking, drugs, divorce, the disintegration of the family unit, and the like—were taking place in ancient Babylon, would you think that Babylon was ripe for judgment? I think so! The problem today is that many in our country have become desensitized to moral issues because immorality is so rampant. That is a dangerous state to be in, for God’s patience will not last forever.
Another possibility is that the United States could be weakened by a nuclear detonation on its soil. The United States stands a good chance of being attacked with nuclear weapons at some point in the not-too-distant future. Government advisors are presently saying that a nuclear attack on US soil within the next ten years is more likely than not.
Granted, the entire United States would not be likely to be destroyed by a nuclear attack. But if one major city—such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, or Houston—were destroyed, the effect would be absolutely devastating on the already fragile, debt-ridden US economy.
Yet another possibility is that the United States could be incapacitated by an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) attack. This possibility is documented in a report issued in 2004 by a blue-ribbon commission created by Congress called “Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse Attack.” Based on this report, a number of highly respected government officials lament that the technology is now here to bring America’s way of life to an end.
The commission found that a single nuclear weapon, delivered by a missile to an altitude of a few hundred miles over the United States, would yield catastrophic damage to the nation. Such a missile could easily be launched from a freighter off the coast of the United States. The commission explained that the higher the altitude of the weapon’s detonation, the larger the affected geographic area would be. At a height of 300 miles, the entire continental United States would be exposed, along with parts of Canada and Mexico.
The commission warned that the electromagnetic pulse produced by such a weapon would be likely to severely damage electrical power systems, electronics, and information systems—all of which Americans depend on. At high risk would be electronic control, the infrastructures for handling electric power, sensors and protective systems of all kinds, computers, cell phones, telecommunications, transportation, fuel and energy, banking and finance, emergency services, and even food and water. Anything electrical is at risk.
The consequences of an EMP attack would be especially harmful to American society today because the infrastructure of our society—civilian and military—virtually runs on electricity and electronic components. The commission estimated that “months to years” would be required to fully recover from such an attack.
A major EMP attack could potentially lead to starvation and disease. Expert testimony presented before Congress indicated that an EMP attack could reduce the United States to a pre-industrial-age capacity in terms of transportation options and the ability to provide food and water to the population. Instead of cars, buses, and trains, people would be reduced to using bikes, horses, and buggies.
In my book The Coming Oil Storm (Harvest House Publishers, 2010), I noted yet another possibility. Perhaps the United States will weaken due to its gross overdependence on oil. Experts are now telling us that a progressive lessening in the oil supply will progressively weaken the economy of our oil-driven society. At present, our entire infrastructure (including transportation, manufacturing, farming, and much more) depends on a sustained supply of oil. Once the oil supply begins to dwindle—an imminent possibility, according to oil company presidents, geologists, and government leaders—the years to follow could bring shortages that could cause global recession or worse. The United States would be hit especially hard because we are the world’s largest consumer of oil.
One final possibility is that the rapture will catastrophically weaken the United States—more so than it will affect most other nations—because of the high concentration of Christians in this country.
Following the moment of the rapture, many business leaders and their employees will no longer show up for work; bills, mortgages, and other loans will go unpaid; law enforcement officers and other first responders will not be available; and the stock market will likely crash as panic ensues. This and much more will follow the rapture.
Any of these scenarios, and especially a combination of them, could greatly weaken the United States. This seems likely to happen because prophecy reveals that in the end times, the balance of power will shift toward the United States of Europe—that is, the revived Roman Empire, which will be led by the antichrist. I will demonstrate later in the book that the United States will likely become an ally with the revived Roman Empire.